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50 RFP 1/2014 – Volume 9
Material systematisation
P Composed and hybrid materials and products L7
P Production of composed and hybrid materials and products
P Inorganic substances and materials Organic substances and materials L6
T Controlled inorganic reactions Controlled organic synthesis Controlled biosynthesis
T Artifi cial technology
PNatural inorganic macromolecular
(non-living natural products – minerals)
Natural organic macromolecular compounds
(living natural products – living organisms) L1
T Geological processes of non-living Biosynthesis (synthesis of living)
P Macromolecular compounds (substances) L0
...
P Matter (quarks, 10-20 m) L-x
T Natural technology
T General technology Levels
T – Technology, technique, process; P – Product
Igor C
ˇatic´ (retired)
igor.catic@fsb.hr
Gordana Baric´,
Maja Rujnic´-Sokele
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval
Architecture, University of Zagreb, Croatia
Tab. 1: From quarks and gluons to composed and hybrid materials, and composed and hybrid products
1. Introduction
In our previous texts we discussed the glo-
balisation of tools [1, 2]. One of the ideas
that originated from these papers is the
discussion about the meaning of the term
poly mers [2]. We must take into account the
fact that we can differentiate in technolo-
gy between substances, materials and prod-
ucts made from substances, like thermoset
switches, rubber tyres, concrete panels or
ceramic insulators.
This text has multiple purposes. After the
analysis we came to the conclusion that the
word polymers covers a wide range of sub-
stances and materials, from proteins to poly-
ethylenes or glass-reinforced plastics. For
instance, bags made of paper, fabric, and
polyethylene, are all organic polymeric bags.
Journals, magazines and newspapers are
full of words beginning with bio: biofuel,
bioplastics, biocosmetics and so on. Is all be-
ginning with the syllable “bio” an univer-
sal solution for our problems with climate
changes, famine in the world, and food as a
weapon [4]? The most important purpose of
this text is to improve the education at all
levels in the concept of materials, and not
just in plastics, metal, or wood. One of the
aims is to stimulate the better systematisa-
tion and classifi cation of materials than the
one proposed here.
2. Observation
For more than 40 years, one part of our
research can be described as synthesio-
logical one. This means that we are try-
ing to fi nd some laws or interconnections
between knowledge from very different
sources [5, 6].
Our study of the infl uence of rubber and
plastics on globalisation was based on the
theory of systems in general technology [7].
We have come to the conclusion that human
beings were using at fi rst natural and then
man-made stone tools, mostly for separa-
tion of the natural polymers: wood, bones
and skin, respectively between 3.4 and 2.6
million years ago [1, 2].
This gave us the idea to propose the new
systematisation of materials, from quarks to
composed and hybrid materials and prod-
ucts.
3. Basic ideas for the
new systematisation
3.1 Introduction into basic ideas
The proposal for the new systematisation
of substances and materials is based on some
ideas which we have used in the systemati-
sation of macromolecular compounds. The
fi rst one originates from the Greek philoso-
pher Aristotle: without exception, each level
of matter is preceded by the creation of its
shape [8].
This means that primary shaping precedes
the creation of each level of matter above
the quarks and gluons. The second important
Polymers and non-polymers –
a new systematisation of
substances and materials
I. C
ˇatic´, G. Baric´, M. Rujnic´-Sokele
For a very long time materials have traditionally been classified in two main
groups: metals and non-metals. Now we need a new paradigm in substances and
materials (macromolecular compounds) and product classification. One demand
for this new paradigm is based on the definition of polymers and their quantity.
The second reason is the increased availability of composed and hybrid materials
and products. The third one is the possibility of better understanding the nature,
interconnection or comparability of substances and materials, which are basically
made from the same basic group. The new classification, according to the pro-
posed criterions, divides materials into polymers and non-polymers. Both groups
can be inorganic or organic ones. Today the materials are mostly man-made, so
the use of the word natural materials e. g. for cotton is unjustified.
