ArticlePDF Available

Abstract and Figures

Manta rays (Manta spp.) are plankton-feeding elasmobranchs classified as Vulnerable to Extinction on the IUCN Red List for Threatened Species. Despite increasing public and scientific interest in manta rays, major knowledge gaps concerning their movement ecology and dispersal capabilities remain. Here we used pop-off satellite-linked archival transmitting (PSAT) tags to examine the horizontal movements and habitat use patterns of reef manta rays (M. alfredi) departing Lady Elliot Island in the southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Tagged individuals moved across a latitudinal range of 1,035 km, travelling up to 2,441 km in 118 days, diving down to 294.5 m and venturing up to 155 km off the continental shelf. Using random walk simulations, we showed that manta rays spent significantly more time in an offshore region characterised by the mesoscale cyclonic Capricorn Eddy, than would be expected by chance. A behaviour-switching state-space model suggested this area to be an important foraging ground for the species off eastern Australia. We document movements of one individual using offshore waters between two known aggregation regions off eastern Australia. Reef manta rays thus not only occupy inshore continental shelf and shelf-edge waters, but also use offshore environments to exploit productive hotspots and travel long distances. Our findings highlight the need to better understand their movement ecology for effective management.
Content may be subject to copyright.
MARINE ECOLOGY PROGRESS SERIES
Mar Ecol Prog Ser
Vol. 510: 73– 86, 2014
doi: 10.3354/meps10910 Published September 9
INTRODUCTION
Understanding patterns of habitat use in vulnera-
ble, large and highly mobile marine species is crucial
to implementing effective, spatially explicit manage-
ment strategies (Block et al. 2005, Graham et al.
2012). This is especially true for plankton-feeding
elasmobranchs that depend on their ability to locate
minute and diffuse prey in a vast, dynamic and
changing ocean (Richardson & Schoeman 2004, Sims
et al. 2006). Planktivorous elasmobranchs occur at
low sub-population levels and for limited periods at
© The authors 2014. Open Access under Creative Commons by
Attribution Licence. Use, distribution and reproduction are un -
restricted. Authors and original publication must be credited.
Publisher: Inter-Research · www.int-res.com
*Corresponding author: fabrice@marinemegafauna.org
Movements and habitat use of reef manta rays off
eastern Australia: offshore excursions, deep diving
and eddy affinity revealed by satellite telemetry
F. R. A. Jaine1,2, 3,*, C. A. Rohner1,2,3, S. J. Weeks1, L. I. E. Couturier2,4,
M. B. Bennett4, K. A. Townsend5,6, A. J. Richardson2, 7
1Biophysical Oceanography Group, School of Geography, Planning and Environmental Management,
The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
2Climate Adaptation Flagship, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park,
Queensland 4102, Australia
3Manta Ray and Whale Shark Research Centre, Marine Megafauna Foundation, Praia do Tofo, Inhambane, Mozambique
4School of Biomedical Sciences, and 5School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland
4072, Australia
6Moreton Bay Research Station, The University of Queensland, Dunwich, Queensland 4183, Australia
7Centre for Applications in Natural Resource Mathematics, School of Mathematics and Physics,
The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
ABSTRACT: Manta rays (Manta spp.) are plankton-feeding elasmobranchs classified as vulnera-
ble to extinction on the IUCN Red List for Threatened Species. Despite increasing public and sci-
entific interest in manta rays, major knowledge gaps concerning their movement ecology and dis-
persal capabilities remain. Here, we used pop-off satellite-linked archival transmitting tags to
examine the horizontal movements and habitat use patterns of reef manta rays (M. alfredi) depart-
ing Lady Elliot Island in the southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Tagged individuals moved
across a latitudinal range of 1035 km, travelling up to 2441 km in 118 d, diving down to 294.5 m
and venturing up to 155 km off the continental shelf. Using random walk simulations, we showed
that manta rays spent significantly more time in an offshore region characterised by the mesoscale
cyclonic Capricorn Eddy than would be expected by chance. A behaviour-switching state-space
model suggested this area to be an important foraging ground for M. alfredi off eastern Australia.
We document the movements of 1 individual using offshore waters between 2 known aggregation
regions off eastern Australia. Reef manta rays thus not only occupy inshore continental shelf and
shelf-edge waters but also use offshore environments to exploit productive hotspots and travel
long distances. Our findings highlight the need to better understand their movement ecology for
effective management.
KEY WORDS: Eddy · East Australian Current · Manta alfredi · Movements · Oceanography ·
Random walk · Satellite tracking · State-space analysis
O
PEN
PEN
A
CCESS
CCESS
Mar Ecol Prog Ser 510: 73–86, 2014
inshore aggregation sites, where they can be readily
observed. Therefore, obtaining daily data on their
behaviour and identifying the driving forces behind
their distributions are major challenges. Advances in
the fields of bio-logging science, geographic infor-
mation systems and ecological modelling have led to
the increasing use of animal-attached sensors to
remotely examine the movements, behaviour, physi-
ology and/or biophysical habitat of a wide range of
marine species (Cooke et al. 2004, Ropert-Coudert et
al. 2009, Costa et al. 2012). Such studies have shed
new light on the ecology of marine predators, unrav-
elling a variety of behaviours ranging from localised
movements made in relation to foraging opportuni-
ties (Sims et al. 2006, Papastamatiou et al. 2012) to
larger-scale migrations (Bonfil et al. 2005, Block et al.
2011). In most cases, movements are driven by the
availability of food resources (Zerbini et al. 2006,
Anderson et al. 2011), species-specific physiologies
(Pillans 2006) or the need to reproduce (Bonfil et al.
2005, Skomal et al. 2009).
Previous tracking studies have highlighted the im -
portance of productive regions or features, such as
oceanographic fronts and mesoscale eddies, in pro-
viding foraging opportunities (Polovina et al. 2000,
Bailleul et al. 2010) for marine species, including
plankton-feeding sharks (Sims & Quayle 1998, Sims
et al. 2003). Planktivorous elasmobranchs must
acquire sufficient energy from minute and diffuse
prey. As a result, bottom-up processes, whereby phy -
sical oceanographic features act to concentrate prey
items in specific water bodies, are likely to influence
predator distributions and their behavioural deci-
sions. For instance, basking sharks Ceto rhinus maxi -
mus congregate and feed on zooplankton blooms in
frontal areas of the northeastern Atlantic (Sims &
Quayle 1998, Sims et al. 2003). However, the disper-
sal capabilities, behavioural ecology and ha bitat use
patterns of other planktivorous elasmobranchs, such
as manta rays (Manta spp.), are currently not well
understood.
Manta rays are the largest of the batoid fishes and
have a circumglobal distribution in tropical and sub-
tropical waters (Marshall et al. 2009, Couturier et al.
2012). They are classified as vulnerable to extinction
on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (Mar-
shall et al. 2011a,b). Despite increasing public and
scientific interest in manta rays, major knowledge
gaps remain in their dispersal abilities, migratory
ecology and drivers for their observed distributions.
Until recently, most of the movement data available
for manta rays had been derived from re-sightings
of photographically identified individuals over rela-
tively long time periods (e.g. Kashiwagi et al. 2010,
Couturier et al. 2011) or from acoustic telemetry data
(e.g. Dewar et al. 2008, Deakos et al. 2011). Such
technologies provided the first insights into the
movement ecology of manta rays, highlighting diur-
nal visitations of reef manta rays Manta alfredi to
particular inshore sites (Dewar et al. 2008, Marshall
2008), movements between aggregation sites up to
500 km apart (Kashiwagi et al. 2010, Couturier et al.
2011) and seasonal migratory patterns in some
regions (Anderson et al. 2011, Couturier et al. 2011).
More recent telemetry studies have, for the first time,
documented the movement patterns of both giant
manta rays M. birostris and reef manta rays M.
alfredi foraging in shallow habitats off the Yucatan
Peninsula, Mexico, and in the Line Islands of the cen-
tral Pacific, respectively (Graham et al. 2012, Papas-
tamatiou et al. 2012). Such results have highlighted
the importance of productivity blooms in inshore,
coastal and coral reef ecosystems as key drivers for
the spatial distributions and foraging habitats of
manta rays (Graham et al. 2012, Papastamatiou et al.
2012).
In eastern Australia, M. alfredi occur at various
localities along the coast, with some individuals sea-
sonally migrating between sites up to 500 km apart
(Couturier et al. 2011). One major aggregation site
for M. alfredi is Lady Elliot Island (LEI) (Couturier et
al. 2011, Jaine et al. 2012), a small coral cay in the
southern Great Barrier Reef (GBR), located only a
few kilometres from the continental shelf edge (see
Fig. 1A). Here, M. alfredi occur year-round; they peak
in austral autumn and winter, coincident with en -
hanced local productivity and foraging activity (Jaine
et al. 2012). The presence of the mesoscale cyclonic
Capricorn Eddy, which forms in the lee of the bathy -
metry off LEI because of the variability in strength of
the southward-flowing East Australian Current (EAC)
(Weeks et al. 2010), is known to trigger upwelling of
cool, nutrient-rich sub-surface waters onto the shelf
and around the Capricorn-Bunker reefs (Kleypas &
Burrage 1994, Weeks et al. 2010). Previously, the
eddy has been suggested as an important driver of
reef manta ray occurrence in the area and, more
specifically, at LEI (Jaine et al. 2012). There, passive
acoustic telemetry showed that individual manta rays
can typically be observed daily over short time scales
(i.e. up to 23 d) and may then leave the surveyed area
for extended periods of time (i.e. weeks to months)
before returning to the site (Couturier 2013). To date,
it is unknown where they go and what they do
when not around LEI. In addition, it is unclear how
M. alfredi disperse along the eastern Australian
74
Jaine et al.: Movements of reef manta rays
seaboard when undertaking long-distance move-
ments (>300 km) and whether they commonly utilise
specific migratory corridors, as observed in other
species off eastern Australia (Bansemer & Bennett
2011, Smith et al. 2012) and in other regions (Zerbini
et al. 2006, Campana et al. 2011).
