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Introduction: Special Section on Asian American Leadership
Abstract
Why an issue on Asian American leadership? Asian Americans, known as the model minority, typically “overachieve” and exceed all other groups on SAT scores, achievement tests, graduate degrees, and higher educational levels. If Asians are so smart, why are they so “underrepresented” in the ranks of political and business leadership within the United States? In this special section, we try to answer that question and how Asians can achieve equity. We review the current state of the art on leadership and its failure to incorporate diversity into its principles and models. We examine Asian cultural values and how they might influence the exercise of leadership among Asian American leaders. We also review perceptions of incongruity between Asian Americans and their potential for leadership roles. Consequently, Asian Americans may behave in response to stereotypical threat expectations and how bias may mitigate against positive views of Asian Americans as effective leaders. Finally, we call for an affirmative paradigm in developing a model of diversity leadership. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)
... Lee, 2019). Although the worldviews of AAPI faculty are influenced by ethnic identity and acculturation, the individualistic behaviors that characterize academic leadership are diametrically opposed to the collectivistic notions associated with many AAPI, especially East Asian subgroups (Chin, 2013;Chung, 2014). Collectivistic notions shared by many AAPI subgroups include beliefs that one should accept rather than confront problems, avoid disclosing problems to save face, and maintain interpersonal relationships to preserve social harmony (Inman & Yeh, 2007;Tweed & Conway, 2006). ...
... Collectivistic notions shared by many AAPI subgroups include beliefs that one should accept rather than confront problems, avoid disclosing problems to save face, and maintain interpersonal relationships to preserve social harmony (Inman & Yeh, 2007;Tweed & Conway, 2006). Caring for other colleagues, preserving group interests, and maintaining harmony may be misinterpreted in Western societies as docile, weak, and passive characteristics that position AAPI faculty as unworthy of promotion, career advancement, or leadership (Chin, 2013;Kawahara et al., 2013;Mouton et al., 2020). AAPI counselor educators may therefore become forced to abandon cultural notions that endorse subtle, harmonious, and community-oriented responses in favor of individualistic values that have historically characterized White academia (F. ...
... Cultivating a bicultural identity provides a foundation for honoring authenticity and cultural capital (Chin, 2013;Kwan, 2019;Sue et al., 2019) while helping AAPI faculty survive in the academy (Kornbluh et al., 2020). The ability for AAPI communities to preserve their culture when navigating White spaces can fundamentally serve as a protective factor against racism (Casado Pérez, 2019;Chikkatur, 2020;Sue et al., 2019). ...
Asian counselor educators in predominantly White institutions face challenges that are not shared by their White colleagues or by other faculty of color. This article outlines the barriers for Asian counselor educators and establishes a call to action for researchers to act in ways that support Asian faculty retention and success.
... There are universal skills that all leaders must learn to be effective (e.g., reasoning, critical thinking, decision making, etc.), but this onesize-fits-all approach addresses mostly general leadership skills, and ignores unique developmental needs of ethnic minorities. Ethnic minorities may have unique career experiences (Chin, 2013;Kawahara, Pal, & Chin, 2013;, and others have different leader schemas and expectations for minorities (Burris, Ayman, Che, & Min, 2013). For example, occupational and leadership stereotyping may steer minorities to technical (vs. ...
... Asian Americans are judged to be less leader-like because they are perceived to lack agentic qualities associated with prototypical leaders such as assertiveness, dynamism, enthusiasm, and so forth (Festekjian et al., 2014). Consequently, these judgments form biases such that Asian Americans may be less likely to be selected for leadership development programs and overlooked for leadership promotions (Chin, 2013). ...
... Social anxiety may lead some Asian Americans to be more reticent in social situations, especially for foreign born Asian Americans who may have limited knowledge about the culture norms that dictate social interactions, which then contribute to perceptions of low social skills . Consequently, such perceptions may explain, in part, the reduced probability of Asian Americans being hired or promoted to leadership roles (Chin, 2013;Lai & Babcock, 2013). ...