RFP 1/2014 – Volume 9 51
Tab. 2: From inorganic and organic macromolecular compounds to non-living organic natural products; A – in-
organic non-polymers, B – inorganic polymers, C – organic polymers, D – organic non-polymers [e. g. 4]
PNon-living organic natural product
(e. g. natural gas) L5
PPhytopolymers
(e. g. wood)
Animal polymers
(e. g. bones, skins) L4
Living organic natural products
PBiopolymeric organisms
(microorganisms and macroorganisms) L3
P
Natural:
• Native metals:
gold, mercury
• Metal ores
Natural:
• Clay
• Mica (glimmer)
• Zeolites
• Zircon
Natural:
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
• Polysaccharides
Natural
P
Other natural inor-
ganic macromolecu-
lar compounds
(non-polymers)
Natural gepolymers
(natural inorganic
polymers) Natural organic polymers
Other natural
organic macromo-
lecular compounds
(e. g. lipids)
L2
AB C D
P
Natural inorganic macromolecular
compounds (non-living natural
products – minerals)
Natural organic macromolecular compounds
(living natural products – living organisms) L1
T Geological processes of non-living Biosynthesis (synthesis of living)
P Macromolecular compounds (substance) L0
T – Technology, technique, process; P – Products
idea is based on experience. The observation,
discovery precedes the invention [3]. Finally,
for our explanation the syntagma of general
technology is of importance as the common
name for natural technology and artifi cial
technology [9].
Nature has resulted from the action in
natural technology. The questions are – when
did artifi cial technology start, with what
tools and what did they process? The last
question originated from Alger’s defi nition
of polymers [10]. Table 1 shows the results
of natural and artifi cial technology.
3.2 From quarks and gluons to com-
posed and hybrid materials and
products
The general technology starts with a
natural one. The natural material tech-
nology starts with quarks and connected
with gluons in one moment development
resulted in macromolecular compounds
(substance, level L0). The macromolecular
compounds have been shaped (formed) by
geological non-living processes into natu-
ral inorganic materials – minerals (L1). The
results of biosynthesis are natural organic
macromolecular compounds – living organ-
isms (L1).
The artificial technology started when
human beings invented the procedure of
manufacturing stone choppers and fl akes
(products) in Gona, Ethiopia, about 2.6 mil-
lion years ago. This was the starting point
of human material culture [11]. One of the
earliest artefacts ever discovered is a drink-
ing vessel made of sun-dried clay [12]. We
understood sun-dried clay as the fi rst arti-
fi cial material which is dated to pre-historic
times. The drinking vessel made of sun-dried
clay is connected with Aristotle’s sentence:
“There is a relationship between the form
and the matter; the form being always the
fi rst, generally and in any particular case.”
This led to a very important conclusion: crea-
tion of form, primary shaping but also pri-
mary structuring, precedes the creation of
any level of matter. For example, the mak-
ing of thermoset, rubber, and ceramic ma-
terials precedes primary shaping. This is the
reason why we can not see these materials;
they always have the necessary form (e. g. a
thermoset boat, rubber baffl e, ceramic vase
or concrete pillar).
By controlled inorganic reactions, we get
inorganic substances and products. By con-
trolled organic synthesis and biosynthesis
we get organic substances and materials. In
some cases, we are making products which
demands fi rst to be primary shaped and then
by chemical reactions the necessary mate-
rial is made (e. g. ceramic, rubber and ther-
moset parts).
The production of composed products is
relatively new, the earliest man-made prod-
ucts were formed bricks for building con-
struction several thousand years old, made
from straw and mud [13]. Now we have com-
posed materials like glass reinforced poly-
amide. Hybrid materials are new, e. g. organic-
inorganic polymers like poly(organosiloxane).
Hybrid products can be combinations made
from two non-living materials (e. g. plastic/
rubber moulding) or a combination of living
and non-living (e. g. cyborgs).
4. What is the meaning of the
word polymer?