Here, we used satellite telemetry to explore the
horizontal movements of individual M. alfredi de -
parting LEI and gain insight into their movement
patterns and habitat use in eastern Australia. We
used random walk model simulations and a 2-state
behaviour-switching state-space model (SSM) to
test the hypotheses that (1) manta ray distributions
within the southern GBR region are influenced by
the presence of the nearby Capricorn Eddy and (2)
movements of M. alfredi along the eastern Aus-
tralian seaboard are directed towards productive
regions. Our results suggest that reef manta rays
not only occupy inshore continental shelf and shelf-
edge waters but also are capable of using offshore
environments to exploit productive hotspots or
travel long distances.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Manta ray tagging
Fieldwork was conducted at LEI (23° 06’ S,
152° 42’ E) in the southern GBR. Ten Manta alfredi
were fitted with pop-off satellite-linked archival
transmitting (PSAT) tags during austral winter 2010
(n = 2), summer 2010-2011 (n = 2) and winter 2011
(n = 6; Table 1). Prior to tag deployment, each indi-
vidual was identified, its size (disc width, WD) was
estimated and its sex was determined using con-
ventional manta ray photographic identification
and laser photogrammetry techniques (Deakos
2010, Couturier et al. 2011, Marshall & Pierce
2012). Tags were deployed on free-swimming indi-
viduals while free diving using a 320 kg Dyneema
braid leader and an umbrella-shaped plastic dart
inserted into the dorsal musculature, away from the
body cavity, with a customised tagging pole. Eight
manta rays (M1−M8) were equipped with Mk10
pop-up archival transmitting (Mk10-PAT) tags
(Wildlife Computers), and manta rays 9 and 10 (M9
and M10) were equipped with Standard Rate X-
Tags (Microwave Telemetry) (Table 1). Most tagged
individuals were re-sighted within a few minutes
post tag deployment, having resumed their previous
foraging or cleaning activity and appearing to be
unaffected by the devices.
Tag programming and geolocation
Mk10-PAT tags were programmed to record ambi-
ent light levels, sea temperature and pressure (to
allow for calculations of swimming depth) at 30 s
intervals and detach from the individual after 90 to
120 d. Depending on the tags, the binned data to
be transmitted to the Argos satellite system (www.
argos- system.org) upon release were summarised
over time intervals of 6 or 12 h. By default, X-Tags
recorded the same parameters every 2 min; however,
based on the total deployment period of 120 d, the
transmitted data were summarised into 15 min bins.
Upon release, 8 of the 10 deployed tags transmitted
the summarised data successfully. Tags 66701 and
18379, deployed on M3 and M9, respectively, failed
to transmit to the Argos system and were thus consid-
75
Manta Tag Sex Size Tag type Pop-off Date (dd/mm/yy) Duration (d) Tag
no. no. (WD, m) location Tagging Pop-off Planned Realised retrieved
M1 47726 M 3.50 Mk10-PAT 24°08' S, 153°16' E 27/06/10 30/08/10 120 65 Yes
M2 60518A F 3.50 Mk10-PAT 22°25' S, 151°39' E 28/06/10 5/10/10 120 99 Yes
M3 66701 F 3.75 Mk10-PAT 5/01/11 120
M4 66702 F 3.50 Mk10-PAT 23°28' S, 151°26' E 5/01/11 11/02/11 120 37 No
M5 66700 M 3.25 Mk10-PAT 23°40' S, 152°27' E 19/06/11 17/09/11 90 90 No
M6 66703 F 3.75 Mk10-PAT 23°30' S, 152°48' E 19/06/11 15/10/11 120 118 Yes
M7 66705 F 4.25 Mk10-PAT 22°45' S, 151°41' E 19/06/11 14/10/11 120 117 Yes
M8 60518B F 4.00 Mk10-PAT 22°22' S, 153°30' E 20/06/11 18/09/11 90 90 Yes
M9 18379 M 3.75 X-Tag 20/06/11 120
M10 18380 F 4.25 X-Tag 24°09' S, 152°37' E 20/06/11 18/10/11 120 120 Yes
Table 1. Information on the deployment of pop-off archival satellite-transmitting tags on photographically identified, sexed
and measured Manta alfredi. Tagging location was 23°06’ S, 152° 42’ E for all mantas. WD= disc width
Mar Ecol Prog Ser 510: 73–86, 2014
ered as ‘lost’. An additional 6 tags washed ashore
over a wide geographic range, from Maroochydore,
Sunshine Coast (Queensland, 26.6° S, 153.9° E), to
Shoalwater Bay (Queensland, 22.4° S, 150.7° E), and
were physically retrieved by members of the public,
allowing 100% of the higher-resolution archived raw
data to be examined (Table 1). Transmissions from
the remaining 2 tags (66 700 and 66 702) enabled
varying amounts of data to be obtained and analysed
(921 and 1565 messages, respectively).
Daily manta ray positions were estimated using the
‘Track&Loc’ geolocation filter developed at Collecte
Localisation Satellites (CLS, www.cls.fr), France. The
algorithm relies on an SSM to represent process
(movement) and observation uncertainty. Under -
water positioning is achieved using an Ensemble
Kalman filter applied to light-level measurements,
with sea surface temperature (SST) and bathymetry
data used to better constrain the tracks (Royer et al.
2005, Nielsen et al. 2006, Nielsen & Sibert 2007,
Royer & Lutcavage 2008, 2009). This process allowed
for the reconstruction of movement tracks based on
daily position estimates. Tracks were then plotted
and analysed for patterns of space utilisation, in
ArcGIS 10 (ESRI, www.esri.com).
Eddy affinity simulations
To test the hypothesis that manta ray distributions
within the southern GBR region are influenced by
the presence of the cyclonic Capricorn Eddy, we
used random walk model simulations to compare the
proportion of time spent in the eddy region by ‘real’
tracked manta rays and model manta rays. For each
tag, random movements of model manta rays were
simulated in R (Ihaka & Gentleman 1996) using the
SDMTools package, such that each model ray fea-
tured the same starting location and total track
length as the respective tracked manta ray. Distances
between successive daily positions, termed step-
lengths, were randomly chosen from the real manta
ray’s step-length frequency distribution, and a ran-
dom turn angle drawn from a uniform distribution
was selected at the end of each step. Each step of
the model manta rays was validated against a high-
resolution (i.e. 100 m) digital bathymetry map gene -
rated using the gbr100 dataset (Beaman 2010) to
preclude model rays from crossing land. The re-
orientation angle was replaced if the prior step was
rejected. For each tag, movement tracks for 1000
model manta rays were simulated, and the propor-
tion of time (in days) spent within the Capricorn Eddy
region was recorded and compared to that of the real
manta ray.
Behavioural analysis
A behaviour-switching SSM was fitted to move-
ment data collected for real manta rays to discrimi-
nate behavioural activity from movement patterns
and examine behavioural hotspots within the region
of interest. Behaviour-switching SSMs have previ-
ously been used to successfully infer the ‘hidden’
behavioural state of an animal based on movement
properties such as turn angles, step-lengths and
autocorrelation in speed and direction derived from
tracking data (Jonsen et al. 2005, Breed et al. 2009,
2012). Here, we fitted the 2-state switching corre-
lated random walk model originally described by
Jonsen et al. (2005) and refined in Breed et al. (2009)
to our Manta alfredi data. This model has been suc-
cessfully applied to various guilds of marine species
to discriminate ‘transiting’ from ‘foraging’ behav-
ioural states (e.g. pinnipeds: Breed et al. 2009, sea
turtles: Maxwell et al. 2011, cetaceans: Bailey et al.
2009 and giant manta rays M. birostris: Graham et al.
2012). We implemented the model in R and Win-
BUGS (www.winbugs-development.org.uk). To fit
the model, 2 Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulations
were computed for 10 000 iterations, with a ‘burn-in’
factor of 7000 and ‘thinning’ of 5, leaving 600 sam-
ples per chain as output to estimate each model
parameter (see Breed et al. 2009). Model output was
examined for differences between the autocorrela-
tion parameter γand the behavioural state transition
parameter αof the 2 states, indicative of true differ-
entiation of the associated movement patterns.
RESULTS
Over the course of this study, tags remained
attached to Manta alfredi for a mean period of 92 d
(± 29 SD, range 37 to 120 d). Five of the 8 tags that
successfully transmitted to the Argos system re -
ported on or near the programmed pop-up date,
with 3 detaching prematurely for unknown reasons
(Table 1). Overall, 5874 transmissions were received
by the Argos system, with raw light-level data avail-
able for the 6 recovered tags. Geolocation estimates
ranged in accuracy between 7.3 and 75.5 km2(me -
dian = 18.4 km2± 23.1 SD), depending on tag deploy-
ment duration and spatial extent of the movements
recorded.
76
Jaine et al.: Movements of reef manta rays
Spatial dynamics
Tagged Manta alfredi were tracked over 736 d,
with movements recorded across a latitudinal range
of 1035 km and with a mean track length of 1169 km
± 640 SD (Fig. 1B). Track length varied among indi-
viduals, with M6 travelling the farthest (2441 km in
118 d), whereas M4 moved only 314 km in 37 d
(Table 2). Female M. alfredi (n = 6) dispersed farther
than males (n = 2) (Fig. 1C), despite no significant dif-
ference in their respective mean track lengths (t =
−0.99, p = 0.38) and mean speeds (t = −0.59, p = 0.58).
Median speed across all tags, derived from daily
move-steps, was 0.4 km h−1 ± 0.5 SD, and maximum
speed recorded was 3.5 km h−1 for M8 (Fig. 1D). Esti-
mated swimming speeds across all tags were typi-
cally slow (i.e. <0.75 km h−1) near LEI and directly off
the shelf but increased when individuals dispersed to
other regions. Daily maximum diving depths re cor -
ded by the PSAT tags revealed that the tracked rays
dived down to 294.5 m (maximum depth range 56 to
294.5 m), with greater maximum depths logged off
the shelf near LEI (Fig. 1E).
Seven of the 8 tracked M. alfredi remained within
the GBR region, while M10 moved off the shelf in
waters over 2000 m deep and travelled southward to
28° S and back in 120 d (Fig. 1B). The southward leg
of the journey was covered at ~24 km d−1 (Fig. 1D).
M10 then spent ~50 d near the shelf edge off More-
ton Island and North Stradbroke Island (NSI). Start-
ing on Day 82, M10 moved 155 km eastward off the
shelf before turning northward and broadly retracing
its earlier southward movement, until the tag de -
tached near LEI, coincident with the detection of the
Capricorn Eddy and shelf intrusions in the satellite
signal (Fig. 2). The other manta rays tagged at LEI
(M1, M2 and M4−M8) all moved directly off the shelf
near the tagging site, where they remained for a
period of 50.7 d ± 28.3 SD before moving back onto
the shelf and dispersing farther within the GBR. M1,
M2 and M4−M8 moved up to 520 km from LEI (mean
farthest linear distance from tagging site was 247 km
± 149 SD in 77 d ± 16 SD).
Activity hotspots and eddy affinity
Movement tracks recorded across all tags (n = 8)
highlighted a major activity hotspot off the shelf near
LEI (Fig. 1B), where the mantas spent 58.5% (range
2.5 to 87.5%) of their time. There was a second hot -
spot off the shelf ~100 km east of Moreton Island
based on movement data for M10 only, which spent a
considerable amount of time in this area (42% of total
track).