Traditional leadership programs may not address the unique developmental needs of ethnic minorities. Whereas traditional leadership development is based on the assumptions, values, and behaviors of the Western mainstream ideals, our research uses a culture-specific approach to understand the unique needs of ethnic minority leaders, namely, Asian Americans. We focus on Asian Americans because they are least represented in U.S. management ranks, despite having the most education, training, and work experience. Our central research question is "What are the key success factors of Asian American leaders?" Qualitative interviews with 39 key informants (of East Asian descent, and 2 non-Asian Americans), ranging from middle managers to CEOs, at Fortune 500 companies, representing a variety of industries (accounting, aerospace, banking, digital imaging, energy, entertainment, food service, health care, medical, retail, technology, and telecommunication) identified 8 key success factors (i.e., qualities that promote upward mobility in the management hierarchy): cultural acumen, rules of success, leadership branding, communication, social decorum, leadership aspiration, career determinism, and cultural inclusion. Each success factor was defined, along with identification of its key issues, causes, consequences, and actions taken for cultivating the success factors. Results offer guidance for individual leadership development and for organizations to develop culture-specific leadership interventions that complement current mainstream training approaches.
... Thus, it is interesting to analyze the impact generated by the inclusion of these minorities in the field of leadership (Chin, 2013;Eagly & Chin, 2010;Fassinger, Shullman & Stevenson, 2010). ...
... For instance, in Argentina, country where this study was conducted, women occupy 22% of management positions, but only 1% gets the CEO -Chief Executive Officer-position (Casas, 2010). In the United States women occupy the 23% of executive positions, while 5% are occupied by Hispanic, and 4% by Afro and Asian descents despite the high academic scores obtained by the latter group (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009;Chin, 2013). ...
... Because leadership is frequently associated with male gender, theories that intend to explain the phenomenon have emerged. The Role Congruity Theory proposed by Eagly and Karau (2002) states that women are usually perceived negatively when trying to occupy leading positions by virtue of the incongruity with their gender's attributes, mainly communal (e.g., protection), and those expected for such positions: agent attributes (e.g., dominance), which forces them to adopt an androgen style to be perceived as effective leaders (Eagly & Karau, 2002;Lupano Perugini & Castro Solano, 2008, 2013. The same difficulties would be faced by gay men since many are perceived with many female stereotype attributes (Fassinger et al., 2010;Malden, Blackwell & Madon, 1997). ...
This intended to analyze differences in the level of perception –of general population participants- in regards to leaders with diverse socio-cultural characteristics (gender, sexual orientation, religious affiliation, nationality) and also verify by means of structural equations, the influence of intergroup anxiety and the cultural sensitivity in terms of the level of effectiveness perception. Participants: 481 adults from Argentina (52.8% female, 47.2% male; age average = 35.45 years old). Instruments: Intergroup
Anxiety scale, Cultural Sensitivity scale, and an ad hoc protocol designed to assess level of effectiveness perception in socio-culturally diverse leaders. Results: Differences in the level of perception of effectiveness according to sociocultural characteristics could not be confirmed. However, a direct effect of cultural sensitivity and an indirect effect of intergroup anxiety on the levels of effectiveness perception were confirmed. This work contributes to previous studies on prejudice and leadership.
... Moreover, in broader field of leadership, Chin (2013) argues, "Current theories of leadership have been relatively narrow in their incorporation of diversity; the theories generally portray a White, Anglo, North American, heterosexual male biased view of leadership" (p. 235). ...
... And given little research on leadership experience of AAW and limited scholarly works following the approach of diversity leadership model under intersectionality concept (Chin, 2013;Kawahara et al., 2013;Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017); my study contributed to enriching the existing literature on women and leadership in general, and on AAW and leadership in particular under the novel approach. ...
