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Abstract
An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary betaine on egg production, estradiol, progesterone, and melatonin secretion in laying hens. Seventy two ISA-Brown laying hens were placed into individual cage and fed four different levels of betaine (0, 300, 600, 1,200 ppm) in diets for four weeks. Basal diets were mainly mixed with corn-soybean and contained 2,800 kcal/kg ME and 16% CP. Dietary supplementation of betaine showed significantly higher (p
... However, the efficacy of betaine on laying hens is inconsistent. Some reported that betaine has no effect 4389 on body weight (Harms and Russell, 2002), while others reported that betaine increases laying rate and egg weight (Park et al., 2006;Gudev et al., 2011a). Also, betaine supplementation was reported to have a positive effect on egg production in hens subjected to high air ammonia stress (Gudev et al., 2011b). ...
... In the present study, we found that dietary betaine supplementation significantly increased laying perfor-mance, which was consistent with previous publications (Groothuis et al., 2005 andPark, Kang, andRyu, 2006). Also, we found that plasma CORT concentration was slightly decreased without a significant difference, while yolk CORT concentration was significantly increased. ...
... In the present study, we found that dietary betaine supplementation significantly increased laying perfor-mance, which was consistent with previous publications (Groothuis et al., 2005 andPark, Kang, andRyu, 2006). Also, we found that plasma CORT concentration was slightly decreased without a significant difference, while yolk CORT concentration was significantly increased. ...
Betaine, an important methyl donor, is known to execute epigenetic regulation of gene expression via nutritional reprogramming. Herein, we explore whether feeding a betaine-supplemented diet to laying hens would affect corticosteroid biosynthesis in the adrenal gland and corticosterone deposition in eggs, in correlation with the expression of methyl transfer enzymes and the promoter DNA methylation status of affected genes. Rugao yellow-feathered laying hens at 38 weeks of age were assigned to Control and Betaine groups, fed basal and betaine-supplemented diets, respectively, for four weeks. Betaine supplementation significantly increased (P < 0.05) the average laying rate, while the body weight and egg quality remained unchanged. Plasma concentrations of cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol were also higher (P < 0.05) in the Betaine group. Moreover, eggs in the Betaine group contained higher corticosterone in the yolk, which was associated with up-regulation of steroidogenesis genes in adrenal glands. Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), the rate-limiting protein responsible for transporting cholesterol to the inner mitochondrial membrane, was significantly activated (P < 0.05), together with its transcription factors steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1) and glucocorticoid receptor. Also, betaine supplementation significantly up-regulated (P < 0.05) the adrenal mRNA expression of adenosyl homocysteinase-like 1 and DNA methyltransferases1 and 3a. Bisulfite sequencing analysis revealed significant hypomethylation in several CpG sites within the promoter region of SF-1 gene in the adrenal gland. These results indicate that dietary supplementation of betaine in hens activates adrenal expression of StAR, possibly through epigenetic regulation of SF-1 gene.
... The dietary supplementation with 0.06 and 0.12% betaine improved the production performance of quails (p<0.05), which is in accordance with previous observations in laying chickens (Lu & Zou, 2006;Park et al., 2006;Ezzat et al., 2011;Gudev et al., 2011). Moreover, except for feed intake and egg production, the dietary supplementation with 0.12% betaine promoted better responses compared with 0.06% betaine (p<0.05). ...
... These hormones promote follicle growth and ovulation, increasing egg production (Zou & Feng, 2002;Xing & Jiang, 2012). Previous observations indicated that betaine supplementation in the diets of laying hens increased egg production (Lu & Zou, 2006;Ezzat et al., 2011;Gudev et al., 2011) and egg weight (Park et al., 2006), and improved feed conversion ratio (Ezzat et al., 2011). In contrast, Harms & Russel (2002) did not find any effect of betaine on the performance of laying hens that were fed a diet containing adequate choline and methionine as additional sources of methyl group donors. ...