At one moment during the history of
nature, macromolecular compounds were
constituted. These macromolecular com-
pounds can be inorganic and organic ones
[14]. (K. Adamic´ in [15] stresses the fact
that the terms inorganic (non-organic) and
organic are not suffi ciently precise. For exam-
ple, water is an inorganic compound. The con-
tents of living beings can include up to 90 %
water, but we assume that they are organic.)
A common name for natural and synthetic
substances and materials with a basic ingre-
dient system of macromolecules, macromo-
lecular compounds with repeating units, is
polymers [e. g. 16 – 19].
The name polymers is an umbrella term for
natural and synthetic substances and mate-
rials with the basic component being a sys-
tem of macromolecules, i. e. macro molecular
compounds with repeating units [10]. Based
on this defi nition it is possible to differen-
tiate four basic groups of macro molecular
compounds: the inorganic macromolecular
compounds (inorganic polymers and inor-
ganic non-polymers) and organic macro-
molecular compounds (organic polymers
and organic non-polymers) [2]. According
to this criterion, there are inorganic and
organic polymers as well as inorganic and
organic substances and materials, which are
not polymers.
52 RFP 1/2014 – Volume 9
Material systematisation
P
Metal
• Steels,
alloys,
Cu - alloys,
etc.
Thermoplastics
• E. g. polysila-
zanes
Elastomers
• Polysiloxanes
Ceramics
• Alumina
Thermosets
• PF, UP, PU,
etc.
Thermoplastics
• PE, PVC, PS,
PA, etc.
Elastomers
• Vulcanised rubber
(from synthetic
rubber)
• Thermoplastic rubber
Thermosets
• PF, UP, PU,
etc.
Thermoplastics
• PE, PVC, PS,
PA, bio-fibre from
milk (protein-based),
etc.
Elastomers
• Natural rubber
(latex)
• Planted rubber
Fossil-based Bio-based
P
Inorganic non-
polymeric
substances and
materials
Inorganic synthetic
polymers
(non-living) Organic synthetic polymers (from non-living) Chemically modifi ed biopolymers from natural and
cultivated products (from living) E. g. oils
P Inorganic substances and materials Organic substances and materials L6
T Controlled inorganic reactions Controlled organic synthesis Controlled biosynthesis
T Artifi cial technology
Tab. 3: Activities and results in artifi cial technology
If we carefully read the references, we
can conclude that there are numerous inor-
ganic and organic substances and materials
which fulfi l the basic criterion of polymers
that they are macromolecular compounds
with repeating units.
The fact that we have only two groups
of substances and materials – polymers and
non-polymers, led us to the idea to propose
a new systematisation of substances and
materials.
5. Proposal for systematisa-
tion of substances and
materials
From the point of view of material
technology [20] all starts with primary
shaping by joining of quarks and gluons
(tab. 1).
The following steps in natural technology,
up to colloids and nanoparticles as well as
macromolecular compounds, are beyond our
interest. Our intention is to describe some
details in the development of natural tech-
nology and artifi cial technology, starting
from macromolecular compounds [9].
5.1 Natural technology
The two first basic groups of natural
technologies are (tab. 2): geological pro-
cesses of the non-living materials and bio-
synthesis (synthesis of the living). First, we
will follow the inorganic side of natural
technologies.
5.1.1 From geological non-living
processes and biosynthesis
to non-living organic natural
products
We assume that the fi rst shaped product
in nature was the inorganic polymer, min-
eral zircon (Zr[SiO4]) and that it is 4.3 to 4.4
billion years old (L2) [21]. Other examples of
natural inorganic polymers or natural geo-
polymers are clay, mica, and zeolite. Natu-
ral non-polymer inorganic macromolecular
compounds can be native metals, like gold
and mercury, or metal ores (L2).
The basic organic polymers, biopolymers
with very complicated and complex forms
and structures, are proteins, nucleic acids,
and polysaccharides. They are at least 3.5
billion years old [21]. Non-polymer organic
macromolecular compounds include lipids
(L2) [22].
From proteins, nucleic acids, and polysac-
charides at one moment in history appeared
the living organisms, fi rst microorganisms
and macroorganisms (L3), followed by plants
and animals (L4). The death and decompo-
sition of living organisms resulted in the
non-living organic natural products: crude
oil, natural gas, and coal (L5). This means
that fossil fuels are natural raw materials,
pure products from nature.