Results from the random walk simulations varied
among tags (Fig. 3). Only 2 of the 8 simulations were
significant, where real manta rays spent significantly
more time in the eddy region than the 1000 models
(Table 3). However, since each simulation can be
regarded as an independent test of whether manta
rays spent more time than random in the eddy,
results from the 8 tests, each with 1000 model itera-
tions, were combined using a proportion test. To -
gether, these simulations revealed that real manta
rays spent significantly more time in the eddy region
than model rays (p < 0.001).
Behaviour
The 2-state behaviour-switching SSM discrimi-
nated transiting and foraging activity from the track-
ing data (Fig. 1F). Of the total tracking positions (n =
77
Manta Min. horizon- Track Max. Step-length Speed (km d−1) Time (%) Mean speed (km h−1)
no. tal displace- length depth (km d−1) Median Max. Fora- Tran- Fora- Tran-
ment (km) (km) (m) Mean Max. ging siting ging siting
M1 63 523 283 8.2 31.9 0.3 1.3 100.0 0.0 0.3
M2 218 1023 167 10.3 34.7 0.3 1.4 76.8 23.2 0.3 0.7
M4 137 314 56 8.5 61.0 0.2 2.5 78.4 21.6 0.2 0.9
M5 53 1089 96 12.0 63.6 0.4 2.7 82.4 17.6 0.5 0.6
M6 69 2441 140 20.7 75.5 0.6 3.1 41.5 58.5 0.6 1.2
M7 183 1243 196 10.6 43.7 0.3 1.8 66.7 33.1 0.4 0.7
M8 210 1365 294.5 15.2 84.4 0.6 3.5 26.7 73.3 0.5 0.8
M10 7 1351 97.2 11.1 31.6 0.4 1.3 0.0 100.0 0.5
Table 2. Movement metrics for 8 Manta alfredi tracked by pop-off archival satellite-transmitting tags. Minimum horizontal dis-
placement = distance between tag deployment and detachment locations. Speed is estimated from daily move step-lengths.
Foraging and transiting behaviours are inferred from state-space analysis of movement data
78
Jaine et al.: Movements of reef manta rays
736), 53.5% were determined as the ‘foraging’ state,
while the ‘transiting’ state made up the remaining
46.5%. Results revealed important foraging activity
across all but one (M10) track in the eddy region, off-
shore of LEI. The foraging behavioural state made up
~95% of locations recorded in the eddy region. A
secondary foraging location off the Swain Reefs was
also highlighted based on tracking data for M8,
which made up 3.6% of total locations across all tags.
DISCUSSION
Using satellite telemetry and spatial analyses, we
showed that reef manta rays not only occupy inshore
continental shelf and shelf-edge waters but also use
offshore environments to exploit productive hotspots
or undertake long-distance movements. All but 1
manta ray tagged in the southern GBR spent a sub-
stantial amount of time in the Capricorn Eddy region,
off the continental shelf. A behavioural analysis of
the tracking data further suggested that they may
use this area as a foraging ground. Using offshore
waters, 1 manta ray travelled 520 km southward to
another known aggregation region before returning
to the tagging region.
Spatial dynamics
Reef manta rays tagged in the southern GBR
moved across a wide geographical area along the
eastern Australian coastline, covering a latitudinal
range of 1035 km (between 20° S and 28° S). Al -
though minimum horizontal displacements (i.e. dis-
tances between tagging and pop-off locations) were
relatively small and suggestive of localised move-
ments of individuals (Table 2), track reconstruction
revealed more extensive movements. Reef manta
rays travelled up to 2441 km in 118 d and dispersed
as far as 520 km from the tagging site, occupying
both regional shelf and offshore waters. This is, to
date, one of the largest directional movements
recorded and the first horizontal movement tracks
obtained for Manta alfredi using satellite telemetry.
Tracked reef manta rays displayed some degree of
affinity to the southern GBR. Despite recording some
of the longest movement tracks and moving the far-
thest away from LEI, M6 and M10 eventually
returned to the southern GBR towards the end of
their respective tagging periods. The 6 other tagged
individuals remained within the southern GBR
region during their tracking periods. These results
suggest some degree of fidelity to the region,
79
Fig. 1. Study region showing (A) typical regional oceanographic setting (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
[MODIS] sea surface temperature, June 2010), marked by the southward flow of the core East Australian Current (EAC) and
the cyclonic Capricorn Eddy (CE) forming in the lee of the shelf topography; (B) movement tracks for Manta alfredi tagged at
Lady Elliot Island (n = 8), with daily position estimates (filled circles); (C) spatial dynamics of male (n = 2) and female (n = 6)
M. alfredi; (D) swimming speed estimated from daily position estimates; (E) daily maximum diving depth for tracked M. alfredi
(n = 8); and (F) behaviour inferred from state-space analysis of the tracking data. Blue shading in (B−F) indicates water depth,
where lightest colours are depths < 200 m, and darkest colours are depths > 2000 m
Manta Days in eddy Time in eddy Successful model Unsuccessful model p-value
ray region region (%) simulations simulations
M1 55 84.6 101 899 0.101
M2 65 65.6 154 846 0.154
M4 32 86.5 92 908 0.092
M5 79 87.8 16 984 0.016
M6 55 46.6 40 960 0.040
M7 71 60.7 125 875 0.125
M8 30 33.3 328 672 0.328
M10 3 2.5 647 353 0.647
Total 390 58.5 1503 6497 <0.001
Table 3. Time spent by each tracked Manta alfredi in the Capricorn Eddy region and output from the random walk simulations for
each track, including numbers of successes, failures and resulting p-value for the test comparing the proportion of time spent in
the eddy by tracked and model manta rays. Successful and unsuccessful simulations refer to the numbers of model rays that
successfully (or unsuccessfully) spent as much time in the eddy region as real manta rays
Mar Ecol Prog Ser 510: 73–86, 2014
which supports previous findings by Couturier et al.
(2011). Using photographic identification techniques,
Couturier et al. (2011) documented dispersal by
M. alfredi to other known aggregation sites along
the eastern Australian seaboard, likely associated
with seasonal migratory movements. Similarly, van
Duinkerken (2010) identified the dispersal of individ-
ual M. alfredi along the southern Mozambican coast.
There, acoustically tagged M. alfredi typically showed
high fidelity to particular sites along the coast and
occasionally dispersed throughout the entire 95 km
long acoustic array. Long-distance movements and
80
Fig. 2 (this page and next page). Spatial and temporal dynamics of Manta alfredi M10 in relation to the oceanographic condi-
tions. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro radio me ter (MODIS) sea surface temperatures (left column panels) and chl acon-
centrations (right column panels) are presented for movements of M10 (white track) tracked between (A) June 19 and July 18,
2011, (B) July 19 and August 18, 2011, (C) September 19 and October 18, 2011, and (D) November 19 and December 18, 2011.
Data are presented at monthly intervals for clarity only, although dy namics at finer temporal resolutions have been in -
vestigated and did not differ. ‘CE’ marks the presence of the Capricorn Eddy feature in the satellite signal, and white arrows
denote intrusions of upwelled oceanic wa ters onto the shelf. EAC = East Australian Current
Jaine et al.: Movements of reef manta rays
migrations are typically attributed to the need to
reproduce and exchange genetic material between
members of separate populations (Bonfil et al. 2005,
Skomal et al. 2009) or the search for abundant food
resources (Zerbini et al. 2006, Anderson et al. 2011).
The question of sex-biased dispersal in M. alfredi
could not be assessed here because of our limited
data, despite tagged females noticeably dispersing
farther than the 2 males.
The mean and maximum speeds observed here,
derived from daily distances travelled, were similar
to those observed in other M. alfredi sub-popula-
tions (e.g. van Duinkerken 2010). Despite the low
spatial and temporal resolution of the collected
data, results suggested that reef manta rays can
travel distances of up to ~85 km d−1, averaging
speeds of ~3.5 km h−1. In the future, the use of
additional sensors (e.g. accelerometers) will help
collect more accurate, higher-resolution swimming
speed data, which may provide additional insights
into the movement ecology of these planktivorous
elasmobranchs.
81
Fig. 2 (continued)
Mar Ecol Prog Ser 510: 73–86, 2014
Eddy affinity and offshore foraging
The offshore Capricorn Eddy region was the pri-
mary site of occupancy for most satellite-tagged rays.
Mesoscale eddies, such as the Capricorn Eddy, stim-
ulate and redistribute biological production in the
ocean, thus creating attractive pelagic habitats for
free-ranging, higher trophic level marine organisms
(Chelton et al. 2011, Godø et al. 2012). Our results
suggest that manta rays may exploit offshore meso -
scale eddies for foraging purposes and corroborate
several other studies that showed the importance of
mesoscale eddies as offshore foraging grounds for a
variety of marine species (e.g. seabirds: Weimers -
kirch et al. 2004, Cotté et al. 2007; pinnipeds: Bailleul
et al. 2010, Dragon et al. 2010; cetaceans: Woodworth
et al. 2012).
Cyclonic eddies are known to enhance nutrient
enrichment and subsequent primary production in
subtropical western boundary systems (Falkowski et
al. 1991, McGillicuddy et al. 1998, 2007, Weeks et al.
2010). In the case of the Capricorn Eddy, turbulent
momentum exchanges with the strong southward-
flowing EAC that flows along the edge of the GBR
shelf produce a lateral stress on the mass of water in
the lee of the Swain Reefs. This drives cyclonic
(clockwise) and radially outward eddy circulation,
leading to the upwelling of cooler, nutrient-enriched
water in the centre of the eddy (Bakun 1996, Weeks
et al. 2010). The resulting upwelled waters flow
82
Fig. 3. Representative unsuccessful (M5) and successful (M10) random walk simulations. Panels in the first column, ’observed
track’, present the movement track (red line) and daily position estimates (filled circles) for each individual manta ray. The second
column, ‘simulation’, shows the geographically unconstrained 1000 random walks (blue) generated for each respective Manta
alfredi (red) from the step-length frequency distribution and the typical Capricorn Eddy region (black circle) (x- and y-axes are
degrees of longitude and latitude, respectievly). The third column, ‘time in eddy region’, indicates the proportion of time spent in
the eddy region by 1000 unconstrained random walks (white bars) compared to that of each respective M. alfredi (red line)
Jaine et al.: Movements of reef manta rays
coastward in the near-surface upper layer, eventu-
ally accumulating near LEI and the Capricorn-
Bunker reefs. Interestingly, the primary activity area
of tagged and presumed foraging Manta alfredi in
this study was the southeastern portion of the eddy
region, most likely because of the consistently en -
hanced productivity in this area triggered by eddy
dynamics.
Reef manta rays tagged in the southern GBR spent
extended periods off the shelf, undertaking deep
dives, presumably foraging, and occasionally moving
back onto the shelf. This result supports findings
from Braun et al. (2014), who documented offshore
deep-diving behaviour of satellite-tracked M. alfredi
directly adjacent to shallow coral reefs. Together,
these results challenge previous assumptions that
reef manta rays primarily rely on inshore productiv-
ity blooms as foraging habitats and highlight that
regional and mesoscale oceanographic investiga-
tions are needed to better understand habitat use
patterns of these large, free-ranging planktivores.