This study investigated the effects of dietary protein levels and betaine supplementation on nutrient digestibility and performance of Japanese quails. In total, 765 Japanese quails were randomly assigned to a 3×3 factorial arrangement, with five replicates of 17 quails each. Three basal diets were formulated to contain three crude protein levels (16.5, 18.0, and 19.5%). Each protein level was supplemented with 0, 0.06, and 0.12% betaine. The diet with 16.5% dietary crude protein with no betaine supplementation resulted in the lowest crude fiber digestibility, while the 18.0% CP diet supplemented with 0.12% betaine generated the highest crude fiber digestibility (p<0.05). The diets with 18.0 and 19.5% crude protein increased crude fiber digestibility, but reduced ether extract digestibility (p<0.01). Moreover, betaine supplementation increased dry matter, crude protein, crude fiber, and crude ash (p<0.01) digestibility and tended to increase ether extract digestibility (p=0.09). The increase in egg weight for the 18.0 and 19.5% protein diets was correlated with a decrease in feed conversion ratio (p<0.05). However, feed intake and egg production were not affected by protein levels. Betaine supplementation enhanced all performance variables (p<0.01). The diets with 18.0 and 19.5% crude protein resulted in heavier yolks and eggshells than the 16.5% crude protein diet (p<0.05), whereas betaine supplementation increased yolk, albumen, and eggshell weight (p<0.01). The 18.0 and 19.5% protein diets produced similar responses in most evaluated parameters. Laying Japanese quails can be fed diets with 18.0% crude protein. Moreover, betaine supplementation provided several benefits, and particularly improved nutrient digestibility, performance, and egg quality.
... Albumin with high level concentration denotes dehydration while a lower level may denote liver not functioning appropriately as a result of malnutrition and infection (Esubonteng 2011). According to Park et al. (2006) and Tollba and El-Nagar (2008) who reported that concentrations of plasma total protein and albumin as well as globulin were not significantly affected in layers fed diets supplemented with betaine for 16 weeks under hot climate stress. Also, the same results were reported by Bunchasak et al. (2005) and Attia et al. (2005). ...
Choline is an essential micronutrient involved in several metabolic processes that are crucial to animal health. This study investigated the impact of dietary supplementation of choline on blood biochemistry indices and lipid profile of broiler chickens (Cobb 500). One hundred and forty-four day-old, unsexed broiler chickens were randomly assigned to three treatment groups with four replications of 12 chicks each in a completely randomized design. Three levels of choline (0 ppm/100 kg feed, 1200 ppm/100 kg feed, 1400 ppm/100 kg feed) were supplemented in the chicks’ feed at the starter phase (0–21 days), while at the finisher phase (21–49 days), three levels of choline (0 ppm/100 kg feed, 800 ppm/100 kg feed, 1000 ppm/100 kg feed) were also supplemented in the chicken’s feed. Feed and fresh clean water were provided ad libitum throughout the experimental period and were vaccinated against Newcastle disease and infectious bursal disease. Blood samples were randomly collected on the 21st and 49th day of the experiment for haematological (packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin (Hb), RBC, WBC), serum biochemistry (total protein, creatinine, ALT, ALP) and serum lipid profile (HDL, LDL, VLDL, cholesterol). It was revealed that different levels of choline had no significant effect (P > 0.05) on the body changes of broiler chickens at starter and finisher phases. The haematological indices of broiler chickens at the starter phase showed significant (P < 0.05) reduction in PCV and Hb concentration across the treatments while those fed with the control diets had significantly higher (P < 0.05) value when compared with other treatments. At the finisher phase, significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed in total protein, globulin, creatinine, uric acid, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total bilirubin and lipid profile of the broiler chickens. Also, a reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration was observed with increasing level of choline in the diets. Choline supplementation in the diets of broiler chickens at 1200 ppm/100 kg of feed and 800 ppm/100 kg of feed improved the health status of broiler chickens at starter and finisher phases, respectively.
... Betaine is added to the feed of laying hens in an attempt to improve their productivity which could have an important economic value (Park et al.; Therefore, in the present study, an attempt was made to evaluate the effect of dietary inclusion of betaine or choline or both instead of added methionine in broiler diets on growth performance and economic efficiency of broiler chicks. ...
... Supplemental dietary BET improved weight gain and feed conversion in some poultry studies (Mathews and Southern, 2000;Hassan et al. 2005) whereas other studies showed minimal or no effect of BET on broilers performance (Zulkifi et al. 2004). Addition of 600-ppm BET to laying hen diets has improved the laying performance (Park et al. 2006). Under heat stress, addition of BET to the poultry feeds (broilers, turkeys and meat ducks) has improved the performance. ...
