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Athletic Insight ISSN: 1947-6299
Volume 4, Number 2 pp. © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
E
XPLORING
F
LOW
O
CCURRENCE IN
E
LITE
G
OLF
Christian Swann
*
, Richard Keegan, David Piggott,
Lee Crust and Mark F. Smith
School of Sport, Coaching and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln,
Brayford Pool, Lincoln, Lincolnshire, LN6 7TS, United Kingdom
A
BSTRACT
Research on flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) has traditionally focused on reactive,
externally-paced sports (e.g., tennis) without exploring those that are self-paced and stop-
start in nature. This study investigated the occurrence of flow in a sample of thirteen elite
golfers by conducting semi-structured interviews discussing: (i) their experiences of flow,
(ii) factors that influenced flow occurrence, and (iii) the controllability of these
experiences. Results shared similarity with existing research in terms of the majority of
influencing factors reported, including motivation, preparation, focus, psychological
state, environmental and situational conditions, and arousal, and that flow was reported to
be at least potentially controllable. Golf-specific influences were also noted, including
pre-shot routines, use of psychological interventions, standard of performance, and
maintenance of physical state, suggesting that flow may have occurred differently for this
sample. Findings are discussed and applied recommendations are made that may help
golfers put relevant factors in place to increase the likelihood of experiencing flow.
Keywords: sport psychology, optimal experience, qualitative, elite athletes, self-paced sport.
The term flow is used to describe a harmonious and intrinsically rewarding state of
effortless excellence, in which one is completely absorbed in an activity, attention is totally
invested, and the person functions at his/her fullest capacity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975; 1990).
Flow has been reported in domains ranging from surgery to art and music, as well as
everyday activities such as reading (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). However, because both
performance and experience are believed to be enhanced in flow (Jackson and Roberts, 1992),
this area of research is particularly relevant in sport.
Csikszentmihalyi outlined nine different dimensions of flow, and it is the experiencing of
several of these characteristics together that makes the flow experience so special (Jackson,
1996). Flow usually occurs in situations of challenge-skills balance, where one subjectively
perceives that the situation he or she is in requires them to extend beyond their normal
*
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christian Swann, Tel. + 44 (0) 1522 837 102 or e-
mail cswann@lincoln.ac.uk
Christian Swann, Richard Keegan, David Piggott et al.
2
capabilities, but is still achievable. Hence they require specific, clear goals to strive to
achieve, while also receiving unambiguous feedback that either informs them that they are
progressing towards these goals or tells them how to adjust in order to do so. Therefore, the
individual requires complete concentration on the task at hand, with no extraneous or
distracting thoughts, which can also lead to action-awareness merging, whereby the person
becomes totally absorbed or immersed in the activity. A loss of self-consciousness can also
occur in the form of an absence of negative thoughts or doubt, as can a sense of control over
the performance or outcome of the activity, and a transformation of time. The combination of
these first eight dimensions makes the flow experience enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding,
making up the ninth dimension which Csikszentmihalyi (1975) termed autotelic experience.
However, because flow is such a subjective experience, it is acknowledged as being
difficult to accurately and reliably measure and no approach is trouble-free (Kimiecik and
Jackson, 2002; Kimiecik and Stein, 1992). Approaches such as the Experience Sampling
Method (Csikszentmihalyi and Larson, 1987) and the Flow Scale questionnaires (Jackson and
Ecklund, 2004) have been noted as problematic to the exploration of flow states (see
Kimiecik and Jackson, 2002; Kimiecik and Stein, 1992); however, the exploration of
subjective experience lends itself to qualitative methods. A qualitative approach can provide
important information regarding the subjective nature of flow experience and can overcome
quantitative restraints, providing information, interpretation, and understanding of flow
phenomena from an athlete’s point of view (Stavrou, Jackson, Zervas, and Karteroliotis,
2007). Hence “valuable and often reliable information comes from athletes’ subjective
description and interpretations” (Chavez, 2008, p.72), and qualitative, open-ended interviews
are the most widely used and appropriate method of exploring these elusive experiences (e.g.,
Chavez, 2008; Jackson, 1992, 1995, 1996; Sugiyama and Inomata, 2005).