Moreover, a recent study by Couturier et al. (2013)
suggested that M. alfredi in eastern Australia do
not predominantly rely on near-surface zooplankton
prey during coastal feeding events and suggested
that deep and/or demersal zooplankton may be an
important part of the diet. The movement patterns
and depths recorded by tagged M. alfredi in this
study, suggestive of extensive off-shelf foraging and
greater diving activity in a region of well-
documented upwelling (Kleypas & Burrage 1994,
Weeks et al. 2010), may thus provide additional
insights into the foraging ecology of the species in
eastern Australia. More detailed analyses of the
recovered high-resolution depth data will help fur-
ther explore the diving behaviour and vertical habi-
tat use of M. alfredi.
Movements between aggregation regions
A census for manta ray sightings in eastern Aus-
tralia provided the first insight into the geographical
distribution and movement patterns of Manta alfredi
in the region (Couturier et al. 2011). Results from the
photographic survey revealed that M. alfredi is pres-
ent along ~3000 km of coastline, from Torres Strait in
northern Queensland to Sydney in central New
South Wales, and highlighted several inshore loca-
tions as key aggregation sites for the species (Cou-
turier et al. 2011). More importantly, some M. alfredi
appear to migrate between waters off NSI, Byron Bay
or the Solitary Islands in spring-summer (mid-
October to mid-April) and the southern GBR in
autumn-winter (Couturier et al. 2011, Jaine et al.
2012). Here, we found that 1 reef manta ray moved
southward from LEI to near NSI and returned to the
southern GBR in 120 d, providing the first movement
track for M. alfredi travelling between known aggre-
gation regions along the eastern Australian sea -
board.
The movement patterns of this 1 individual indi-
cated that reef manta rays can use offshore waters,
including the EAC flow, to travel up and down the
eastern coast of Australia (Fig. 2). Despite the single
observation here, 35 individual M. alfredi have been
repeatedly re-sighted previously between LEI and
the southern sites of NSI, Byron Bay and the Solitary
Islands (Couturier et al. 2011), and it is thus likely
that more individuals undertake similar movements
because of the variability and seasonality in the EAC
flow. For example, during summer reef manta rays
are common in the southern portion of the coast
(Couturier et al. 2011), coincident with increased
EAC intensity and subsequent enhanced biological
productivity (Oke & Middleton 2000, Roughan &
Middleton 2004, Nieblas et al. 2009). In winter, when
the EAC flow is weaker and the core EAC waters do
not extend as far south, reef manta ray numbers peak
in the southern GBR (Jaine et al. 2012), coincident
with a clear satellite signal of the Capricorn Eddy
and associated enhanced productivity (Kleypas &
Burrage 1994, Weeks et al. 2010).
Although limited to 1 individual, the observed
movements of M10, which travelled between the
southern GBR and NSI, could suggest that enhanced
productivity off these sites may act as a driver for
M. alfredi migrations. The individual, tracked over
winter-spring 2011, moved to spend a considerable
amount of time off the shelf-edge near NSI. Although
the behavioural SSM analysis revealed transiting-
only behaviour for this individual, most likely
because of the very directional nature of its move-
ment patterns, the extended period spent off the
shelf edge off NSI suggests otherwise. Despite anec-
dotal records of M. alfredi foraging in NSI coastal
waters, the NSI study site is primarily known as a
popular manta ray cleaning station. However, while
no published study has yet documented upwelling
frequency and productivity in the area, in situ
oceanographic data clearly show that upwelling
events occur and are most pronounced with in -
creased EAC intensity in spring-summer (S. J. Weeks
pers. obs.). The individual slowed down when
approaching the shelf-edge region off NSI and spent
the following ~50 d in the area before moving farther
83
Mar Ecol Prog Ser 510: 73–86, 2014
offshore and eventually returning to the southern
GBR. While remotely sensed SSTs and chl aconcen-
trations for the corresponding period do not show
strong inshore EAC flow or sharp fronts off NSI, typ-
ically indicative of inshore upwelling processes, the
departure from and subsequent return to LEI appear
to coincide with increased intensity of the Capricorn
Eddy and shelf intrusions, as seen in the satellite sig-
nal (Fig. 2). It is thus possible that this individual may
have been searching for other productive hotspots
along the eastern Australian seaboard.
CONCLUSIONS
This study presents the first satellite-derived move-
ment dataset for the reef manta ray Manta alfredi in
Australia. In addition to showing that M. alfredi move
across relatively large scales (i.e. > 500 km), this
study highlights that reef manta rays spend consider-
able time in offshore pelagic waters. Our results
show that eastern Australian manta rays have an
affinity for a relatively stable mesoscale cyclonic
eddy, which may comprise an important foraging
ground for the species. Further, we document the
movements of 1 individual between 2 popular aggre-
gation regions off the eastern Australian seaboard
using offshore waters. Together, our findings suggest
that M. alfredi may commonly use offshore waters to
undertake movements between aggregation sites
and exploit ephemeral productivity hotspots. Al -
though threats to M. alfredi are comparatively low in
eastern Australia, these findings highlight the need
for enhanced knowledge about the movements of
manta rays to be considered when implementing re -
gional management strategies.
Acknowledgements. We thank Dr. J. Brunnschweiler and
Dr. C. Huveneers for providing feedback on earlier versions
of the manuscript. We also thank Dr. G. Breed for help with
interpretation of the output from the behaviour-switching
SSM, as well as the ‘Track&Loc’ team at CLS, Argos, France,
for assistance with geolocation analysis and PSAT tag data
monitoring. We gratefully acknowledge the NASA Ocean
Biology Processing Group for provision of Moderate Resolu-
tion Imaging Spectroradiometer satellite data. We are grate-
ful to the various helpers who contributed to the fieldwork,
including C. Garraway, A. Rakovski, R. Jeffery, K. Fiora, C.
Ansell, R. Cheseldene-Culley, A. Donnelly and M. Roma -
novski. This study was supported by Australian Research
Council Linkage Projects grant LP110100712, a research
grant from the PADI Foundation, Sibelco, an anonymous
donor, Earthwatch Institute Australia and Lady Elliot Island
Eco Resort. Fieldwork was conducted under Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park permit G09/29853.1 and ethics approval
SBMS/071/08/SEAWORLD.
LITERATURE CITED
Anderson RC, Adam MS, Goes JI (2011) From monsoons to
mantas: seasonal distribution of Manta alfredi in the
Maldives. Fish Oceanogr 20: 104−113
Bailey H, Mate BR, Palacios DM, Irvine L, Bograd SJ, Costa
DP (2009) Behavioural estimation of blue whale move-
ments in the Northeast Pacific from state-space model
analysis of satellite tracks. Endang Species Res 10:
93−106
Bailleul F, Cotté C, Guinet C (2010) Mesoscale eddies as for-
aging area of a deep-diving predator, the southern ele-
phant seal. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 408: 251−264
Bakun A (1996) Patterns in the ocean: ocean processes and
marine population dynamics. University of California
Sea Grant, San Diego, California, USA, in cooperation
with Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas de Noroeste,
La Paz, Baja California Sur
Bansemer CS, Bennett MB (2011) Sex- and maturity-based
differences in movement and migration patterns of grey
nurse shark, Carcharias taurus, along the eastern coast
of Australia. Mar Freshw Res 62: 596−606
Beaman RJ (2010) Project 3DGBR: a high-resolution depth
model for the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea. Marine
and Tropical Sciences Research Facility, Project 2.5i.1a
Final Report, Cairns, Australia, available at www.
deepreef.org/bathymetry/65-3dgbr-bathy.html
Block BA, Teo SLH, Walli A, Boustany A and others (2005)
Electronic tagging and population structure of Atlantic
bluefin tuna. Nature 434: 1121−1127
Block BA, Jonsen ID, Jorgensen SJ, Winship AJ and others
(2011) Tracking apex marine predator movements in a
dynamic ocean. Nature 475: 86−90
Bonfil R, Meyer M, Scholl M, Johnson R and others (2005)
Transoceanic migration, spatial dynamics, and popula-
tion linkages of white sharks. Science 310: 100−103
Braun CD, Skomal GB, Thorrold SR, Berumen ML (2014)
Diving behavior of the reef manta ray links coral reefs
with adjacent deep pelagic habitats. PLoS One 9(2),
e88170
Breed GA, Jonsen ID, Myers RA, Bowen WD, Leonard ML
(2009) Sex-specific, seasonal foraging tactics of adult
grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) revealed by state−space
analysis. Ecology 90: 3209−3221
Breed GA, Costa DP, Jonsen ID, Robinson PW, Mills-
Flemming J (2012) State-space methods for more com-
pletely capturing behavioral dynamics from animal
tracks. Ecol Model 235-236: 49−58
Campana SE, Dorey A, Fowler M, Joyce W, Wang Z, Wright
D, Yashayaev I (2011) Migration pathways, behavioural
thermoregulation and overwintering grounds of blue
sharks in the northwest Atlantic. PLoS ONE 6: e16854
Chelton DB, Gaube P, Schlax MG, Early JJ, Samelson RM
(2011) The influence of nonlinear mesoscale eddies on
near-surface oceanic chlorophyll. Science 334: 328−332
Cooke SJ, Hinch SG, Wikelski M, Andrews RD, Kuchel LJ,
Wolcott TG, Butler PJ (2004) Biotelemetry: a mechanistic
approach to ecology. Trends Ecol Evol 19: 334−343
Costa DP, Breed GA, Robinson PW (2012) New insights into
pelagic migrations: implications for ecology and conser-
vation. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 43: 73−96
Cotté C, Park YH, Guinet C, Bost CA (2007) Movements of
foraging king penguins through marine mesoscale
eddies. Proc Biol Sci 274: 2385−2391
Couturier LIE (2013) Population ecology and biology of the
84
Jaine et al.: Movements of reef manta rays
reef manta ray Manta alfredi in eastern Australia. PhD
thesis, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of
Queensland, Brisbane, available at http://espace.library.
uq. edu.au/ view/UQ:302657
Couturier LIE, Jaine FRA, Townsend KA, Weeks SJ,
Richardson AJ, Bennett MB (2011) Distribution, site
affinity and regional movements of the manta ray, Manta
alfredi (Krefft, 1868), along the east coast of Australia.