A study was conducted to investigate the effects of different betaine (BET) (0.0, 0.5 or 1.0 g/kg) and folic
acid (FA) (0.0, 4.0 or 8.0 mg/kg) levels on performance, egg FA concentration and egg production of laying
quails using 288 forty-two day-old Japanese quail in a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement of treatment based on
randomized complete design. The results showed that none of the performance traits, except feed intake,
was affected by dietary treatments. No effect of FA and BET supplementation was observed for egg specific gravity but egg shape index was affected throughout the experiment. No significant differences were
observed for egg white, pH, weight and ratio, but Haugh unit (HU) was affected significantly by FA supplementation (P<0.01). High levels of FA supplementation (8 mg/kg) decreased the HU (P<0.01). Moreover there was a significant interaction between the FA and BET for HU (P<0.05) and increasing the BET
level did not changed the HU at the low and medium levels of betaine, while decreased the HU at the highest level of FA (8 mg/kg). No effects of FA or BET were observed for egg yolk pH, egg yolk index and egg
yolk percentage, but egg yolk FA content (EYFC) and egg yolk color was affected significantly by FA supplementation (P<0.01). EYFC increased from a low of 843.87 µg/kg for birds consuming the basal diet with
no added FA, up to a high of 1456.25 µg/kg for birds consuming diets with 8 mg/kg of FA.
... Furthermore, Waldensted et al., (1999) reported that supplementation of infected chick diet with betaine improved body weight at 22, 29 and 35 day of age. In this connection, Park et al., (2006) reported significant improvement of the laying hens performance compared to controls when betaine was administered at the level of 600 ppm. Also, Ryu et al., (2002) reported that betaine supplementation at 500 to 2000 ppm improved FCR, egg shell breaking strength, liver betaine content and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) levels. ...
Abastract: Betafin is a natural and pure source of betaine which is naturally found in most living organisms, it is concentrated in high levels in the sugar beet, from which it can be extracted. Unlike plants and some animal species, poultry have a limited ability to produce betaine within the body. The chemical name for betaine is trimethylglycine (TMG) refers to three methyl groups which it possesses. It is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative found in a variety of foodstuffs of plant and animal origin. Betaine is not present in large quantities in animal feedstuffs; therefore dietary supplementation seems to be important to improve productivity and relief the adverse effects of stress (Wang et al., 2004). Betaine has two primary metabolic roles: it serves as a methyl group donor and it is an osmolyte that assists in cellular water homeostasis (Petronine et al., 1992). The unique chemical properties of betaine provide it as an osmoprotectant which can reduce maintenance energy requirements, leaving more energy available for productive purpose. In diets containing adequate levels of amino acids this extra part of energy can be used by broiler chicken to fuel lean tissue gain, resulting in increases breast meat yield. During heat stress, poultry have difficulties maintaining water and ion balance. As a proven osmolyte betafin has been shown to reduce the negative effect of stress on poultry performance. On the other hand, the need for methyl groups in poultry increases during periods of stress for example during periods of coccodia challenge or heat stress. In this review we will restate the important roles of betaine in broiler diets to optimize poultry performance for maximum profit.
The principal objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of dietary betaine on IGF-I, IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-1 secretion and IGF-I mRNA gene expression in the serum and liver of laying hens. A total of 72 ISA-Brown laying hens were fed with four different levels of betaine (0, 300, 600, 1,200 ppm) based on a corn-soybean meal diet containing 2,800 kcal/kg of metabolizable energy (ME) and 16% crude protein (CP) for four weeks. The results indicated significantly higher serum and liver IGF-I concentrations in the laying hens fed with 600 and 1,200 ppm betaine (p
This review focuses on the metabolic and osmoregulatory functions of betaine and its impact on nutrient digestibility and performance in pigs and poultry. Betaine is the trimethyl derivative of the amino acid glycine, and is present in plant and animal tissue. It has been shown to play an important role in osmoregulation of plants, bacteria and marine organisms. Due to its chemical structure, betaine exerts a number of functions both at the gastrointestinal and metabolic level. As a methyl group donor, betaine is involved in transmethylation reactions and donates its labile methyl group for the synthesis of several metabolically active substances such as creatine and carnitine. Therefore, supplementation of betaine may reduce the requirement for other methyl group donors such as methionine and choline. Beneficial effects on intestinal cells and intestinal microbes have been reported following betaine supplementation to diets for pigs and poultry, which have been attributed to the osmotic properties of betaine. Furthermore, betaine potentially enhances the digestibility of specific nutrients, in particular fiber and minerals. Moreover, at the metabolic level, betaine is involved in protein and energy metabolism. Growth trials revealed positive effects of supplemental betaine on growth performance in pigs and poultry, and there is evidence that betaine acts as a carcass modifier by reducing the carcass fat content. In conclusion, due to its various metabolic and osmoregulatory functions, betaine plays an important role in the nutrition of monogastric animals.