5.1.2 From human beings to
artifi cial technology
Through evolution of animals, at one mo-
ment in history our predecessor, the human
being, stood upright and began to walk on
two feet, 6 or 7 million years ago.
What were the human beings doing in the
span from 6 or 7 million years BC to 2.6 mil-
lion years BC? This was the beginning of the
use of natural tools: hand, stone, etc. In this
period, the human beings observed that they
could use sharp stones to separate some nat-
ural products or work on them. Which ones?
The answer is: natural inorganic and organic
materials. They worked on natural organic
materials – wood, bones and skin, as well as
on inorganic materials like stone.
The answer to the question when did the
artifi cial, man-made technology begin, has
two phases. Humans fi rst observed that with
a naturally sharp item (e. g. sharp-edged
stone) it is possible to treat materials like
bones (a natural polymer of animal origin)
and we predicted that the separation of
natural materials was older than 2.6 million
years [2]. This has been proved in a recent
report that presented the evidence of natural
stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal
tissues 3.4 million years ago at Dikika, Ethio-
pia [23]. Human beings invented the proce-
dure of manufacturing stone choppers and
fl akes (products) in Gona, Ethiopia, about 2.6
million years ago. This was the starting point
of human material culture [24].
5.2 Artifi cial technology
5.2.1 History of artifi cial technology
We now know well that the separation of
natural polymers is very old as well as the in-
RFP 1/2014 – Volume 9 53
vention and manufacturing of the fi rst tool.
In [1] we have described two polymeric arte-
facts. The oldest wooden artefact is wooden
spear II, 2.3 m long, from Schöningen, Ger-
many, 400,000 years old [25, 26]. A very old
artefact made of animal polymer, from a
femur of a cave bear’s youngling might rep-
resent the fl ute. The fl ute made by a Nean-
derthal man, found in Divje babe I, Slovenia,
is around 55,000 years old [27, 28, 12]. The
natural organic polymer in the femur is os-
sein, collagen from bones. Much later, dur-
ing the Paleolithic period, one of the very
widespread biopolymeric materials was ivo-
ry. Ivory is a common name for some animal
natural polymers like: elephant tusks from
mammoths or Siberian ivory, teeth from
sea-cows, walruses, narwhals, hippopota-
muses, bones from horses, and shells. Until
now, the fi rst artefacts made using stone
tools were from mammoth ivory and were
found in the cave of Vogelherd, Germany
[29].
In this text, our intention is to discuss four
main points in developing artifi cial materials,
from ceramic to synthetic plastics (tab. 3).
5.2.2 Ceramic products
One of the earliest artefacts ever discov-
ered is a drinking vessel made of sun-dried
clay. We will analyse through the eyes of
engineers connected with the production of
plastic and rubber parts the following sen-
tences. “Clays exhibit plasticity when mixed
with water in certain proportions. When dry,
clay becomes fi rm and when fi red in a kiln,
permanent physical and chemical reactions
occur. These reactions, among other changes,
cause the clay to be converted into a ceramic
material” [30].
Our reading is the following. Mineral, in-
organic polymer, clay is compounded with
water in certain proportion. Then is this
compound primary shaped in desired form
of earthenware, stoneware and porcelain,
followed by drying and furnace fi ring. Un-
less the shaped compound is fi red, this ma-
terial possesses no application properties.
This is the case of reactive primary shap-
ing, so often in the production of plastics
(always for thermosets and in some cases
for thermoplastics) and rubber parts. A very
important conclusion from this analysis is, as
mentioned before, that we can not see ther-
mosets, rubber or ceramic materials. We see
only the products made of these materials.
This means that the application properties
are very strongly dependent on the geo metry
of the part.
There follows the question: Since when
have the products starting from inorganic
polymer, clay, been produced? One of the
world’s oldest ceramic artefacts is the Ve-
nus of Dolni Vestonice, from the Czech Re-
public, 26,000 years old [31]. There are some
indications that the oldest ceramic part can
be several thousand years older, but without
verifi ed sources.