This existing qualitative research on flow occurrence in sport has tended to explore the
factors perceived to influence (i.e., facilitate, prevent, and disrupt) these states, as well as
investigate their controllability (e.g., Chavez, 2008; Jackson, 1995, 1996). Elite athletes,
defined by Jackson and Kimiecik (2008) as “those who participate in U.S. Division 1
collegiate sport or higher” (p. 508), have primarily been used because: (i) they have been
involved in competitive situations for substantial amounts of time (Jackson, 1996); and (ii)
are theoretically more likely to perform in states of automaticity without the need for
conscious thought (Hatfield and Hillman, 2001), which may make it easier to become
absorbed in the activity and experience flow. This means that elite athletes are likely to be
more familiar with these experiences than recreational participants.
Furthermore, certain sports may be more conducive to flow than others: “a structured
type of event, and one that is continuous in nature may facilitate flow, in comparison to more
unstructured, stop-start events where there are potentially more uncontrollable factors for the
athlete to deal with” (Jackson, Thomas, Marsh, and Smethurst, 2001, p.149). Hence, it could
be the case that such stop-start sports are less conducive to flow than other sports, and that
flow occurs differently in these sports than more structured events. However, existing
research (e.g., Jackson, 1992, 1995; Chavez, 2008) has used athletes from sports that are
faster and externally paced, and have not yet focused specifically on slower, self-paced sports
(Singer, 2002). Previous literature has also tended to combine athletes from various team and
individual sports in one sample (e.g., Chavez, 2008; Jackson, 1995, 1996; Russell, 2001), or
combine athletes from different forms of one sport (e.g., singles and pairs athletes in Jackson,
1992; Young, 2000). Instead, a sample isolating one single context of athletes is likely to
Flow Occurrence in Elite Golf
3
provide a more specific understanding of flow occurrence in that context, in turn providing
athletes and coaches within that domain with more specific and relevant information.
One such self-paced sport from which it is possible to isolate a single context of athletes
is golf. Elite golfers compete individually, and commonly in tournaments involving up to 150
players. This provides a suitable setting to gain potential access to a sample of players
competing in the same sport and at the same level. It has also been suggested that the game of
golf is heavily reliant on the mental and emotional control at the highest level, illustrated by
the anecdotal quote: “Golf is “90% mental. The other 10% is mental” (Flick and Waggoner,
1997, p.43). This could be because of the self-paced nature of golf, which affords the player
time for potential over-thinking, distraction, perceptions of inadequacy, overly elated
emotions such as anxiety or fear of failure, and possibly even ironic processes (e.g., thinking
about not hitting the ball in a bunker near the green while standing over the ball, and then
doing just that; Singer, 2002). Therefore, golf is an interesting domain in which to study the
occurrence of optimal psychological states such as flow.
Two empirical studies have been conducted in this area (Cohn, 1991; Catley and Duda,
1997). Cohn (1991) interviewed 19 competitive golfers ranging from NCAA Division 1
collegiate players to PGA Tour professionals about their peak performances, which he
defined as a time when they were playing to the best of their ability and shot their best score.
While some of the results resonated with dimensions of flow experiences (e.g., narrow focus,
automatic and effortless performance, immersion, sense of control), differences between flow
and peak performance have been suggested (see Jackson and Kimiecik, 2008; Jackson and
Roberts, 1992). Therefore these results may be relevant to elite golfers, but do not focus
explicitly on experiences of flow. Catley and Duda (1997) administered questionnaires to 163
recreational golfers in order to assess pre-round readiness variables and frequency and
intensity of flow post-round. Results suggested that pre-round readiness was significantly
related to the experience of flow, as was skill level. This suggests that elite participants are
the most appropriate sample from whom to gain rich descriptions of flow experiences. It also
appears that elite golf has not been explored previously in flow research, highlighting the
need for an exploratory investigation to help establish an understanding of flow experiences
in this domain.
Therefore, using qualitative, semi-structured interviews in order to gain rich accounts and
insights, this study aimed to investigate the occurrence of flow specifically in elite golf, and
explore whether flow could occur differently in golf than in the faster paced and more generic
sports studied previously. Although it is acknowledged that flow research in sport needs to go
beyond description of the elements of a flow experience and begin explaining the occurrence
of these states (Kimiecik and Stein, 1992), this study also aimed to be exploratory in nature,
intending only to establish a description rather than attempting to explain flow. In doing so, it
followed the example of previous studies of flow in other elite sports (e.g., Jackson, 1992;
Young, 2000). It is hoped that once this introductory understanding is established, future
studies can build upon this and begin to investigate “the potential psychosocial mechanisms
and variables that may be causally related, or, at the very least, positively or negatively
associated with the flow experience” (Kimiecik and Stein, 1992, p.149).
Christian Swann, Richard Keegan, David Piggott et al.