The present review focuses on potential nutritional and physiological functions of betaine in relation to health, performance and carcass characteristics in poultry. Due to its zwitterionic structure, betaine has osmoprotective properties that aid in protecting intestinal cells and thus counteracting performance losses during heat stress and coccidiosis. Hence, betaine might be an appropriate agent in the prevention of heat stress in livestock. In addition, during coccidiosis, the efficacy of betaine appears to be related to the Eimeria species, type of coccidiostat used and the severity of infection. As this compound has methyl donor properties, betaine is involved in methylation reactions in the organism and may therefore partly substitute other methyl group donors such as methionine and choline. Due to its methyl donor and osmoprotectant functions, recent research has shown that betaine improves nutrient digestibility, growth performance and feed conversion in broiler chicks, turkeys and meat ducks. Other potential benefits of the inclusion of betaine in poultry diets are lowering carcass fat content and increasing breast meat yield which may be of interest to satisfy consumer needs.
The level of betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase increases in the livers of rats fed diets supplemented with betaine or choline. The increase occurs within 3 days following the change in diet. When we administered betaine by intraperitoneal injection to rats fed choline-free diets, we observed a similar increase within 24 hours. Since betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase catalyzes a reaction which is essential for the catabolism of betaine, these changes provide a means for adaptation to excessive levels of dietary choline and betaine.
Betaine, a donor of labile methyl groups, can spare choline and methionine but cannot replace these compounds in poultry diets. Betaine is synthesized from choline by choline oxidase and it can donate methyl groups to homocysteine to form methionine. Physiologically, betaine is one of several compounds used by cells to regulate osmotic pressure. Among the potential benefits of its inclusion in poultry feeds are sparing choline, carcass fat reduction and aiding cell osmoregulation. Some feed ingredients are natural sources of betaine per se. This review considers the metabolism, functions and applications of betaine in poultry.
An experiment was conducted with Hy-Line W36 hens to determine possible benefits from adding betaine to the diet of commercial laying hens. There was no benefit from the substitution of betaine for choline as measured by egg production, egg weight, egg content, or weight gain.
We examined thyroidectomized chickens in terms of plasma lipid concentration and protein expression within the liver. Although the body weight of thyroidectomized chickens was remarkably low due to growth retardation, the livers were enlarged and fatty compared to those of sham-operated chickens. An increase in phospholipid, triglyceride, and total cholesterol levels within the blood plasma of thyroidectomized chickens was observed, clearly reflecting increased lipid synthesis within the liver. Overexpression of some proteins, for example, 29- and 45-kDa proteins, was observed in thyroidectomized chicken livers by means of electrophoresis. A peptide map was made for the protein that exhibited the greatest degree of overexpression. One of them demonstrated a molecular mass of 45 kDa and an isoelectric point (pI) between 7.5 and 8.0, depending on its form. Partial N-terminal amino acid sequences were determined from three random peptides of this protein. The amino acid sequence of this protein showed a high degree of homology with the betaine-homocysteine S-methyltransferase (BHMT, EC 2.1.1.5) of some mammalian species. We identified this protein as chicken BHMT because, in addition to its sequence homology with mammalian BHMT, there were similarities were also observed between this 45-kDa protein and mammalian BHMT with respect to molecular mass and isoelectric behavior. In the liver, 10 d after thyroidectomy, the synthesis of hepatic BHMT had already been enhanced, and the high expression was maintained at 50 d of age. Generally, BHMT catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from betaine to L-homocysteine. In addition, it seems that this enzyme is also closely related to lipid metabolism in the liver; in this study expression of BHMT in the liver corresponded to plasma lipid levels. Moreover, hypothyroidism may be directly or indirectly related to overexpression of BHMT. Due to similarities between the BHMT of chickens and mammalian species, the chicken model might provide a useful means by which to study BHMT, its role in lipid metabolism, and methods of targeting the expression of BHMT. Another 29-kDa protein was unidentified in the homology search.