This paper sheds light on academic leadership pathways and practices of Asian American women (AAW) in higher education in the United States (U.S.) under intersectionality of social and institutional identities/elements. The preliminary intersection model of these identities/elements is the ultimate outcome of the paper. The paper is crystalized from an empirical study founded on intersectionality concept and leadership theories in general, and on established knowledge base of AAW and leadership in particular. The multiple case study method (MCSM) and success case method (SCM) were employed in combination to examine four AAW cases, which were purposively selected from four 4-year-universities in California and Pennsylvania. The data source primarily came from in-depth semi-structured interviews. The data analysis on NVivo 12 revealed that AAW’s leadership pathways and practices were influenced and shaped by social identities of individuals (gender, race/ethnicity, class, and culture), and institutional cultures (tangible and intangible). Religion and female role models in family, graduate study, and workplace were found as additive elements impacting AAW’s leadership experiences. These multiple identities and elements intersected with each other in different ways to feature lived experiences of AAW in academic leadership. The study responded to recent calls for applying incorporation approach of leadership and diversity in research on leadership. It also supported the existing literature on leadership pipelines and experiences of AAW in the academy. The research was among few qualitative studies in the AAW leadership scholarship using the NVivo program in data management, analysis, and presentation. The preliminary intersection model of social and institutional identities/elements influencing and shaping AAW’s leadership in the academy could imply direction for further study on AAW and leadership not only in academe but also in other areas.
... In fact, the term "bamboo ceiling" was coined to highlight the uniqueness of the invisible barriers that Asian Americans face in moving upward in organizations (Hyun, 2005). Indeed, compared to leaders of other racial/ethnic backgrounds, Asian American leaders were the most likely to say that their ethnicity was a weakness in their exercise of leadership (Chin, 2013). ...
Despite demonstrating high levels of academic and professional competence, Asians are underrepresented in leadership roles in North America. The limited research on this topic has found that Asian Americans are perceived by others as poorer leaders than White Americans due to perceptions that Asians lack the ideal traits of a Western leader (i.e., agentic) relative to White Americans. However, we contend that, in addition to poorly activating ideal leader traits, Asian Americans may strongly activate ideal follower traits (e.g., industrious and reliable), and being seen as a good follower may pigeonhole Asian Americans in non-managerial roles. Across 4 studies, our findings generally supported our arguments regarding the activation of ideal follower traits and lack of activation of ideal leader traits for Asian American workers. However, compared to their majority group counterparts, we found some unexpected evidence for a more favorable view of Asian Americans as leaders, which was primarily driven by the greater activation of ideal follower traits (i.e., industry and good citizen) among Asian American workers. Yet, we uncover an important boundary condition in that these "good follower" advantages did not accrue when observers experienced threat-revealing how the benefits of so-called positive stereotypes of Asian American workers are context dependent.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10869-022-09794-3.
... Kim et al. (in press) from the current issue examined numerous ways racial microaggression negatively affected Asian Americans in the workplace and rendered their contributions invisible, further preventing them from professional advancement. In fact, despite stereotypes of their competence, Asian Americans remain woefully underrepresented in the echelons of education, political, and business leadership (Chin, 2013). Asian American professionals also report a lack of professional community, guidance, or support (Hune, 1998) and often perceive this sense of isolation in the workplace as personal shortcomings that they need to either overcome or endure (Sun & Starosta, 2006). ...
Historically, aspirations for greater economic opportunities have been a core motivation of many immigrants. However, most low-income Chinese immigrant laborers in the U.S. endure harsh working conditions on the margin of the economy and society. The current study explores qualitatively the vocational lives of low-income Chinese immigrant laborers and the implications of their intersecting invisibility. Participants reported immigrating to the U.S. to better their children's lives as opposed to their own vocational or economic opportunities and experiencing similar or more strenuous working conditions in the U.S. than in China. They predominantly relied on co-ethnic networks to secure employment, but only a narrow range of employment options were available to them and many required arduous manual labor and long working hours. Consequently, participants emotionally detached from their work, viewing it solely as means of survival as opposed to a source of fulfillment or upward mobility. Finally, their intersectional invisibility also provided some advantages, such as protection against race-based workplace discrimination.