4
M
ETHOD
Participants
This sample included 13 male professional golfers from the Republic of Ireland, Northern
Ireland, and England. These individuals had competed internationally in either European Tour
(n = 8), Challenge Tour (n = 4), or Europro (n = 1) tournaments. The European Tour is the
flagship professional golf tour in Europe, and one of the major tours worldwide, involving
world-class playing standards and the highest level of competition; just below this standard is
the Challenge Tour, a European-based developmental Tour used as a training ground for
promotion to the European Tour (PGA European Tour, 2010); and the Europro Tour is
another European-based developmental Tour that is used as a training ground for promotion
to the Challenge Tour. These participants had a mean age of 33.5 years (SD = 9.28) ranging
from 20 to 51 years, and mean of 11.8 years experience as a professional (SD = 10.28) with a
range or 1 to 32 years.
Procedure
Ethical approval for the study was granted by the departmental ethics committee at a
British university. Nine of the participants were approached at two Professional Golfer’s
Association (PGA) Irish Region pro-am tournaments, and were asked to take part in a study
exploring the occurrence of flow in elite golf. This setting was chosen because it provided
access to a large number of competitive professional golfers at the same time and in one
location. Initially, one professional known to have competed on the European Tour was
approached and agreed to take part. This process snowballed, and more participants were
interviewed until a point was reached where no new information or themes were observed in
the data (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). Hence, a mixture of purposive (Patton, 2002) and
snowball sampling were used to obtain participants.
Due to this tournament setting, time spent with these players was limited and the
interviews were kept purposeful and concise. In order to obtain more data, the other four
participants in the sample (independent of these original interviews) later took part in
member-checking discussions away from a tournament setting (see p. 9).
Interview Guide and Protocol
An interview guide was developed based on previous qualitative research on flow in
sport (e.g., Chavez, 2008; Jackson, 1992, 1995; Russell, 2001), and pilot-tested on two
amateur golfers with handicaps of one and three before the present sample was interviewed.
The pilot study led to changes in the wording of questions, providing a clear explanation and
definition of flow at the beginning, and expanding the scope of the interview from one
isolated experience to the golfer’s general experience of flow in golf in order to gather more
data. This concise guide adopted a semi-structured, open-ended approach to ensure that
sufficient relevant data could be collected through the use of further probing questions where
Flow Occurrence in Elite Golf
5
necessary, while also permitting the participant to elaborate and develop areas of perceived
importance (Patton, 2002).
All participants gave written consent after the researcher explained the purpose of the
study and asked for permission to audiotape the interview. The interviewee’s age and number
of years’ experience as a professional was ascertained, before discussing the highest standard
at which he had competed. Following explanation of the concept of flow as an experience that
“felt like everything clicked into place on the golf course, or that you were playing on auto-
pilot”, the participants were asked to describe a performance in which they had one of these
experiences. They were then asked three questions relating specifically to the occurrence of
flow, in terms of what factors: (i) facilitate flow experiences, (ii) disrupt these states, and (iii)
prevent flow from occurring more often. Finally, the interviewees were asked to discuss
whether or not they perceived flow to be a controllable state.
The interviews were conducted face to face; were digitally recorded, while brief notes
were also taken; ranged between 8 and 25 minutes (M = 14.22, SD = 5.33); and were later
transcribed verbatim. Following this, member checking (Lincoln and Guba, 1985) was
conducted in order to increase trustworthiness. This process involves taking data and
interpretations back to the participants so that they can confirm the credibility of the
information by asking if the themes or categories make sense, whether they are developed
with sufficient evidence, and whether the overall account is realistic and accurate (Creswell
and Miller, 2000). Member checking took place in two stages: first, the transcripts and a copy
of the results were returned to the original nine interviewees for verification. None of these
golfers reported any problems, and deemed the transcripts to be an accurate reflection of the
interviews that took place. Second, follow-up member checking discussions were conducted
with the other four participants, and there was no disagreement between these discussions and
the data originally obtained.
Analysis
The investigator was sensitised to the game of golf through a number of years’
experience at a relatively high amateur standard, and was hence familiar with the terminology
used by these participants. This author was most familiar with the data and conducted an
exploratory analysis, reading the transcripts and recording the in-vivo codes, before using
open then axial coding (Strauss and Corbin, 1998) to establish salient concepts, and
integrating these around core categories. In order to increase trustworthiness, a process of
establishing inter-rater reliability was undertaken. This involves giving the same data to a
number of analysts and asking them to analyse the data according to an agreed set of
categories (Silverman, 2001). In the present study, the second and fourth authors separately
and independently analysed the transcripts and generated codes, concepts, and categories in
order to establish inter-rater reliability. There was a high level of agreement between all
analyses, and where differences emerged, these were discussed and clarified in accordance
with Silverman (2001). After this initial analysis was compiled, it was given to the third
author (independent to the data until this point) for subsequent analysis, who provided
feedback relating to the coding and labelling of concepts and categories.