Mar Freshw Res 62: 628−637
Couturier LIE, Marshall AD, Jaine FRA, Kashiwagi T and
others (2012) Biology, ecology and conservation of the
Mobulidae. J Fish Biol 80: 1075−1119
Couturier LIE, Rohner CA, Richardson AJ, Marshall AD and
others (2013) Stable isotope and signature fatty acid
analyses suggest reef manta rays feed on demersal zoo-
plankton. PLoS ONE 8: e77152
Deakos MH (2010) Paired-laser photogrammetry as a simple
and accurate system for measuring the body size of free-
ranging manta rays Manta alfredi. Aquat Biol 10: 1−10
Deakos MH, Baker JD, Bejder L (2011) Characteristics of a
manta ray Manta alfredi population off Maui, Hawaii,
and implications for management. Mar Ecol Prog Ser
429: 245−260
Dewar H, Mous P, Domeier M, Muljadi A, Pet J, Whitty J
(2008) Movements and site fidelity of the giant manta
ray, Manta birostris, in the Komodo Marine Park, Indone-
sia. Mar Biol 155: 121−133
Dragon AC, Monestiez P, Bar-Hen A, Guinet C (2010) Link-
ing foraging behaviour to physical oceanographic struc-
tures: southern elephant seals and mesoscale eddies east
of Kerguelen Islands. Prog Oceanogr 87: 61−71
Falkowski PG, Ziemann D, Kolber Z, Bienfang PK (1991)
Role of eddy pumping in enhancing primary production
in the ocean. Nature 352: 55−58
Godø OR, Samuelsen A, Macaulay GJ, Patel R and others
(2012) Mesoscale eddies are oases for higher trophic
marine life. PLoS ONE 7: e30161
Graham RT, Witt MJ, Castellanos DW, Remolina F, Maxwell
S, Godley BJ, Hawkes LA (2012) Satellite tracking of
manta rays highlights challenges to their conservation.
PLoS ONE 7: e36834
Ihaka R, Gentleman R (1996) R: a language for data analysis
and graphics. J Comput Graph Stat 5: 299−314
Jaine FRA, Couturier LIE, Weeks SJ, Townsend KA, Bennett
MB, Fiora K, Richardson AJ (2012) When giants turn up:
sighting trends, environmental influences and habitat
use of the manta ray Manta alfredi at a coral reef. PLoS
ONE 7: e46170
Jonsen ID, Flemming JM, Myers RA (2005) Robust state-
space modeling of animal movement data. Ecology 86:
2874−2880
Kashiwagi T, Ito T, Sato F (2010) Occurrences of reef manta
ray, Manta alfredi, and giant manta ray, M. birostris, in
Japan, examined by photographic records. Rep Jpn Soc
Elasmobranch Stud 46: 20−27
Kleypas J, Burrage D (1994) Satellite observations of circula-
tion in the southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Int J
Remote Sens 15: 2051−2063
Marshall AD (2008) Biology and population ecology of
Manta birostris in southern Mozambique. PhD thesis,
School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of
Queens land, Brisbane, available at http: //espace. library.
uq. edu. au/ view/ UQ: 160974
Marshall AD, Pierce SJ (2012) The use and abuse of photo-
graphic identification in sharks and rays. J Fish Biol 80:
1361−1379
Marshall A, Compagno L, Bennett M (2009) Redescription of
the genus Manta with resurrection of Manta alfredi
(Krefft, 1868) (Chondrichtyes; Myliobatoidei; Mobuli-
dae). Zootaxa 2031: 1−28
Marshall AD, Kashiwagi T, Bennett MB, Deakos M and oth-
ers (2011a) Manta alfredi. In:
IUCN Red List of Threat-
ened Species version 2012-1 (accessed on February 15,
2013)
Marshall A, Bennett M, Kodja G, Hinojosa-Alvarez S and
others (2011b) Manta birostris. In: IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species version 2012-1 (accessed on Febru-
ary 15, 2013)
Maxwell SM, Breed GA, Nickel BA, Makanga-Bahouna J
and others (2011) Using satellite tracking to optimize
protection of long-lived marine species: olive ridley sea
turtle conservation in central Africa. PLoS ONE 6:e19905
McGillicuddy DJ, Robinson AR, Siegel DA, Jannasch HW
and others (1998) Influence of mesoscale eddies on new
production in the Sargasso Sea. Nature 394: 263−266
McGillicuddy DJ, Anderson LA, Bates NR, Bibby T and
others (2007) Eddy/wind interactions stimulate extra -
ordinary mid-ocean plankton blooms. Science 316:
1021−1026
Nieblas AE, Sloyan BM, Hobday AJ, Coleman R, Richardson
AJ (2009) Variability of biological production in low
wind-forced regional upwelling systems: a case study off
southeastern Australia. Limnol Oceanogr 54: 1548−1558
Nielsen A, Sibert J (2007) State−space model for light-based
tracking of marine animals. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 64:
1055−1068
Nielsen A, Bigelow KA, Musyl MK, Sibert J (2006) Improv-
ing light-based geolocation by including sea surface
temperature. Fish Oceanogr 15: 314−325
Oke PR, Middleton JH (2000) Topographically induced
upwelling off eastern Australia. J Phys Oceanogr 30:
512−531
Papastamatiou YP, DeSalles PA, McCauley DJ (2012) Area-
restricted searching by manta rays and their response to
spatial scale in lagoon habitats. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 456:
233−244
Pillans RD (2006) The physiological ecology of the bull shark
Carcharhinus leucas in the Brisbane River. PhD thesis,
School of Integrative Biology, The University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, available at http: //espace.library.uq.
edu.au/ view/ UQ: 158284
Polovina JJ, Kobayashi DR, Parker DM, Seki MP, Balazs GH
(2000) Turtles on the edge: movement of loggerhead tur-
tles (Caretta caretta) along oceanic fronts, spanning
longline fishing grounds in the central North Pacific,
1997−1998. Fish Oceanogr 9: 71−82
Richardson AJ, Schoeman DS (2004) Climate impact on
plankton ecosystems in the northeast Atlantic. Science
305: 1609−1612
Ropert-Coudert Y, Beaulieu M, Hanuise N, Kato A (2009)
Diving into the world of biologging. Endang Species Res
10: 21−27
Roughan M, Middleton JH (2004) On the East Australian
Current: variability, encroachment, and upwelling. J
Geophys Res 109: C07003, doi:10.1029/2003JC001833
Royer F, Lutcavage M (2008) Filtering and interpreting loca-
tion errors in satellite telemetry of marine animals. J Exp
Mar Biol Ecol 359: 1−10
Royer F, Lutcavage M (2009) Positioning pelagic fish from
sunrise and sunset times: complex observation errors call
85
Mar Ecol Prog Ser 510: 73–86, 2014
for constrained, robust modeling. In: Nielsen JL, Fragoso
N, Lutcavage M, Arrizabalaga H, Hobday A, Sibert J
(eds) Tagging and tracking of marine animals with
electronic devices. Reviews: methods and technologies
in fish biology and fisheries. Springer, Dordrecht,
p 323−341
Royer F, Fromentin JM, Gaspar P (2005) A state-space
model to derive bluefin tuna movement and habitat from
archival tags. Oikos 109: 473−484
Sims D, Quayle V (1998) Selective foraging behaviour of
basking sharks on zooplankton in a small-scale front.
Nature 393: 460−464
Sims DW, Southall EJ, Richardson AJ, Reid PC, Metcalfe JD
(2003) Seasonal movements and behaviour of basking
sharks from archival tagging: no evidence of winter
hibernation. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 248: 187−196
Sims DW, Witt MJ, Richardson AJ, Southall EJ, Metcalfe JD
(2006) Encounter success of free-ranging marine preda-
tor movements across a dynamic prey landscape. Proc R
Soc Lond B Biol Sci 273: 1195−1201
Skomal GB, Zeeman SI, Chisholm JH, Summers EL, Walsh
HJ, McMahon KW, Thorrold SR (2009) Transequatorial
migrations by basking sharks in the western Atlantic
Ocean. Curr Biol 19: 1019−1022
Smith JN, Grantham HS, Gales N, Double MC, Noad MJ,
Paton D (2012) Identification of humpback whale breed-
ing and calving habitat in the Great Barrier Reef. Mar
Ecol Prog Ser 447: 259−272
van Duinkerken DI (2010) Movements and site fidelity of the
reef manta ray, Manta alfredi, along the coast of southern
Mozambique. Masters thesis, Utrecht University
Weeks SJ, Bakun A, Steinberg CR, Brinkman R, Hoegh-
Guldberg O (2010) The Capricorn Eddy: a prominent
driver of the ecology and future of the southern Great
Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 29: 975−985
Weimerskirch H, Le Corre M, Jaquemet S, Potier M, Marsac
F (2004) Foraging strategy of a top predator in tropical
waters: great frigatebirds in the Mozambique Channel.
Mar Ecol Prog Ser 275: 297−308
Woodworth PA, Schorr GS, Baird RW, Webster DL and
others (2012) Eddies as offshore foraging grounds for
melon-headed whales (Peponocephala electra).Mar
Mamm Sci 28: 638−647
Zerbini AN, Andriolo A, Heide-Jørgensen MP, Pizzorno JL
and others (2006) Satellite-monitored movements of
humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae in the
Southwest Atlantic Ocean. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 313:
295−304
86
Editorial responsibility: Nicholas Tolimieri,
Seattle, Washington, USA
Submitted: June 11, 2013; Accepted: June 10, 2014
Proofs received from author(s): August 29, 2014
... Satellite telemetry provides a powerful tool for tracking the horizontal movements of aquatic animals using light-level geolocation, the Argos satellite network, and the global positioning system (GPS), free from the limitations imposed by acoustic receiver array networks [13]. This technology has been widely applied to monitor the spatial movements of marine animals across various taxa [14,15], including manta rays, e.g., [16]. Studies employing satellite telemetry on reef manta rays across their distribution range have revealed predominantly restricted movement patterns, with individuals generally remaining within their tagging regions and exhibiting high residency near coastal areas, as observed in populations such as those in Dungonab Bay and Mukkawar Island National Park, Sudan [17]; northern Farasan Banks, the Red Sea [18]; New Caledonia [19]; western Australia [20]; eastern Australia [16]; and Seychelles [21]. ...
... This technology has been widely applied to monitor the spatial movements of marine animals across various taxa [14,15], including manta rays, e.g., [16]. Studies employing satellite telemetry on reef manta rays across their distribution range have revealed predominantly restricted movement patterns, with individuals generally remaining within their tagging regions and exhibiting high residency near coastal areas, as observed in populations such as those in Dungonab Bay and Mukkawar Island National Park, Sudan [17]; northern Farasan Banks, the Red Sea [18]; New Caledonia [19]; western Australia [20]; eastern Australia [16]; and Seychelles [21]. ...