One very important remark is that owing
to their excellent application properties, the
products made of inorganic polymeric ma-
terials are very durable.
5.2.3 Metals
The metals (inorganic non-polymers) from
ores are relatively new. In the history of met-
als, gold was discovered by human beings.
In the Stone Age man learned to fashion
gold into jewellery and ornaments, learn-
ing that it could be formed into sheets and
wires easily. However, its malleability, which
allows it to be formed into very thin sheets
(0.000005 inches), ensured that it had no
utilitarian value and early uses were only
decorative. After gold, copper and copper
alloys have been discovered and developed
about 6,000 BC [32].
5.2.4 Rubber products
Hosler, who reconstructs the history of
making rubber parts, found evidence that the
Mayan people in ancient Mesoamerica made
rubber and used it as far back as 1,600 BC
[33]. In their new research Hosler and Tarka-
nian indicate that not only did these pre-Co-
lumbian people know how to process the sap
of the local rubber trees along with juice from
a vine to make rubber, but they also perfected
a system of chemical processing that could
fi ne-tune the properties of rubber depend-
ing on its intended use. For the soles of their
sandals, they made a strong, wear-resistant
P
• Organic product of synthesis
and inorganic polymers (e. g.
thermoplastic material and glass
fibres)
• Organic product of synthesis (e. g.
polyethylene fibres and thermo-
plastic matrix)
• Organic product of synthesis and
cultivated products (e. g. thermo-
set matrix and jute)
• Organic product of synthesis and
inorganic polymers (e. g. thermo-
set matrix and glass fibres)
• Organic product of synthesis and
metals (e. g. metallic reinforce-
ment agent and plastic matrix)
• Organic multilayer fibres (e. g.
bullet proof vests)
• Plastic/rubber/ceramic
products
• Hybrid textiles (e. g.
carbon/aramid, aramid/
glass)
Cyborgs:
• Animal
• Human
• Inorganic-organic
polymers (e. g.
polymer-zeolite
hybrid)
• Organic-inorganic
polymers (e. g.
poly(organosiloxanes))
• Organic xxx + organ-
ic basic polymer (xxx
and proteins)
• Organic polymer +
organic non-polymer
(e. g. poly(lactic-
coglycolic acid) and
lipide)
P Composite materials Composite products Hybrid products (non-living) Hybrid products (living and
non-living) Hybrid materials
P Hybrid products (living and/or non-living materials) Hybrid materials
P Composite materials and products (non-living) Hybrid materials and products
P Composed materials and composed products L7
Tab. 4: Composed materials and composed products
54 RFP 1/2014 – Volume 9
Material systematisation
Bags
Plastics: PE (carrier bages – fossil)
Bags
Plastics: PE (carrier bags – bioplastics)
Cotton bags (planted)
Paper bags (carrier bags and bags
from natural or planted wood)
Organics synthetic polymers (from non-living)
Fossil plastics
Chemically modiefi ed biopolymers from natural and
cultivated products (from living)
Bioplastics
Tab. 5: Fossil plastics and bioplastics – nature of bags (excerpt from table 1)
version. For the rubber balls used in the games
that were the central part of their religious
ceremonies, they processed it for maximum
bounciness. And for rubber bands and adhe-
sives used for ornamental wear and for at-
taching blades to shafts, they produced rub-
ber optimised for resilience and strength [34].
5.2.5 Chemically modifi ed organic
polymers from natural and culti-
vated products (from the living)
Our intention is just to mention the be-
ginnings in each group of materials. In the
group of chemically modifi ed organic pol-
ymers, casein-based plastics are probably
the first ones. Schobinger (1500 – 1585)
described the production of artifi cial horn,
which means the casein plastics. But, Schob-
inger wrote that the production of artifi cial
horn is older than him [35].
Now we are witnesses of the renaissance
of bioplastics [36].