Christian Swann, Richard Keegan, David Piggott et al.
6
R
ESULTS
Data are presented in terms of the categories that (i) facilitate, (ii) prevent, and (iii)
disrupt flow occurrence, as well as (iv) the controllability of these experiences, as perceived
by elite golfers. In line with recommendations for qualitative research, quotes are used in
order to let the participants’ voices emerge and describe these experiences through the eyes of
the elite golfer (Silverman, 2001). Each participant will be referred to by a pseudonym
randomly chosen and assigned by the investigator.
Golfers’ Descriptions of Flow
Participants provided rich insights into their experiences of flow in elite golf. Rory
described flow as “basically a state of mind where nothing can go wrong. You’re just
comfortable in everything you’re doing, and you think you can’t wait to go and play the next
shot, and just everything comes very easily.” This alluded to a sense of automaticity that other
researchers have associated with flow (e.g., Canham and Wiley, 2003), which Luke also
referred to: “You don’t think about anything at all, you just kind of play golf. You get your
yardage, you aim and that’s it. You’re sensing what to do with the putts, not thinking it.” This
sensory element was further illustrated by Paul;
I could just see the ball, you know I had great visualisation on it. I could hear the ball hit
the bottom of the hole, I could hear it coming off the putter, I could nearly hear it
scraping across the grass…it was really, really like, magnified to me.
These responses resonate strongly with Csikszentmihalyi’s flow theory, suggesting that
this sample of elite golfers were aware of, and had experienced, flow states.
Factors Influencing Flow Occurrence
Emerging from the analysis were eleven facilitators, six preventers, and four disruptors of
flow for this sample of elite golfers; these are presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3, as well as the
number of interviewees reporting each category.
This section is structured around these tables: the categories are discussed below in
relation to the concepts from which they are comprised.
Factors Facilitating Flow Occurrence
Motivation to perform related to the players’ desire to perform well or achieve their goals
in the event they were about to compete in. Events that challenged them more than normal
were particularly facilitative, as discussed by Luke: “the bigger the competition for me, the
more immersed you get.”
Effective preparation was an important facilitator of flow, as illustrated by Oliver, who
noted that “performance is always reflected in the practice…the zone is really just a reflection
of how your preparation has been.” Such preparation was physical and mental in nature, while
Flow Occurrence in Elite Golf
7
efficient organisation in terms of planning and scheduling helped prevent fatigue and burn-
out.
Table 1. Factors found to facilitate flow
Concepts Categories Number of participants
Bigger competition
Personal challenges/negative motivation
Motivating self talk
Motivation to
perform
4
Pre-round preparation
Golf-specific practice/preparation
Mental preparation
Efficient organisation
Practice for tension/pressure
Form/recent success
Effective
preparation
7
Heightened focus and concentration
Focus on present and immediate future
Lack of extraneous thought
Appropriate
focus
9
Enjoyment
Mentally positive
Rhythm/tempo
Comfort zone
Positive state 6
Surrender/letting go
Confidence
Trust/belief in self
Acceptance
Sense of freedom
Letting it
happen
6
Positive self talk
Breathing exercises
Visualisation
Psychological
interventions
5
Comfortable in personal life
Comfortable in surroundings
Positive perception of the course or
conditions
Optimal
environmental
and situational
conditions
3
Adrenaline
Feeding off nerves
Calm/relaxed
Optimal arousal 3
Hydration
Snacking
Maintenance of
physical state
2
Pre-shot routine
Physical cues
Target oriented focus
Commitment to the shot/confidence in
shot selection
Pre-shot visualisation
Pre-shot self-talk
Pre-shot routine 7
Playing well
Hitting good shots
Swinging well
Momentum
Playing well 7
Christian Swann, Richard Keegan, David Piggott et al.