... In the Raja Ampat region, the movement patterns reported in the current study closely resemble those observed using passive acoustic telemetry on the same species, where frequent movements occurred between aggregation sites 5-12 km apart, with occasional long-distance movements [12]. Comparable localized movement patterns have also been documented for the reef manta rays tracked via satellite in other regions, including the Red Sea [18], Dungonab Bay and Mukkawar Island National Park, Sudan [45], eastern Australia [16], western Australia [46], and New Caledonia [19]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Indonesia is home to significant populations of globally vulnerable reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi) in at least four key regions: Berau, Nusa Penida, Komodo, and Raja Ampat. Despite detailed population studies in each of these regions, little is known about their horizontal movement patterns. Our study used satellite telemetry to investigate reef manta rays’ habitat use and home ranges. A total of 33 manta rays were tagged with SPLASH10F-321A satellite tags across the four regions: Berau (n = 5), Nusa Penida (n = 8), Komodo (n = 6), and Raja Ampat (n = 14), yielding usable data from 25 tags. The rays were tracked for 7 to 118 days (mean ± SD = 50 ± 30) from July 2014 to July 2022. The results showed localized movements, strong residency near tagging sites, and high site fidelity as evidenced by area-restricted search (ARS) behaviors and frequent revisitations. Most manta rays showed restricted home ranges in each region, with no connectivity between regions. Across 25 individuals, the home range (95% utilization distributions) varied significantly, ranging from 19 to 48,294 km² (mean ± SD = 4667 ± 10,354). These findings offer important insights into the spatial movement patterns of reef manta rays in Indonesia, allowing the formulation of more effective management strategies.
... This highly mobile species exhibits strong site affinity, particularly in isolated parts of its range, such as oceanic island chains [14,15]. The species is also capable of undertaking long-distance movements of several hundreds of kilometres [16][17][18][19] (up to 1150 km [20]), and therefore, the metapopulation concept has not generally been considered relevant to this species. However, recent genetic studies have revealed fine-scale genetic differentiation between nearby M. alfredi populations. ...
... Despite the species' ability to migrate to seasonally productive areas located several hundred kilometres away [18,[67][68][69], M. alfredi tagged in Ayau, Kofiau and Boo and Misool showed relatively restricted home ranges with only occasional long-distance movements [66]. This is likely explained by several factors, including natural barriers (i.e. ...
... Our research has revealed some limitations when using passive acoustic telemetry to investigate metapopulation structure and connectivity between subpopulations. The number of M. alfredi tagged in each region and the tracking duration might be insufficient to make inferences at the regional level owing to the variations in individual behaviour identified in several other M. alfredi tagging studies [18,36,81]. Sequeira et al. [82] showed that a relatively high number of tagged animals is required to acquire meaningful datasets to inform robust studies about marine species' population structure, habitat use or migratory corridors. ...
Article
Full-text available
The reef manta ray Mobula alfredi is present throughout most island groups that form the Raja Ampat archipelago, Indonesia. The species is protected regionally and nationally and is currently managed as a single homogeneous population within the 6.7 million ha archipelago. However, scientific evidence is currently lacking regarding the spatial connectivity and population structure of M. alfredi within this archipelago. Using network analysis and an array of 34 acoustic receivers deployed throughout Raja Ampat between February 2016 and September 2021, we examined the movements of 72 subadult and adult M. alfredi tagged in seven regions of Raja Ampat. A total of 1094 M. alfredi movements were recorded and were primarily concentrated between nearby receiver stations, highlighting frequent local movements within, and limited long-distance movements between regional acoustic receiver arrays. Network analysis revealed highly connected nodes acting as hubs important for M. alfredi movements. A community detection algorithm further indicated clusters within the network. Our results suggest the existence of a metapopulation comprising three demographically and geographically distinct subpopulations within the archipelago. They also reveal the importance of Eagle Rock as a critical node in the M. alfredi movement network, justifying the urgent inclusion of this site within the Raja Ampat marine protected area network.
... This movement of manta rays and zebra sharks, along the eastern Australian coastline, has been monitored using a range of techniques, including satellite-tagging (Jaine et al. 2014), acoustic tagging (Barnett et al. 2024) and citizenscience programs (Armstrong et al. 2019). In eastern Australia, the reported southern limit for the movement of manta rays is currently at South West Rocks (30.9°S) (Armstrong et al. 2020), whereas zebra sharks have been observed as far south as Jervis Bay (35.0°S) (Atlas of Living Australia, see bie.ala.org.au). ...
... In addition to moving in response to shifting ocean temperatures, occurrences of manta rays and zebra sharks were also found to vary with current velocity and chlorophyll concentration, with both species exhibiting a preference for regions with low to moderate current velocities and increased chlorophyll concentrations. Increased presence of manta rays in areas with high chlorophyll concentrations is understandable, given that high chlorophyll concentrations generally indicate high concentrations of plankton (Jakobsen and Markager 2016) and manta rays are planktonic filter feeders that can migrate large distances to feed in plankton-rich waters (Graham et al. 2012;Jaine et al. 2014). For zebra sharks, increased presence in regions with high chlorophyll concentrations is harder to explain, although potentially higher chlorophyll concentrations and associated high plankton concentrations may increase abundance of their food (molluscs), with molluscs forming the bulk of the diet for zebra sharks (Cortés 1999). ...
Article
Full-text available
Context Tourism is a major contributor to coastal economies, with climate change generating unquantified impacts on this sector. Specifically, marine ecotourism businesses often depend on encounters with iconic megafauna, but it is unknown how interactions with these species might change under ocean warming. Aims To assess how climate change may affect key dive-ecotourism species (manta rays and zebra sharks) in south-eastern Australia, where changes in temporal persistence are anticipated. Methods Habitat-suitability models were developed for manta rays and zebra sharks and applied to predict changes in suitable thermal habitat at popular scuba-diving locations in New South Wales (NSW). Key results Sea-surface temperature was the dominant factor associated with the presence of manta rays and zebra sharks. Modelling indicated that timings of seasonal migrations are likely to be altered by ocean warming, with temporal persistence in central NSW potentially increasing, from current low levels, by up to 4 months by 2060. Conclusions Prospects for divers to encounter manta rays and zebra sharks are likely to increase in central NSW because of climate-driven ocean warming. Implications New ecotourism opportunities will develop in NSW, through increased potential to encounter iconic marine megafauna, providing novel openings for coastal ecotourism industries.
... Thus, there is significant genetic population structure throughout their range (Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Australia and Fiji; Hosegood 2020; Mozambique and Western Australia; Venables et al. 2020b; New Caledonia and Australia; Lassauce et al. 2022;within Hawaiian Islands;Whitney et al. 2023). Satellite and passive acoustic telemetry and photoidentification (photo-ID; based on natural skin pigmentation patterns unique to each individual; Pierce et al. 2018) studies show evidence of high residency and site fidelity to aggregation sites (Jaine et al. 2014;Armstrong et al. 2020;Peel et al. 2020;Lassauce et al. 2023). ...
... By contrast, this species covers larger distances swimming along continental coastlines or through widespread archipelagos (Germanov & Marshall 2014;Armstrong et al. 2019;Setyawan et al. 2020). With the caveat that we had a small tracking dataset, our findings support the general tendency of this species to exhibit high residency to aggregation sites (Jaine et al. 2014;Armstrong et al. 2020;Peel et al. 2020;Lassauce et al. 2023). Further research steps include cross-referencing with photo-ID catalogues in the Seychelles and, when data are available, the Comoros, to examine if any individuals move from Mayotte to these sites. ...
Article
Full-text available
Reef manta rays Mobula alfredi have fragmented populations across their range and show high site fidelity to certain aggregation sites. The species has been observed around Mayotte, an island in the northern Mozambique Channel with a surrounding barrier reef and a large 1500 km² lagoon. Here, we examined their distribution, movements and population demographics using a combination of citizen science observations and archival satellite tag data. Mayotte’s lagoon and the passes that connect it with the open ocean were important for two life history functions: a bay in the northeast of the island appears to serve as a nursery habitat, and surface feeding is frequently recorded in several areas of the lagoon. All five tracked individuals remained in local waters within ~ 285 km of Mayotte, although estimated track lengths were up to 1579 km over the 4-month tracking duration, highlighting that other regional aggregation sites in Mozambique or the Seychelles are within their potential dispersal range. The four tracked mature individuals spent extensive time outside Mayotte’s lagoon, often diving to mesopelagic depths. Their median swimming depth had a crepuscular signal, being particularly shallow at sunrise and in the early morning (~ 5 m depth), potentially feeding in surface waters, while the median swimming depth was between 30 and 40 m at other times. Considering the small population size and isolation shown here and the low population growth rate of the species, it will be important to identify and minimise threats in the region around Mayotte to improve the conservation of this Vulnerable species.
... LIR is defined as the probability of re-sighting an individual after a given time lag and provides insights into site fidelity by assessing how likely individuals are to be detected at a previously occupied site after a period of absence (Chapman et al., 2015). In this context, site fidelity describes the degree to which manta rays are consistently detected at the same location after periods of absence, while recognizing that some individuals may exhibit wider movement patterns beyond the study sites (Couturier et al., 2011;Jaine et al., 2014). ...
... Seasonal increases in manta abundance are commonly reported across various populations, likely driven by environmental conditions that influence habitat use (Harris et al., 2020;Jaine et al., 2012;Peel at al., 2019). This pattern reflects broader trends in M. alfredi ecology, where movements between areas are often driven by the influence of sites with high primary productivity and prey density, creating predictable feeding grounds (Armstrong et al., 2016;Jaine et al., 2014). GEC exhibited fluctuations in aggregation size without a clear longterm trend, while KH showed a significant upward trend in manta presence over the study period, suggesting its growing ecological importance, potentially driven by environmental changes or behavioral shifts. ...
Thesis
Full-text available
Reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi) face conservation challenges due to global population declines and their susceptibility to anthropogenic pressures, particularly in tourism-driven settings. Fine-scale, site-specific studies are essential for understanding population characteristics and informing effective conservation measures. This study leverages citizen science data spanning 13 years (2010-2022) to elucidate the dynamics, residency patterns, and influence of prey availability of manta ray aggregations at two nighttime feeding sites, Garden Eel Cove (GEC) and Keauhou (KH), along the Kona coast of Hawai‘i Island. With over 23,000 recorded sightings of 167 unique individuals, the results reveal both similarities and site-specific distinctions between the two locations. For example, GEC consistently supports larger aggregations than KH, underscoring its role as a reliable feeding area. Both sites exhibited an overall balanced 1:1 sex ratio; however, while GEC showed similar visitation patterns for both sexes, KH was predominately frequented by females, suggesting that this area may serve other sex-specific ecological functions beyond nighttime feeding. The results also support previous indications that males are more mobile than females. Residency and movement patterns were analyzed using a modified maximum likelihood approach, confirming high site fidelity among females at KH and highlighting a degree of connectivity between the two sites. Fluctuations in seasonal and annual trends in aggregation size closely aligned with zooplankton density, emphasizing prey availability as a primary driver of manta presence and aggregation patterns. The relative stability of aggregations at both sites, despite increased tourism, suggests that current activity levels have not negatively impacted the viability of the local manta ray population and that they exhibit adaptable foraging strategies. These findings underscore the ecological significance of GEC and KH for Kona’s manta population and illustrate the potential of community-sourced data to capture long-term ecological patterns, providing a foundation for future research to inform conservation strategies tailored to these key aggregation sites.