Covid-19 exacerbated the xenophobia and hate crime associated with racism in North America, which triggered a race-based trauma. However, studies are rare that focus specifically on the suffering that Asian Americans have endured. How might a faith community envision a wholesome community while holding and honoring the experience of Asian American pain? This study suggests a form of lament-driven preaching for a 戀 (Yeon) community that has interconnective suffering narratives, that pursues justice in a faith community and envisions what we can do about race-based trauma. The article focuses on a relational way to rebuild a community that has been wounded by xenophobia and hate crimes. Lament as remembering and reconnecting contributes to our consideration of how to respond to the suffering from the injustice of Asian hate crime beyond merely articulating and complaining about the experience. This study deals with the rhetoric of lament based on the Book of Lamentations and suggests how to use Psalm 137 in preaching as a way of lamenting the hate crime against Asian Americans in the Atlanta shooting tragedy.
Do Asian countries with long Colonial history; have Collective Social Unconscious and Memories that have been transmitted across generations? What are these Transgenerational/Collective Traumas that these Asian children, carry unconsciously, from their ‘Early Life’ and ‘Teens’ that shape their motivational need system? Are there National Memories of these countries/societies that leads to ‘Self Identity’ issues of these individuals? Is there an unconscious feeling of shame, from their haunted past that, ‘they are not good enough’!
As a result of the above, do Asian Leaders (from these countries) carry a few unconscious ‘Big Assumptions’ and demonstrate ‘Maladaptive Coping Mechanisms’, in work situations, in the face of race based perceptions of western leaders, in the multinational companies they work for? What impact does this have on their Response to Authority; Interpersonal & Intrapersonal Leadership Perception and Aspiration?
The purpose of the maneuver is to deliver a practical paper for the reader, to ease his interest on leading. A window to encourage readers to focus on the opportunity, every one of us has to be a leader, because stereotype and misconceived belief should not stop one from expressing his or her qualities. We all exceptional, unique and all of us have something to deliver to our closest relatives, to our neighborhood, to human kind, to the world we belong to. We all can play more leadership in various fields of our lives. We as human beings can be powerful as we do not know when potential button is activated deliberately. Marianne Williamson started one of her poem writing: “Our deepest fear is not that we are inadequate Our deepest fear is that we are powerful beyond measure” So it is not about making another list of leader’s behavior to follow, as Richard L. Hughes explains it is more about a personal process that should be enhanced. Obviously the more one, man/ woman/ LGBT, is thinking about leadership the more he will get better at it.
Das Verständnis von kultureller Diversity ermöglicht es, die tief liegenden Ressourcen in Werten und Motiven sowie in den damit verknüpften Denk- und Handlungsmustern von unterschiedlichen Menschen, Teams, Unternehmen oder Netzwerken zu aktivieren. Während Diversity Management vor allem die effiziente Nutzung dieser individuellen Ressourcen koordinieren kann, liegt die Stärke des transkulturellen Diversity Leadership in der massiven Erhöhung der Effektivität und zielgerichteten Entfaltung der Potenziale von ökonomischen oder sozialen Systemen. Dieser Beitrag beschreibt die relevanten unternehmerischen Hebel und zwischenmenschlichen Anforderungen anhand eines komplexen Fallbeispiels. Darauf basieren Methoden der System- und Kulturanalyse sowie die transkulturellen Kompetenzen eines umfassenden Diversity Leadership.
Global leadership has been identified as a critical success factor for large multinational corporations. While there is much writing on the topic, most seems to be either general advice (i.e., being open minded and respectful of other cultures) or very specific information about a particular country based on a limited case study (do not show the soles of your shoes when seated as a guest in an Arab country). Both kinds of information are certainly useful, but limited from both theoretical and practical viewpoints on how to lead in a foreign country. In this paper, findings from the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) research program are used to provide a sound basis for conceptualizing worldwide leadership differences. We use a hypothetical case of an American executive in charge of four similar teams in Brazil, France, Egypt, and China to discuss cultural implications for the American executive. Using the hypothetical case involving five different countries allows us to provide in-depth action oriented and context specific advice, congruent with GLOBE findings, for effectively interacting with employees from different cultures. We end the paper with a discussion of the challenges facing global executives and how corporations can develop useful global leadership capabilities. A lmost no American corporation is immune from the impact of globalization. The reality for American corporations is that they must increasingly cope with diverse cross-cultural employees , customers, suppliers, competitors, and creditors, a situation well captured by the following quote.