Subcutaneous implants of estradiol in female song sparrows, Melospiza melodia, maintained sexual receptivity throughout the breeding season. Parental behavior apparently was not affected. Estrogenized females continued to incubate and feed young Plasma levels of prolactin were also unaffected by estrogen treatment. Male song sparrows mated to estrogenized females maintained high levels of testosterone throughout much of the breeding season. Only in late June and early July were testosterone levels in experimental males similar to those of controls. By July, however, levels of testosterone were again elevated significantly over those of controls. These data agree with other investigations showing that continual exposure of males to sexually receptive females maintains high levels of testosterone. The rise in prolactin in males was not affected by high circulating concentrations of testosterone, and changes in prolactin levels throughout the breeding season in experimental males were similar to the control cycle. It is concluded that in the song sparrow, elevated levels of prolactin during breeding do not inhibit secretion of sex steroids, nor do experimentally induced high circulating titers of sex steroid hormones alter seasonal changes in prolactin secretion.
An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary betaine and protein levels on performance, internal e99 Qualify, blood composition, abdominal fat and liver amino acid concentration in laying hens. A total of 432 ISA-Brown laying hens were randomly allotted to four treatments with six replications for twenty few weeks. Treatments were factorially designed with two levels of crude protein(14.5 and ) and two levels of betaine(0 and 600ppm). The egg production was increased by feeding protein-fed group compared to that of protein-fed groups(P
This review focuses on recent progress on the functions of choline and betaine and on the interactions between these two methyl donors and methionine chickens (mainly), pigs, fish (and crustaceans). When chickens receive a diet marginally deficient in methionine, supplementation with choline or betaine does not generally induce a return to the maximum growth rate. In this species betaine potentiates submaximal doses of some anticoccidial compounds, most probably through its osmolytic property. The ‘slimming’ effect which has been observed for betaine in a few assays with chickens and pigs has not been confirmed in several other species and therefore remains to be unequivocally demonstrated. In fish there is a need for phospholipids during the early stages of development. In salmonidae some studies suggest that betaine may facilitate the adaptation to sea water.
Glycine betaine is the end product of a two step oxidation of choline. Although glycine betaine is a common osmolyte in the cells of many species, the mechanism(s) regulating its synthesis in response to hyperosmotic stress has not been thoroughly studied in animals. We localized glycine betaine production in the mitochondrial matrix of cardiac cells from the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus). Isolated Limulus mitochondria take up choline and convert it to glycine betaine. The uptake rate is stimulated by exposure to hyperosmotic medium and mediated in part by a Na+-dependent, high affinity transporter. The increased choline concentrations in hyperosmotically stressed mitochondria result in increased glycine betaine concentrations. Thus, choline transport by Limulus mitochondria is the rate-limiting step in glycine betaine synthesis. Oysters (Crassostrea virginica) appear to have a different regulatory strategy. Oysters from the Atlantic Ocean accumulate more glycine betaine than oysters from the Chesapeake Bay when hyperosmotically stressed. Gill mitochondria isolated from both oyster populations take up choline at similar rates. However, the Atlantic Coast oyster mitochondria synthesize 3–4 times as much glycine betaine as their Bay counterparts. Thus, in oysters, the regulatory step may be at the level of the synthetic enzymes. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The hepatic activity of betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase is a complex function of the content of methionine in the diet. Enzyme levels are lower in the livers of rats fed a 0.3% methionine diet than in livers of animals maintained on either methionine-free or excessivemethionine (1.0%) rations. The finding that activities are increased at both extremes of the spectrum of dietary methionine intake suggests the possibility that the betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase reaction may function both to maintain tissue concentrations of methionine when intake of this amino acid is limited and to remove homocysteine when methionine intake is excessive.