... Being zooplanktivorous and having large body sizes, a substantial portion of their time is dedicated to the pursuit of zooplankton, which varies temporally and spatially (Paig-Tran et al. 2013;Jaine et al. 2014;Armstrong et al. 2016). Mobula birostris spends more time offshore (Andrzejaczek et al. 2021) than M. alfredi, has a widespread distribution in temperate to tropical waters , and often aggregates at offshore pinnacles and seamounts (Compagno and Last 1999;Rubin 2002;Marshall et al. 2022a). ...
... Mobula birostris spends more time offshore (Andrzejaczek et al. 2021) than M. alfredi, has a widespread distribution in temperate to tropical waters , and often aggregates at offshore pinnacles and seamounts (Compagno and Last 1999;Rubin 2002;Marshall et al. 2022a). In contrast, M. alfredi is more coastal and restricted to the subtropical/tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans Jaine et al. 2014;Kessel et al. 2017;Andrzejaczek et al. 2020). Feeding strategy differences likely drove the speciation of the closely related M. alfredi and M. birostris, along with behaviors like coastal or offshore area use . ...
Article
Full-text available
Both the reef manta ray, Mobula alfredi and oceanic manta ray M. birostris, are repeatedly observed in South Africa, yet little is known about the distributions of either species. In this study, we collated citizen science observations since 2003 to reveal six areas in the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) and Eastern Cape provinces, where manta rays have been sighted across multiple years. Using their unique ventral spot patterning, 184 individuals were photo-identified, comprising 139 M. alfredi and 45 M. birostris. Most of the photo-identified M. alfredi individuals were encountered in the iSimangaliso Wetland Park (IWP) in KZN (89%; n = 119) and for M. birostris, Aliwal Shoal (48%; n = 22). We identified 32 new transboundary records of 28 M. alfredi also photographed in the Inhambane Province, Mozambique, demonstrating connectivity, specifically to Závora (n = 27). One M. alfredi individual traveled multiple times between the IWP and Závora, Mozambique, totaling 1305 km, and another individual traveled from the Pondoland MPA to the IWP in South Africa, a distance of over 600 km. Further, we extend the southern range for M. alfredi in Africa by over 500 km from Mdumbi Beach to Port Ngqura, Eastern Cape. These collective findings represent South Africa’s first in-water assessment of manta ray aggregations, showing the IWP in particular to be a critical habitat for M. alfredi. Further, the movements documented here suggest the M. alfredi population in southern Africa to be one of the most mobile globally. We hope the baseline data provided here will drive increased research and transboundary management for M. alfredi and M. birostris along the KZN and Eastern Cape coastlines.
... Due to their large size and epipelagic lifestyle, mobulids are among the most mobile of all Batoids. Long-range movements of the reef manta ray Mobula alfredi were documented through satellite tagging off the east coast of Australia 6,7 , in one case extending to up to 2,441 km 8 . High mobility, however, is not a uniform ecological trait in Mobula, not even within the same species. ...
Article
Full-text available
To investigate the seasonal migratory behaviour of spinetail devil rays, Mobula mobular, across the Mediterranean Sea, we used satellite telemetry to track nine individuals between 2016 and 2021. The species is listed as Endangered in the IUCN’s Red List of Threatened Species and appears to be most vulnerable to fishing impacts when gathering in large assemblages. The only known targeted devil ray fishery harvests significant numbers each winter off Gaza. While broadly distributed during summer across the more productive areas of the western and central portions of the Mediterranean, most tracked rays showed an eastward movement towards eastern Levantine waters during the second half of the year. One individual, tagged off Gaza in March 2016, travelled to Spain before swimming back to the Levantine Sea one year later. Our study corroborates the notion that the species undergoes predictable basin-wide migrations across the Mediterranean Sea, favouring the Levantine waters in late winter and early spring, thanks to the subregion’s milder sea surface temperatures in that time of the year compared to the rest of the Mediterranean. Understanding the species’ seasonal movement pattern in the Mediterranean could support the implementation of robust place-based conservation measures, especially in light of unregulated fishing pressure.
... The shelf also facilitates the convergence of the warm East Australian Current (EAC) and colder oceanic currents (Armstrong et al. 2020). The convergence of these currents provides essential biophysical conditions, as well as periodic nutrient enrichment through upwellings, to support high concentrations of megafauna (Sleeman et al. 2007;Jaine et al. 2014). Key species including manta rays (Couturier et al. 2011), turtles (Limpus and Coffee 2019) and whales (Bolin et al. 2020) are known to use the EAC to facilitate their migrations to the southern Great Barrier Reef. ...
Article
Full-text available
Context Coastal beach environments provide habitats for marine megafauna, including turtles, rays, marine mammals and sharks. However, accessing these variable energy zones has been difficult for researchers by using traditional methods. Aims This study used drone-based aerial surveys to assess spatio-temporal variation of marine megafauna across south-eastern Queensland, Australia. Methods Drones were operated at five south-eastern Queensland beaches. Megafauna sightings and key variables including location, month and turbidity were analysed to assess variation across locations. Key results Overall, 3815 individual megafauna were detected from 3273 flights. There were significant differences in the composition of megafauna assemblages throughout the year and among beaches, with megafaunal sightings in >80% of flights conducted off North Stradbroke Island. Conclusions Strong temporal presence was found that is congruent with other studies examining seasonality. This supports the use of drones to provide ecological data for many hard-to-study megafauna species and help inform long-term sustainable management of coastal ecosystems. Implications Results indicated that environmental conditions can influence the probability of sighting marine megafauna during aerial surveys.
... These records were also insufficient to detect any movement patterns. Individual movements may depend on local food availability in the absence of a significant anthropogenic influence (Dewar et al. 2008;Anderson et al. 2011a, b;Armstrong et al. 2016;Jaine et al. 2014;Couturier et al. 2018). In fact, occurrence and movements of reef manta rays has been linked with zooplankton productivity. ...
Article
Full-text available
Reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi) face threats from human exploitation and activity in several regions of the world and crucial information on the ecology of the species is needed. The species is observed at several sites in all parts of the archipelago of New Caledonia where anthropogenic influence is presumed to be minimal. This study is the first to investigate the population of New Caledonia and focuses on its characteristics and its habitat use. Photographs of reef manta rays were collected directly from the authors (14.4%) between 2017 and 2020 and gathered from recreational divers and snorkelers (85.6%) from 11 sites around New Caledonia. The authors used the unique ventral coloration patterns of the manta rays that were clearly identifiable from 1741 of these photographs to identify 391 individuals and record their physical characteristics (sex, injuries, and colour morph) and resighting rates. These results highlight the widespread distribution of the species in the archipelago (11 sites) with little connectivity between all aggregations sites, with only 5.4% of the individuals observed at more than one site. Strong and long-term site fidelity was recorded at all studied sites through re-sighting rates (52.2% overall) and residency analysis. The population also records the world highest known proportion of melanistic manta rays (43%) to date, and a balanced male: female ratio (1.0:1.15). The analysis of injuries reported that 44.8% of all reef manta rays identified (n = 391) had noticeable wounds or injuries with no significant difference in the proportions of males and females injured. From these injured individuals only 9.8% of injuries judged to be of anthropogenic origin and 29.7% from attempted predation. Our study complements and correlates previous findings on this population that revealed strong site fidelity and low connectivity. The different characteristics of this population of reef manta rays also emphasize that concerns about species in New Caledonia are limited and that such favourable context needs to be preserved as reference for conservation.
... However, the relationships between oceanography and marine megafauna within the EAC are poorly known (Suthers et al., 2011). Some progress has been made using shark and ray movement data (Jaine et al., 2014;Niella et al., 2022Niella et al., , 2020, and satellite tracking has also demonstrated that increased sea surface temperatures in the EAC decreases little penguin Eudyptula minor foraging success (Carroll et al., 2016), but information at the assemblage-level for seabirds in the EAC is absent. ...