Although the number of Asian American professionals has continued to increase significantly in the United States, their underrepresentation in leadership roles remains. Given the absence of literature in this area, this article presents a qualitative study on 14 Asian American leaders in order to understand their perceptions and experiences in attaining and performing in leadership roles. Semistructured interviews were conducted, and themes were then garnered from them. Major themes identified included the influence of common Asian values, having to negotiate multiple identities, leading in response to the urging of others, using a group orientation and collaborative style, having a strong work ethic, emphasis on excellence, having to respond to stereotypic perceptions and expectations, and the importance of support and mentoring. Although participants were unique in their experiences, salient aspects across participants emerged showing that they were influenced by their identification as Asian Americans. These qualitative findings generate hypotheses about Asian American leadership that warrant further investigation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)
Based on Daoist philosophy and previous research (i.e., Lee, 2003; Lee, Han, Byron, & Fan, 2008; Y.-T. Lee, Yang, & Wang, 2009; also see Watts, 1975), a Daoist model of leadership has been proposed. This study aimed to investigate how student participants of different cultural and gender backgrounds responded to the Daoist Big Five (i.e., altruism, modesty, flexibility, honesty, and perseverance) leadership dimensions. Participants (N = 448) from China (N = 213) and the United States (N = 235) made judgments on a series of traits and behaviors thought to be representative of the five leadership dimensions. These judgments were explored by principal component analysis and yielded five major components that were labeled perseverance, modesty, altruism, flexibility, and honesty. Results revealed differences in judgments as a function of culture and gender. In particular, Americans judged themselves to be more perseverant, modest, and flexible, whereas Chinese judged themselves to be more altruistic and honest. Additionally women judged themselves to be more modest and altruistic than their male counterparts. The interplay between culture and gender was also influential in their judgments on Daoist Big Five. American women judged themselves to be more modest and perseverant than Chinese women, and Chinese men judged themselves to be more altruistic than American men. The implications and limitations of this cross-cultural and cross-gender study are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)
Asia is a geographical region with a cultural emphasis on power distance, paternalism, collectivism, and social relations. Leadership in this area plays an important role in organizational processes and outcomes; however, whether this role is similar to that outlined in the mainstream leadership research and non-Asian settings is yet to be confirmed. In this Special Issue on "Leadership in Asia," we selected six papers and identified four emerging themes. First, several mainstream leadership theories are applicable in Asia. On the other hand, we also identified processes and effects that are unique in Asia. Second, leadership in Asia affects organizational outcomes. Third, a strong emphasis on families and social ties among Asian corporations highlights intriguing leadership dynamics in this part of the world. Finally, new context-specific leadership constructs are identified and discussed. In light of these findings, we discuss the future directions of leadership research in Asia.
The Openness factor was missing from the original Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI). We used a combined emic—etic approach to generate six culturally relevant Openness scales. In Study 1, the Openness scales were added to the revised CPAI and standardized using a representative sample of 1,911 adults in China and Hong Kong. Factor analysis showed that the Openness scales merged with the original factors of the CPAI. In Study 2, 1,094 Chinese college students took the CPAI-2 and NEO-FFI. Joint factor analyses showed that four of the CPAI-2 Openness scales loaded with the Openness factor of the NEO-FFI. Implications on the meaning of Openness as a personality factor in Chinese culture were discussed.