5.2.6 Synthetic plastics and rubber
Synthetic plastics and rubber can be made
by different polymerisations from natural
sources: crude oil, natural gas or coal or from
planted products: corn or potato, etc. (tab. 3).
The fi rst synthetic plastic was phenol for-
maldehyde (L. Baekeland, 1907) and the
fi rst synthetic rubber was methyl isoprene
(F. Hofmann, 1909) [37].
5.2.7 Inorganic and organic
plastics and rubber
When we are talking about plastics and
rubber, we pay attention practically only to
organic products. But inorganic plastics and
rubbers are more and more signifi cant in the
industry and in education. So the forecasts
for these groups of polymers deserve more
and more attention (e. g. silicone parts).
5.2.8 Composed and hybrid
materials and products
Precisely here we are talking about man-
made composed and hybrid materials and
products. (Wood is a natural composite ma-
terial with cellulose as natural polymer.)
The term composed materials and com-
posed products include composite materials
(e. g. reinforced thermoplastics) and com-
posite products (e. g. carbon fi bres reinforced
epoxy products). Other groups of composed
materials are hybrid materials shown in
table 1.
Composed materials are more and more
frequent in practice: composites and hy-
brids in any possible combination. This fi eld
demands more work on systematisation. A
fi rst approximation is given in table 4, but
this will not be described in details. Very
important hybrid products are cyborgs,
combinations of living (born human being)
and non-living parts made from polymers
or metals.
6. Social criterion for the
categorisation of plastics
The main subject of interest of the authors
of this paper is the fi eld of plastics and rub-
ber. So we will prove this new systematisa-
tion for this fi eld.
There are different divisions of plastics and
rubber. The two most frequent ones are the
division based on the fundamental processes
of polymerisation and on the behaviour of
poly meric materials at elevated temperatures.
Bioplastics is not a new term, but they
participate only with about 0.5 % in over-
all production of plastics [36]. However, a
number of leading global companies impose
bioplastics as an absolute hit, and a universal
solution for all the world’s problems, particu-
larly for climate change.
This favouring of bioplastics was especially
evident during the last two K fairs in Düssel-
dorf, Germany (2007 and 2010). The way of
presenting the advantages of bioplastics and
propaganda that followed, prompted the au-
thors to respond [38, 39]. In fact, they came
to the conclusion that such propaganda that
favours bioplastics as a form of plastics de-
rived from renewable biomass sources, such
as vegetable oil, corn starch, pea starch, or
microbiota, can cause unforeseeable conse-
quences for fossil plastics image and plastics
in general.
The authors had in mind the ambiguity of
converting food into plastics and especially
into biofuel [40]. This led the authors to add
a new criterion for the classifi cation of plas-
tics to the existing criteria, according to the
origin of the input into the process [41]. The
original criterion for this type of the division
is a consequence of culturological analysis
of using planted products for the produc-
tion of bioplastics and biofuel [42]. This is a
so-called social criterion of evaluating the
technical solution, and some examples and
the explanation for this criterion are pre-
sented next.
Substances and materials on the basis
of plants and animals have been regular-
ly called natural products [43]. This is only
partly true. Today, they are rarely used in
the production of living natural products
that would justify the name of natural sub-
stances or material. Such an exception is
forest timber, Hevea brasiliensis (rubber
tree - material) from which we receive the
sap-like extract known as latex (substance)
which can be collected and is the primary
source of natural rubber [44]. As a rule, the
grown matter from the living is used, e. g.
cellulose can be obtained from natural or
planted wood. By modifying cellulose we
make e. g. cellulose acetate (CA). It is simi-
lar with raw rubber; it is possible to distin-
guish between natural, grown, plantation,
and synthetic rubber. This should be distin-
RFP 1/2014 – Volume 9 55
P
Metal
• Steels, alloys,
Cu - alloys, etc.
Thermoplastics
• E. g. polysilazanes
Elastomers
• Polysiloxanes
Ceramics
• Alumina
Thermosets
• PF, UP, PU,
etc.
Thermoplastics
• PE, PVC, PS,
PA, etc.