Melatonin has been extractkd by chloroform from rat serum and quantified by the Rana pipiens tadpole bioassay. Like pineal melatonin, serum melatonin was high at mid-dark and low at mid-light. This finding suggests a diurnal rhythm of serum melatonin in the rat. Serum samples obtained at mid-dark had melatonin levels ranging from 0.02 to 0.05 ng per ml of serum. When rats were pinealectomized, melatonin activity in the serum was abolished. Thus, rat serum melatonin may originate primarily from the pineal. There was no significant change in pineal melatonin content nor in serum melatonin concentrations 7 or 12 days following orchidectomy.
The experiments described here were set up (a) to investigate the effect of age and (b) to investigate the effect of giving five diets which varied in methionine and choline or betaine contents on some of the enzymes that metabolize these nutrients in chick liver. Growth and carcass composition of the chicks fed on the different diets were also examined. There was no obvious relationship between age and enzyme activity in young chicks. Only a diet low in methionine (but not one low in choline) showed a significant decrease in growth and a change in carcass composition. The effects of diet on enzyme activity were complex. Choline oxidase (EC 1.1.3.17) activity was affected by the level of choline in the diet, being high when choline was present at high levels, especially when methionine was limiting. 5-Methyltetrahydrofolate homocysteine methyltransferase (EC 2.1.1.3) had a high activity in the livers of chicks fed on a conventional diet compared with those given semi-purified diets. Other enzymes showed minor changes in response to the diet. The diet low in methionine showed a lower activity of cystathionine beta-synthase (EC 4.2.1.22) and slightly higher activities of methionine adenosyltransferase (EC 2.5.1.6) and betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase (EC 2.1.1.5; compared with other diets), suggesting that this diet encouraged re-methylation of homocysteine at the expense of trans-sulphuration to cystathionine. The findings obtained in these studies form a useful basis for further investigation of the metabolic interrelationships between methionine and related nutrients.
Aminoglutethimide (AG), an inhibitor of steroidogenesis, was administered s.c. to 5 groups of laying hens at a dose of 200 mg AG/kg body weight 9 h before expected midsequence ovulation. This dose has previously been demonstrated to consistently block ovulation. The injection of AG was followed by s.c. injections of: Group 1, 1.0 mg progesterone; Group 2, 0.1 mg estradiol-17 beta; Group 3, 1.5 mg corticosterone, all at 6 h prior to expected ovulation; Group 4, 1.0 mg testosterone at both 8 h and 5 h before expected ovulation; and Group 5, 25 micrograms of ovine luteinizing hormone (LH) at 8 and 50 micrograms ovine LH at 6 h before expected ovulation. For each group, 4 control hens were injected with AG and the appropriate vehicle. Blood samples were taken at 1- or 2-h intervals from the time of AG injection to the expected time of ovulation. The hens were killed 4 h after expected ovulation and examined for the occurrence of ovulation. In all hens injected with vehicle, ovulation and the preovulatory surges of progesterone, testosterone, estradiol-17 beta and LH were inhibited. The plasma concentration of corticosterone was not reduced following an injection of AG. Four of 6 hens ovulated in response to injection of ovine LH, although neither endogenous LH nor progesterone were released. Thus, LH appears to play a direct role in follicular rupture and extrusion of the ovum. The administration of progesterone induced a significant and prolonged rise in LH, restoring AG-blocked ovulation in all hens treated (n = 6). Injections of testosterone restored LH release in all hens and ovulation in 2 of 7 hens treated. Three of 7 hens ovulated in response to the corticosterone injection. A preovulatory rise in LH was not observed, indicating that corticosterone may exert its ovulation-inducing effect directly on the mature follicle. Estradiol-17 beta did not restore LH release or ovulation in any of the hens treated with AG.
The influence of glycine, the simplest amino acid, on pituitary function has been investigated in the present study.
Different doses (4, 8 or 12 g) of glycine were intravenously infused over 15 or 30 min in normal subjects. Serum levels of GH (growth hormone) and Prl (prolactin) were measured before and after the infusion, and also blood sugar levels were determined.