Taking a procedural justice perspective, we examined the effect of guanxi practices in human resources management (i.e., making human resources management decisions on the basis of personal relationships) on employees' trust in management in Chinese organizations. Two studies were conducted. In the first, a survey study, we found a negative effect of guanxi practices on trust in management, which was mediated by perceived procedural justice. In the second, an experimental study, we found that the negative effect of guanxi practices varied as a function of guanxi bases: favoring a nephew or a hometown fellow lowered trust, but favoring a college schoolmate or a close friend did not. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Research into Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory has been gaining momentum in recent years, with a multitude of studies investigating many aspects of LMX in organizations. Theoretical development in this area also has undergone many refinements, and the current theory is far different from the early Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL) work. This article uses a levels perspective to trace the development of LMX through four evolutionary stages of theorizing and investigation up to the present. The article also uses a domains perspective to develop a new taxonomy of approaches to leadership, and LMX is discussed within this taxonomy as a relationship-based approach to leadership. Common questions and issues concerning LMX are addressed, and directions for future research are provided.
We review recent developments in the study of culture and personality measurement. Three approaches are described: an etic approach that focuses on establishing measurement equivalence in imported measures of personality, an emic (indigenous) approach that studies personality in specific cultures, and a combined emic-etic approach to personality. We propose the latter approach as a way of combining the methodological rigor of the etic approach and the cultural sensitivity of the emic approach. The combined approach is illustrated by two examples: the first with origins in Chinese culture and the second in South Africa. The article ends with a discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of the combined emic-etic approach for the study of culture and personality and for psychology as a science.
In this study, we examine culture-specific relationships between individual differences and distributive negotiations. We measured individual characteristics and their effects on distributive negotiations in both American[1] and Chinese cultures, using a Western-based scale (the 'Big Five') and a Chinese-based scale (CPAI). We found that agreeableness and extraversion (from the 'Big Five') affected negotiations for Americans, but not for Chinese. We found that harmony, face and Ren Qing (from the Chinese-based scales) affected negotiations for Chinese, but not for Americans. Specifically, we found that in the American culture, those higher in extraversion and agreeableness achieved lower economic gain, whereas in the Chinese context that those high in harmony, face, and Ren Qing were more likely to be influenced by opening offers and achieve lower economic gain in distributive negotiations. Our study highlights the need to examine negotiations using culturally sensitive constructs and measures.
This article presents an affirmative paradigm for understanding the leadership of sexual minorities-that is, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people. Although research on LGBT issues in leadership to date is almost nonexistent, there are several bodies of literature that can contribute to an understanding of the unique leadership challenges faced by sexual minority people. These include the literatures on stigma and marginalization, leadership in particular status groups (e.g., college students, women), and LGBT vocational issues (especially workplace climate and identity disclosure). We propose a new, multidimensional model of LGBT leadership enactment that incorporates sexual orientation (particularly regarding identity disclosure), gender orientation (including leader gender), and the situation (conceptualized here as group composition); the model also is embedded in context, the most relevant factors that affect the enactment of leadership being stigma and marginalization. We explicate this model with findings and concepts from relevant literatures, and we conclude the article with recommendations for building a scholarly literature in LGBT leadership.
Asian American managers report using significantly lower levels of self-disclosure, self-focused impression management tactics, and supervisor-focused impression management tactics but more job-focused impression management tactics compared to European American managers. Asian Americans appear to use tactics that do not impress supervisors and do not make enough use of tactics that might pay off in improved supervisor-subordinate relationships and upward mobility. Further, supervisors are not impressed by the tactics Asian Americans believe they are using to impress their supervisors. Asian American managers' perceptions of the quality of supervisor-subordinate relationships are not in harmony with supervisors' perceptions of these relationships. European American managers seem to be in tune with their supervisors' perceptions of the quality of the relationship and the impression management tactics they report. If upward mobility is enhanced by good supervisor-subordinate relationships, this impression management gap may help explain why so few Asian American managers attain leadership positions.
This personal historical article traces the development of the Big-Five factor structure, whose growing acceptance by personality researchers has profoundly influenced the scientific study of individual differences. The roots of this taxonomy lie in the lexical hypothesis and the insights of Sir Francis Galton, the prescience of L. L. Thurstone, the legacy of Raymond B. Cattell, and the seminal analyses of Tupes and Christal. Paradoxically, the present popularity of this model owes much to its many critics, each of whom tried to replace it, but failed. In reaction, there have been a number of attempts to assimilate other models into the five-factor structure. Lately, some practical implications of the emerging consensus can be seen in such contexts as personnel selection and classification.