Thesis
Full-text available
Mobulid rays (family Mobulidae) are epipelagic zooplanktivores separated into two genera, Manta (2 species) and Mobula (9 species). Despite their economic importance in the tourism industry, mobulid rays currently face severe fisheries pressures worldwide which threatens the survival of many populations. These rays are considered long-lived and have low fecundity, which make them particularly vulnerable to fisheries exploitation. The paucity of data on the ecology and biology of these species has hindered the ability to effectively assess their conservation status and needs. Available information on mobulid species in peer-reviewed and grey literature was reviewed in this study to identify the critical knowledge gaps on their biology, ecology and conservation. The current lack of baseline data on mobulid species relates to the inherent challenges associated with studying large, wide-ranging pelagic animals. Manta rays (Manta spp.) predictably aggregate at particular sites where they can be easily approached by divers. These aggregation sites provide unique opportunities for scientists to investigate population dynamics of these otherwise elusive species. This thesis examined the population of the reef manta ray Manta alfredi off eastern Australia at several aggregation sites. The reef manta ray is the most common mobulid species encountered in east Australian waters and, although the species is a popular tourist attraction, information on its population biology and ecology was non-existent in this part of the world prior to this study. Photographic identification techniques were used to identify individual reef manta rays at eight sites along the coast between Osprey Reef, northern Great Barrier Reef, Queensland and the Solitary Island Marine Park, New South Wales. A total of 716 individuals were identified between 2007 and 2012, including 636 at Lady Elliot Island (LEI), southern Great Barrier Reef. Over 60% of individuals identified along this coastline were resighted at least once between 2007 and 2012 and the mean number of sightings per individual was 3. The sex ratio of this population was significantly biased toward females with an overall 1.3:1 female-to-male ratio observed. Reef manta rays are present all year around at LEI, although they are seen in higher numbers in winter, whereas they are mainly seen off North Stradbroke Island and Byron Bay from mid-spring to mid-autumn. Seasonal movements were observed between these locations with 56 individuals identified at both LEI and North Stradbroke Island (c. 380 km to the south), 12 at LEI and Byron bay (c. 500 km to the south) and one at LEI and North Solitary Island (c. 650 km to the south). Robust design population models were used to estimate the population size of the winter aggregation at LEI over a four-year period using the program MARK. The model estimated up to 532 individuals in the population within one winter season and that survivorship of reef manta rays between consecutive iii years was exceptionally high (φ=1). This abundance estimate is the largest assessed for a seasonal aggregation of reef manta rays at a single site. The superpopulation size estimate of this winter aggregation at LEI was 601 individuals over the 4-year study period. This study demonstrated that the habitat around LEI forms a key aggregation site for a large portion of the reef manta ray population in east Australian waters. Passive acoustic telemetry techniques were used to examine the residency and site fidelity patterns of the reef manta ray at LEI. Five acoustic receivers were moored around the island between June 2009 and September 2012 and a total of 33 acoustic transmitters were deployed on reef manta rays. All tagged animals returned to this site within their recorded period with some individuals visiting the area for up to 23 consecutive days. Using a general linear mixed effects modelling approach, we analysed the hourly visitation patterns of manta rays with respect to environmental and temporal parameters. Diel phase, wind direction, month, wind speed and moon phase all had significant effects on the presence of manta rays at LEI. Individuals were significantly more likely to be present during daytime and in calmer weather conditions, which may be linked with behavioural thermoregulation and cleaning activities. A strong seasonal pattern was detected with more individuals present in winter around LEI. Sea temperature was not directly linked with this pattern. It is hypothesised that food availability may be a key parameter for this seasonal aggregation. The high degree of site fidelity of some individuals at LEI underpins the importance of this site as a key habitat for reef manta rays. Stable isotope and fatty acid signature analyses were conducted on reef manta ray muscle tissue biopsy samples to examine the species’ assimilated diet. Muscle tissue δ15N and δ13C values, and the fatty acid signature were compared to those derived from different zooplankton functional groups (i.e. near-surface zooplankton collected during manta ray feeding events and non-feeding periods, epipelagic zooplankton, demersal zooplankton and several different zooplankton taxa). A trophic position estimate of three was derived from stable isotope δ15N values, and the relatively high levels of the fatty acid trophic marker 18:1ω9 (>13% of total fatty acids) confirmed that the reef manta ray is a secondary consumer. Near-surface and epipelagic zooplankton fatty acid composition indicated a dominant flagellate-based food source with high levels of docosahexaenoic acid (>20% of total fatty acids). The reef manta ray had relatively high levels of docosahexaenoic acid (>10% of total fatty acids) also indicating a flagellate-based food source in the diet. High ω6 fatty acid levels (>17% of total fatty acids) and slightly enriched δ13C values (-17.3‰) in reef manta ray tissue suggest that the species does not feed predominantly on near surface pelagic zooplankton, but obtains a major part of its diet from another source. The closest match is with demersal zooplankton, suggesting it is an important part of the reef manta ray diet. The ability to feed on demersal zooplankton is likely linked to iv the horizontal and vertical movement patterns of the reef manta ray. These new insights into the habitat use and feeding ecology of the reef manta ray will assist in the effective evaluation of its conservation needs. The current study has expanded our knowledge of a regionally important population of the reef manta ray, and has provided new insights into key aspects of the species’ ecology. This thesis used a combination of methods based on practical and rigorous approaches and brings new perspectives to the study of wide ranging marine species. ‘Citizen science’ provided important empirical data on the longevity, site affinity, seasonal movement and distribution of the reef manta ray population along the eastern seaboard of Australia. Robust sampling design and appropriate population models were used to estimate the population size of a large annual aggregation of manta ray across several consecutive years. Acoustic telemetry data were analysed through an original statistical approach able to integrate individual behaviour of the tagged individuals. Non-lethal approaches were used to study the diet of reef manta rays and provided results that challenge key aspects of the current paradigm about the diet and feeding ecology of the species. These methods are replicable and will contribute to the standardisation of methodologies and modelling in mobulid species research.
Article
Full-text available
During the winter months, from June to September, humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae breed and calve in the waters of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) after migrating north from Antarctic waters. Clearly defined wintering areas for breeding and calving comparable to those identified in other parts of the world have not yet been identified for humpback whales in the GBR Marine Park (GBRMP), mainly because of its large size, which prohibits broad-scale surveys. To identify important wintering areas in the GBRMP, we developed a predictive spatial habitat model using the Maxent modelling method and presence-only sighting data from non-dedicated aerial surveys. The model was further validated using a small independent satellite tag data set of 12 whales migrating north into the GBR. The model identified restricted ranges in water depth (30 to 58 m, highest probability 49 m) and sea surface temperature (21 to 23 degrees C, highest probability 21.8 degrees C) and identified 2 core areas of higher probability of whale occurrence in the GBRMP, which correspond well with the movements of satellite tagged whales. We propose that one of the identified core areas is a potentially important wintering area for humpback whales and the other a migration route. With an estimated increase in port and coastal development and shipping activity in the GBRMP and a rapidly increasing population of whales recovering from whaling off the east Australian coast, the rate of human interactions with whales is likely to increase. Identifying important areas for breeding and calving is essential for the future management of human interactions with breeding humpback whales.
Article
Full-text available
Photo-identification techniques were used to investigate temporal and spatial distributions of Carcharias taurus (Rafinesque, 1810) in relation to maturity, sex and pregnancy status at 19 sites along Australia’s eastern coastline. Of 931 individual sharks identified between 2004 and 2008, 479 were female (271 mature, 208 immature) and 452 male (288 mature, 164 immature). Mature, non-gravid females and mature males were mostly observed in the southern to central parts of this species range, along the eastern coast of Australia, in early summer to early winter. These sharks subsequently moved northward, and mating occurred in late spring to early summer in waters off the coast of northern New South Wales and southern Queensland. Pregnant C. taurus aggregated at Wolf Rock in southern Queensland, at the most northerly part of their known range, from late summer to early winter. These sharks subsequently migrated south to pup in central and southern waters of their range in late winter to late spring. Immature sharks of both sexes moved less than mature sharks, showed no synchronised migration patterns, and were mostly restricted to central and southern waters. The improved understanding of sex- and maturity-based migration of C. taurus provided here should facilitate a conservation strategy appropriate for this species in Australian waters.
Article
Full-text available
Recent successful efforts to increase protection for manta rays has highlighted the lack of basic ecological information, including vertical and horizontal movement patterns, available for these species. We deployed pop-up satellite archival transmitting tags on nine reef manta rays, Manta alfredi, to determine diving behaviors and vertical habitat use. Transmitted and archived data were obtained from seven tagged mantas over deployment periods of 102-188 days, including three recovered tags containing 2.6 million depth, temperature, and light level data points collected every 10 or 15 seconds. Mantas frequented the upper 10 m during daylight hours and tended to occupy deeper water throughout the night. Six of the seven individuals performed a cumulative 76 deep dives (>150 m) with one individual reaching 432 m, extending the known depth range of this coastal, reef-oriented species and confirming its role as an ecological link between epipelagic and mesopelagic habitats. Mean vertical velocities calculated from high-resolution dive data (62 dives >150 m) from three individuals suggested that mantas may use gliding behavior during travel and that this behavior may prove more efficient than continuous horizontal swimming. The behaviors in this study indicate manta rays provide a previously unknown link between the epi- and mesopelagic layers of an extremely oligotrophic marine environment and provide evidence of a third marine species that utilizes gliding to maximize movement efficiency.
Article
Full-text available
Assessing the trophic role and interaction of an animal is key to understanding its general ecology and dynamics. Conventional techniques used to elucidate diet, such as stomach content analysis, are not suitable for large threatened marine species. Non-lethal sampling combined with biochemical methods provides a practical alternative for investigating the feeding ecology of these species. Stable isotope and signature fatty acid analyses of muscle tissue were used for the first time to examine assimilated diet of the reef manta ray Manta alfredi, and were compared with different zooplankton functional groups (i.e. near-surface zooplankton collected during manta ray feeding events and non-feeding periods, epipelagic zooplankton, demersal zooplankton and several different zooplankton taxa). Stable isotope δ(15)N values confirmed that the reef manta ray is a secondary consumer. This species had relatively high levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) indicating a flagellate-based food source in the diet, which likely reflects feeding on DHA-rich near-surface and epipelagic zooplankton. However, high levels of ω6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and slightly enriched δ(13)C values in reef manta ray tissue suggest that they do not feed solely on pelagic zooplankton, but rather obtain part of their diet from another origin. The closest match was with demersal zooplankton, suggesting it is an important component of the reef manta ray diet. The ability to feed on demersal zooplankton is likely linked to the horizontal and vertical movement patterns of this giant planktivore. These new insights into the habitat use and feeding ecology of the reef manta ray will assist in the effective evaluation of its conservation needs.
Article
Full-text available
Southern Hemisphere humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae migrate from wintering grounds in tropical latitudes to feeding areas in the Antarctic Ocean. It has been hypo- thesized that the population wintering off eastern South America migrates to feeding grounds near the Antarctic Peninsula (ca. 65° S, 60° W) and/or South Georgia (54° 20' S, 36° 40' W), but direct evi- dence to support this has never been presented. Between 19 and 28 October 2003, 11 humpback whales (7 females and 4 males) were instrumented with satellite transmitters off Brazil (ca. 18° 30' S, 39° 30' W) to investigate their movements and migratory destinations. Mean tracking time for the whales was 39.6 d (range = 5 to 205 d) and mean distance travelled was 1673 km per whale (range = 60 to 7258 km). Movements on the wintering ground showed marked individual variation. Departure dates from the Brazilian coast ranged from late October to late December. Whales migrated south through oceanic waters at an average heading of 170° and travelled a relatively direct, linear path from wintering to feeding grounds. Two whales were tracked to feeding grounds in offshore areas near South Georgia and in the South Sandwich Islands (58° S, 26° W) after a 40 to 60 d long migration. Historical catches and current sighting information support these migratory routes and destinations. This study is the first to describe the movements of humpback whales in the western South Atlantic Ocean.
Article
Presents a cross-disciplinary approach to the study of marine ecosystems. Attention is focused upon the ecological basis for maintenance and variability of populations of exploitable marine fish and invertebrates. The use of nested scales, where a variety of different processes act simultaneously but with different characteristic extents and durations, is emphasised as a basic conceptual framework for study of the marine ecosystem.
Article
Animals may use a variety of search patterns to locate resources when the exact locations of those resources are unknown. Theoretical and empirical evidence suggests that the optimal type of random walk will vary based on the distribution of resources such as prey. Once resources are located, the animal may utilize a movement strategy that allows it to remain within a small area and maximize resource acquisition (area-restricted searching, ARS). Detecting the location of ARS zones is important, as it identifies profitable habitat to the animal, although such analysis is rarely conducted with fishes. We utilized correlated random walk (CRW), fractal, and first passage time (FPT) analysis to quantify the response of planktivorous manta rays Manta alfredi to spatial scale and identify locations of ARS within lagoons at Palmyra Atoll. Mantas used CRWs at small spatial scales to move between prey patches, but not at larger scales as they performed home-ranging behavior. One domain was located with straighter movements at scales <330 m, and more tortuous movements at scales >330 m. ARS was located adjacent to ledges with high abundance of plankton, or within channels. Fractal and FPT analyses suggest that mantas used patches that were 5 to 49% of the scale of their activity space over short time periods (days). Quantitative analytical tools help explain observed patterns of movements and demonstrate the importance of lagoon habitats to these macro-planktivores.