The dose of 4 or 8 g glycine induced a significant increase in serum GH ( P < 0.05 or P < 0.001, respectively); however, a more pronounced and significant increase in serum GH levels was observed after infusion at a dose of 12 g glycine ( P < 0.001). It was clearly observed that the dose-dependent GH release to intravenous glycine occurred in normal subjects. On the contrary, serum Prl level was not changed significantly, and blood sugar level was transiently, but significantly ( P < 0.05), increased after the infusion of 12 g glycine.
The present data suggest that glycine might play an important role in the control of hypothalamic-pituitary function.
Within recent years, many investigators have implicated the pineal gland and melatonin in the processes of both aging and age-related diseases. These theories stem from the importance of melatonin in a number of biological functions and the fact that melatonin production in the organism is gradually lost throughout life, such that in very old individuals of any species the circadian melatonin rhythm is bearly discernible. In most species, from algae to humans, where it has been investigated, melatonin has been shown to exhibit a strong circadian rhythm in production and secretion, with high levels of the indole always being associated with the dark period of the light:dark cycle. One theory states that when the melatonin rhythm deteriorates during aging, other circadian rhythms are likewise weakened and rhythms become dysynchronized. This dysynchronization is believed to contribute significantly to aging and to render animals more susceptible to age-related diseases. Another theory assumes that the waning melatonin cycle provides an important switch for genetically programmed aging at the cellular level; furthermore, because all cells in the organism are exposed to the same gradually dampening melatonin signal throughout life, all cells age more or less at the same rate. In this theory, it is presumed to be the duration of the nocturnally elevated melatonin (which, like the amplitude, is reduced during aging), which, when coupled to a time-gating signal, is consequential in determining the rate of aging. Another compelling argument that the reduction in melatonin with age may be contributory to aging and the onset of age-related diseases is based on the recent observation that melatonin is the most potent hydroxyl radical scavenger thus far discovered. A prominent theory of aging attributes the rate of aging to accumulated free radical damage. Inasmuch as melatonin can markedly protect macromolecules, especially DNA, against free radical attack, it could, indeed, be a major factor in determining the rate at which organisms age. Besides its ability to directly scavenge the highly toxic hydroxyl radical, melatonin also promotes the activity of the antioxidative enzyme glutathione peroxidase, thereby further reducing oxidative damage. These actions may be manifested more obviously in the central nervous system, which is highly susceptible to damage by oxygen-based radicals and, because of its inability to regenerate and its high vulnerability to oxidative attack, its deterioration may be especially important in aging.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
Two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of betaine on growth and carcass characteristics of finishing pigs. In Exp. 1, 32 gilts were fed one of two diets: 1) a corn-soybean meal basal (B) diet or 2) B + .125% betaine diet. In Exp. 2, 122 gilts were allotted to one of eight dietary treatments in a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial arrangement with two levels of betaine (0 or .125%), crude protein (adequate [ACP] or inadequate [ICP]), and net energy (NE; 0 or 6% added fat). In Exp. 1, betaine did not affect (P > .10) growth performance or carcass traits other than an increased (P < .05) dressing percentage. In Exp. 2, betaine tended to decrease ADFI during the overall experimental period (P = .11). In the late finishing period (LF), betaine increased ADG in inadequate CP low-NE diets and adequate CP high-NE diets, but decreased ADG in inadequate CP high-NE and adequate CP low-NE diets (betaine x CP x NE, P < .04). Betaine increased (P < .04) carcass length and decreased (P < .01) color score for pork quality. Other carcass measurements were unaffected (P > .10) by betaine. Betaine decreased (P < .02) serum urea N (SUN) in fed pigs during the LF period. Betaine decreased fasting SUN and albumin in pigs fed the ACP diets, but it increased fasting SUN and albumin in pigs fed the ICP diets during the LF period (betaine x CP, P = .10). Betaine increased serum total protein in the low-NE diets, but not in the high-NE diets (betaine x NE, P < .08). The serum metabolite data suggest that betaine may affect protein status of pigs, and these effects may depend on the crude protein and energy content of the diet.