Western and East Asian people hold fundamentally different beliefs about learning that influence how they approach child rearing and education. Reviewing decades of research, Dr. Jin Li presents an important conceptual distinction between the Western mind model and the East Asian virtue model of learning. The former aims to cultivate the mind to understand the world, whereas the latter prioritizes the self to be perfected morally and socially. Tracing the cultural origins of the two large intellectual traditions, Li details how each model manifests itself in the psychology of the learning process, learning affect, regard of one's learning peers, expression of what one knows, and parents' guiding efforts. Despite today's accelerated cultural exchange, these learning models do not diminish but endure.
Research in cultural psychology suggests that person is a social and collective construction made possible through an individual's participation in the practices and meanings of a given cultural context. This perspective can make a contribution to some contemporary controversies in personality. In the current article, it is argued that although most conceptions of personality in academic psychology are rooted in a model of the person as independent, in many Asian cultures, personality is constructed on the basis of an alternative model of the person as interdependent. In these cultures, then, personality is experienced and understood as behavior that is characteristic of the person in relationship with others in particular social contexts. Some initial evidence is reviewed and questions for future research are suggested.
Asian American managers report using significantly lower levels of self-disclosure, selffocused impression management tactics, and supervisor-focused impression management tactics but more job-focused impression management tactics compared to EuropeanAmerican managers. AsianAmericans appear to use tactics that do not impress supervisors and do not make enough use of tactics that might pay off in improved supervisorsubordinate relationships and upward mobility. Further, supervisors are not impressed by the tactics Asian Americans believe they are using to impress their supervisors. Asian American managers’ perceptions of the quality of supervisor-subordinate relationships are not in harmony with supervisors’perceptions of these relationships. European American managers seem to be in tune with their supervisors’ perceptions of the quality of the relationship and the impression management tactics they report. If upward mobility is enhanced by good supervisor-subordinate relationships, this impression management gap may help explain why so fewAsian American managers attain leadership positions.
The present study examines the relationships between the endorsement of filial piety and both universal and indigenous personality trait factors among Chinese subjects. Two groups of college students from Hong Kong and Beijing participated in the study and completed a questionnaire composed of the Filial Piety Scale, the Five Factor Inventory (FFI), and five facets selected from the Chinese Tradition factor of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI). The results showed that (a) the indigenous CPAI facets can significantly contribute to predicting filial piety scores over and above the universal FFI factors, and (b) among the five factors of the FFI, Neuroticism and Openness significantly predicted filial piety, whereas among the five facets of Chinese Tradition, Harmony and Renqing (relation orientation) were the two significant predictors. Thus, whether filial piety is universal or culture-specific, improved prediction requires using indigenous measures in addition to the FFI.
This research compares the relative effectiveness of imported and indigenous measures of personality perception for Hong Kong Chinese. The first study reports on the extraction of six factors of self-perception using bipolar, adjective rating scales from the U.S.A. tapping the Big Five (Digman, 1990), and Openness to Experience (McCrae & Costa, 1985; 1987). The second study reports on the extraction of six factors of self-perception derived from scales developed indigenously by Chinese psychologists. In the third study, the overlap of the imported and the indigenous dimensions is examined, and their relative power in explaining various criterion measures is assessed. The imported factors adequately explained all but one of the indigenous factors, although in complex combinations. Neither scale was better than the other in predicting the criterion variables. Imported measures may cut the phenomenal world differently from indigenous measures, but still enable scientists to predict behaviours just as effectively. In consequence, if replicated with other criterion variables, the present results would challenge the investment required to develop local instrumentation on scientific grounds.