Elastomers
• Vulcanised rubber
(from synthetic rubber)
• Thermoplastic rubber
Thermosets
• PF, UP, PU,
etc.
Thermoplastics
• PE, PVC, PS,
PA, bio-fibre from
milk (protein-
based), etc.
Elastomers
• Natural
rubber
(latex)
• Planted
rubber
Fossil-based Bio-based
P
Inorganic non-
polymeric
substances and
materials
Inorganic synthetic
polymers
(non-living) Organic synthetic polymers (from non-living) Chemically modifi ed biopolymers from natural and
cultivated products (from living) E. g. oils
P Inorganic substances and materials Organic substances and materials L6
T Controlled inorganic reactions Controlled organic synthesis Controlled biosynthesis
T Artifi cial technology
PNon-living organic natural product
(e. g. natural gas) L5
PPhytopolymers
(e. g. wood)
Animal polymers
(e. g. bones, skins) L4
Living organic natural products
PBiopolymeric organisms
(microorganisms and macroorganisms) L3
P
Natural:
• Native metals:
gold, mercury
• Metal ores
Natural:
• Clay
• Mica (glimmer)
• Zeolites
• Zircon
Natural:
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
• Polysaccharides
Natural
P
Other natural inorganic macromolecular
compounds
(non-polymers)
Natural gepolymers (natural inorganic polymers) Natural organic polymers
Other
natural organic
macro molecular
compounds
(e. g. lipids)
L2
AB CD
P Natural inorganic macromolecular compounds (non-living natural products – minerals) Natural organic macromolecular compounds (living natural
products – living organisms) L1
T Geological processes of non – living Biosynthesis (synthesis of living)
P Macromolecular compounds (substance) L0
P Composed and hybrid materials and products L7
P Production of composed and hybrid materials and products
P Inorganic substances and materials Organic substances and materials L6
TControlled inorganic
reactions
Controlled organic
synthesis Controlled biosynthesis
T Artifi cial technology
PNatural inorganic macromolecular
(non-living natural products – minerals)
Natural organic macromolecular compounds
(living natural products – living organisms) L1
T Geological processes of non-living Biosynthesis (Synthesis of living)
P Macromolecular compounds (substances) L0
...
P Matter (Quarks, 10-20 m) L-x
T Natural technology
T General technology Levels
P
• Organic product of synthesis and
inorganic polymers (e. g. thermoplastic
material and glass fibres)
• Organic product of synthesis (e. g. poly-
ethylene fibres and thermoplastic matrix)
• Organic product of synthesis and culti-
vated products (e. g. thermoset matrix
and jute)
• Organic product of synthesis and inor-
ganic polymers (e. g. thermoset matrix
and glass fibres)
• Organic product of synthesis and metals
(e. g. metallic reinforcement agent and
plastic matrix)
• Organic multilayer fibres (e. g. bullet
proof vests)
• Plastic/rubber/ceramic products
• Hybrid textiles (e. g. carbon/
aramid, aramid/glass)
Cyborgs:
• Animal
• Human
• Inorganic-organic poly-
mers (e. g. polymer-
zeolite hybrid)
• Organic-inorganic
polymers (e. g.
poly(organosiloxanes))
• Organic xxx + organic
basic polymer (xxx and
proteins)
• Organic polymer +
organic non-polymer
(e. g. poly(lactic-cogly-
colic acid) and lipide)
P Composite materials Composite products Hybrid products (non-living) Hybrid products (living and non-
living) Hybrid materials
P Hybrid products (living and/or non-living materials) Hybrid materials
P Composite materials and products (non-living) Hybrid materials and products
P Composed materials and composed products L7
Tab. 6: Summary of the new systematisation of substances and materials
56 RFP 1/2014 – Volume 9
Material systematisation
guished regardless of whether the proper-
ties of natural and cultivated rubber match
or do not match. Starch, sugar, and castor
oil are made from cultivated plants such as
maize, sugarcane, and castor beans, Corn
(grain and stems) is used to make plastic
intermediates: lactic acid, homopolymers
and copolymers of p-dioxin (PDO), metha-
nol and ethylene glycol [45]. On the basis
of sugar from sugar cane, polyethylene (PE)
and poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), for instance,
can be made. Polyurethane (PU) and polya-
mide (PA) are products of castor oil [46].