The effect of betaine and salinomycin on absorption of methionine and glucose in tissue from the duodenal loops of Eimeria acervulina-infected chicks was determined. Differences in the ultrastructure of the intestinal cells and parasite developmental stages were also examined. With a drug-resistant isolate of E. acervulina, methionine absorption was significantly higher in chicks fed a basal diet supplemented with 0.15% betaine as compared with absorption in chicks fed the unsupplemented basal diet. Addition of 66 ppm salinomycin to the diet containing betaine did not further enhance absorption. Conversely, with a drug-sensitive isolate, methionine absorption was significantly higher in chicks fed a diet supplemented with both betaine and salinomycin than in chicks fed the unsupplemented basal diet. Tissue from chicks fed any of the supplemented diets was usually significantly heavier than that from chicks fed the unsupplemented diet, even when weight gains of the birds were similar. Glucose absorption was similar in all diet groups. Epithelial cells in coccidia-infected and uninfected chicks fed diets supplemented with betaine or betaine plus salinomycin were less electron dense than cells from chicks fed diets that were not supplemented with betaine. Merozoites of E. acervulina in chicks fed diets supplemented with salinomycin had extensive membrane disruption and vacuolization, but the damage was prevented when betaine was added to the diet. Numerous merozoites and intact schizonts were seen in the intestinal lumen of chicks fed the diet containing betaine plus salinomycin.
The concentrations of ovarian steroids (estradiol--E2, progesterone--P4 and testosterone--T) and thyroid hormones (thyroxine--T4 and triiodothyronine--T3) were determined in blood plasma of the domestic hen during sexual maturation and the initial period of egg lay. Blood samples were collected from Hy-Line pullets at 3 day intervals from days 87 to 144 day of life, i.e. 42 days before and 14 days after the onset of egg lay (OEL). Ovarian and thyroid hormones were measured by RIA methods. During sexual maturation an increase in ovarian steroids in the blood plasma was observed. The maximum E2 and P4 levels were recorded on day 6 and day 3 prior to OEL, respectively. In the case of plasma T level, an increase from 42 to 18 days before OEL followed by a decrease and a renewed increase from day 9 till OEL was observed. The relatively unchanged plasma level of T4 until day 9 before OEL decreased significantly just before the first oviposition while the T3 level gradually decreased between day 42 and day 9 before OEL, and then increased and again decreased from day 3 before till day 3 after OEL. During sexual maturation the following statistically significant coefficients of correlation between ovarian steroids and T3 were found: E2 vs. T3-->r = -0.551 and P4 vs. T3-->r = -0.373. There was no significant correlation between T and T3 or between the examined steroids and T4. The data obtained indicate that during sexual maturation of the domestic hen there is a negative relationship between the ovary and the thyroid gland.
The aim of this experiment was to study the patterns of betaine accumulation into intestinal tissue, liver and plasma of broiler chicks with or without coccidial infection. The chicks were raised on a corn-based, low-betaine diet with or without 1000 ppm betaine supplementation and with or without intestinal microparasite (Eimeria maxima) challenge to the age of 21 days. Plasma, liver, intestinal tissue and digesta of non-challenged (NC) birds and plasma and intestinal tissue of coccidiosis challenged (CC) birds were analysed for betaine content. NC birds were also analyzed for homocysteine in plasma and S-adenosylmethionine (S-AM) in liver. The jejunal epithelium was histologically examined for the presence of coccidia and the crypt-villus ratio was measured. Dietary betaine supplementation decreased the plasma homocysteine concentration but had no effect on liver S-AM of NC birds. The data suggest that chicks on a low-betaine diet accumulate betaine into the intestinal tissue. When the diet was supplemented with betaine, betaine accumulated heavily into liver and to a lesser degree into intestinal tissue. The concentration of betaine in jejunal and ileal digesta was low suggesting that dietary betaine was mainly absorbed from the proximal small intestine. The coccidial challenge decreased the concentration of betaine in the liver, but greatly increased that in the intestinal tissue. The crypt-villus ratio was decreased by the dietary betaine supplementation in healthy and challenged chicks, suggesting that dietary betaine both protects the jejunal villi against coccidial infection and also stabilizes the mucosal structure in healthy broiler chicks. These results support our earlier findings suggesting that betaine is likely to act as an important intestinal osmolyte in broiler chicks.
Effect of betaine on nutrient utilization of 21-day-old broilers during coccidiosis
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Effects of betaine on methionine requirement of broilers under various environ-mental conditions
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