Assessed the generalizability of leader behavior effects found in research with European and US samples. Leader behavior ratings by subordinates, leader performance, and subordinate satisfaction measures were taken for 142 Iranian managers. Ss were administered the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire and the Job Descriptive Index. Results indicate that perceived leader behavior was strongly related both to group performance and subordinate satisfaction. However, the factor structure of the behavior ratings was different from that found with Euro-American samples. Cross-cultural differences and current research on leader behavior are discussed. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
while there are many operational definitions of the leadership situation and its components, I shall argue that the "active ingredient" in the situation is the degree to which the situation causes uncertainty and stress, and therefore anxiety (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents some examples of studies on leader behavior in different countries. As shown in this chapter, the ways in which researchers study and think about leadership have been strongly influenced by North American values. However, the assumptions underlying these values are not necessarily shared in other cultures. Thus, the authors describe different dimensions of societal cultures and the ways in which they might lead to differences in approaching leadership. Next, the authors turn to the developing world and highlight some elements that are specific to this group of nations. Leadership perceptions around the world are then explored and similarities and differences in the way people view effective leadership across many different cultures are shown. Finally, the authors briefly discuss organizational culture in relation to societal culture and leadership. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Sonia Ospina is an associate professor in the Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service and Faculty Director of the Research Center for Leadership in Action at New York University. A sociologist by training, her academic interests include leadership, engaged scholarship, and democratic governance. She is the author of Illusions of Opportunity: Employee Expectations and Work place Inequality (Cornell, 1996) and is currently working on a book based on a national, multi-year study of leadership in community organizations engaged in social change in the US. She is also exploring governance and accountability issues associated with public management reform in Latin America.
Leaders should be a key source of ethical guidance for employees. Yet, little empirical research focuses on an ethical dimension of leadership. We propose social learning theory as a theoretical basis for understanding ethical leadership and offer a constitutive definition of the ethical leadership construct. In seven interlocking studies, we investigate the viability and importance of this construct. We develop and test a new instrument to measure ethical leadership, examine the proposed connections of ethical leadership with other constructs in a nomological network, and demonstrate its predictive validity for important employee outcomes. Specifically, ethical leadership is related to consideration behavior, honesty, trust in the leader, interactional fairness, socialized charismatic leadership (as measured by the idealized influence dimension of transformational leadership), and abusive supervision, but is not subsumed by any of these. Finally, ethical leadership predicts outcomes such as perceived effectiveness of leaders, followers’ job satisfaction and dedication, and their willingness to report problems to management.
The conceptual and empirical links between authentic leadership and follower attitudes, behaviors, and performance outcomes have not been fully developed. Although we have a number of articles developing the theory of authentic leadership and testing propositions that will appear in a forthcoming special issue of The Leadership Quarterly (Vol. 16, Issue 3, 2005), the focus of this article is to provide some of the initial foundation work for the broader theoretical framework of how authentic leaders influence follower attitudes, behaviors, and performance. Here, we draw from positive organizational behavior, trust, hope, emotion, identification, and identity theories to describe the processes by which authentic leaders exert their influence on followers' attitudes and behaviors. Research propositions based on the proposed theoretical model and implications for future theory building and research are presented.
The trait-based perspective of leadership has a long but checkered history. Trait approaches dominated the initial decades of scientific leadership research. Later, they were disdained for their inability to offer clear distinctions between leaders and nonleaders and for their failure to account for situational variance in leadership behavior. Recently, driven by greater conceptual, methodological, and statistical sophistication, such approaches have again risen to prominence. However, their contributions are likely to remain limited unless leadership researchers who adopt this perspective address several fundamental issues. The author argues that combinations of traits and attributes, integrated in conceptually meaningful ways, are more likely to predict leadership than additive or independent contributions of several single traits. Furthermore, a defining core of these dominant leader trait patterns reflects a stable tendency to lead in different ways across disparate organizational domains. Finally, the author summarizes a multistage model that specifies some leader traits as having more distal influences on leadership processes and performance, whereas others have more proximal effects that are integrated with, and influenced by, situational parameters.
Implicit leadership theory
- K Burris
- R Ayman
- Y Che
- H M Min
- K. Burris
- R. Ayman
- Y. Che
- H. M. Min
Leadership and culture
- Den Hartog
- D N Dickson
- D. N. Den Hartog
- M. W. Dickson
- J. Antonakis
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