Cotton is also grown on plantations. From
the grown, the wool fl eece is obtained from
the domestic sheep shearing. Silk can also
be a natural object, but it is most commonly
farmed from silk worms. The main charac-
teristic of natural organic polymers is the
forming by reactions of biopolymerisation.
From this analysis we have come to the
conclusion that according to the origin of
the substances used as input into the pro-
cess, the plastics can be bioplastics or fossil
plastics. This is a new, additional criterion for
the division of plastics. At the same time, this
is the base for one of the conclusions from
this paper. Bioplastics are also man-made
organic polymers and thus just one group
of plastics, and at the moment with a very
low share in the total production of plastics.
Concerning the environmental impact, the
criterion for division of plastics can not be
the origin of the input into the process, but
only the footprints.
7. Bioplastics and fossil plas-
tics – sources for bags
We decided to make an excerpt from ta-
ble 1 to emphasise two points. The fi rst one
is the origin of inputs into the fabrication
process of fossil plastics and bioplastics
(tab. 5). The second is to stress that all the
bags in use now are organic ones (tab. 5).
The dominant theory is that fossil fuels are
formed from dead plants or animals. But this
theory has never been proven. So, we de-
cided to cite the researchers from the Royal
Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm
[46, 47]. They wrote: “We have managed to
prove that fossils from animals and plants
are not necessary for crude oil and natural
gas to be generated. The fi ndings are revolu-
tionary since this means, on one hand, that it
will be much easier to fi nd these sources of
energy and on the other hand, that they can
be found all over the globe [46, 47]”.
We have to stress that according to ta-
ble 5, plastic bags made of fossil or bio-
sources, cotton bags and paper carriers - and
other bags from natural or planted wood are
all organic ones and all are man-made. So
the origin of input into fabrication of these
bags is not important. Much more important
are e. g. footprints.
8. Conclusion
In this paper we have combined all the
possible knowledge to give a proposal for
better systematisation of materials, which
must be multidisciplinarily developed. This
is more and more needed, because we have
more and more combinations of four main
groups given in table 1.
Table 6 summarises the whole description
of this new systematisation of matter and
materials.
We can not use the term polymers just
for plastics and rubber. If we use the con-
cept given in table 1, we can say that bags
made of paper, cotton and polyethylene are
polymeric bags. And then the criteria for the
assessment are footprints and not the origin
of materials.
The most important conclusion from this
text is that we need the education in the
materials and not in plastics or ceramics or
metals, at all levels of education.
9. Acknowledgement
This text is based on the invited lecture:
“New Systematisation of Substances and
Materials” held at Eurojoin 8, European Fed-
eration for Welding, Joining and Cutting and
Croatian Welding Society, Pula, 24 May 2012.
This work is part of the research included in
different projects. Mostly in the project Ap-
plication of theory of systems in analysis of
general technology. All the projects are sup-
ported by the Ministry of Science, Education
and Sports of the Republic of Croatia. The
authors would like to thank the Ministry for
the fi nancing of this project.
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On our own account:
Prof. D. Sc. Igor Catic has already been concerned with the central themes globalisation, systematisation, and classifi cation for de-
cades. Publications such as “System analysis and morphological classifi cation of procedures and moulds for injection moulds”, “Infl uence
of rubber and plastics on globalisation”, and “Globalisation of stone tools and beginnings of mechanical processing of polymers” may
serve as typical examples. His paper “Polymers and non-polymers – a new systematisation of substances and materials” being presented
here proposes a new classifi cation of materials starting from quarks and aiming at an “interdisciplinary description of complex systems”
in the end. Prof. Catic’s subject matter may be hard to understand and not everyone will follow such an approach, but we, GV, decided
to put the article up for discussion and we would really like to get to know your view on this subject.