8
Table 2. Factors found to prevent flow
Concepts Category Number of
participants
Non-optimal playing conditions
Problems in personal life
Organisational stressors
Playing partners
Opposition
Negative perception of the place/course
Non-optimal environmental and
situational conditions
6
Lack of practice/preparation
Rushing preparation
Physical problems
Non-optimal preparation and
readiness
6
Lack of confidence/self-belief
Anxiety
Negative attitude
Fear/worry
Negative state 5
Mind drifting
Lack of focus
Inappropriate thinking
Lack of, or inappropriate, focus 5
Excessive motivation
Lack of motivation
Non-optimal motivation 3
Getting off to a bad start
Not performing as well as you could
Not playing well 3
Table 3. Factors found to disrupt flow
Concepts Category Number of
participants
Inconsistent weather
Stoppage in play
Change in pace of play
Distracting interactions with others
“Normal” distractions
Don’t like the shot shape or hole
Bad Luck
Non-optimal environmental and
situational conditions
5
Loss of Focus
Awareness of the situation
Negative focus
Loss of, or inappropriate, focus 4
Fear/worry
Anxiety
Loss of self-belief
Negative state 3
Feeling uncomfortable about hitting it
Not committing to the shot
Rushing the shot
Getting out of routine.
Hitting bad shots 3
Flow Occurrence in Elite Golf
9
Appropriate focus represented a state of heightened but specific focus, in which the
player is concentrating in the moment and on the task at hand. James discussed the influence
of this factor, and perceived a close relationship between focus and being in flow: “When I’m
really focused that makes it easy to get in the zone. To me there’s not much difference
between being really focused and in the zone.” The concept of process or task focus also
appears to revolve around the next shot these golfers face, as described by Nick: “I never ever
think about the previous shot I’ve hit, whether it be good or bad…the next shot is the most
important shot.”
Positive state referred to the positive, enjoyable, and harmonious characteristics
associated with flow, as Matt illustrated: “That’s definitely when I play my best…when I’m
perfectly happy on the course…I’m just enjoying being there”. Other golfers referred to being
“comfortable” or in a “comfort zone.”
Letting it happen relates to the paradoxical nature of flow, and was illustrated by Oliver:
“Because you’re not looking for (flow) you’re more likely to make it happen”, and Jack:
“When you’re in the zone just let it happen, don’t try to fight it or rush it, just go with the
flow.” With this comes a sense of freedom in terms of playing and swinging freely, and an
element of acceptance in that bad shots don’t matter as much and are much easier to recover
from when in flow.
Psychological interventions referred to techniques or exercises that these players used to
maintain an optimal state during the period between shots, when distractions or disrupting
influences were likely to occur. Hence this category appears to be a golf-specific difference
due to the nature of golf. These interventions were generally used to reduce tension and
maintain concentration, and included positive self-talk and visualisation, while breathing
exercises were used most widely used. These involved slow, deep, diaphragmatic breathing,
the importance of which, were discussed by Jack: “It’s impossible to be nervous when you’re
breathing correctly…when you’re breathing correctly you’re in a relaxed state of mind.”
Optimal environmental and situational conditions referred to elements outside of the
actual performance that were favourable for the athlete, and in turn facilitated flow. These
could be outside of golf, such as their personal life: “If everything else is comfortable, like
your family, whatever, money wise, then I think it’s a lot easier to get in the zone” (Rory).
Being comfortable in your surroundings was also facilitative, such as returning to a place or
course that you like or have played well on before. Or if the player has been used to tougher
conditions, a perception that the present course or conditions are easier can lead to a sense of
positivity, and similarly facilitate flow.
Optimal arousal varied depending on the golfers’ individual differences, and was hence
very personal. For some, a more energised state involving adrenaline, and feeding off nerves
facilitated flow, relating to optimal motivation/challenge in that “you have to be nervous to
get in the zone” (James). For others, a more calm/relaxed state facilitated flow, e.g. Luke,
who said that “when I find I’m relaxed I find it much easier.”
Maintenance of physical state was comprised of the concepts snacking and hydration,
which enabled these participants to function properly throughout their rounds, which can last
up to five or even six hours at the elite level. For example, Luke stated that “just being
hydrated enough helps…if I’m not, I tend to find (that) physically I get tired or just lose focus
a little bit.” Again, this was a golf-specific difference due to the nature of golf.
Pre-shot routine described the process through which these golfers execute each shot,
which appeared to help the player get into an optimal frame of mind immediately prior to and
Christian Swann, Richard Keegan, David Piggott et al.
10
during the execution of the shot. The link between these pre-shot routines and flow was
described by Paul: “The pre-shot routine for me is what triggers (flow)…the one thing that
allows you to get into that frame of mind.”
These routines were also very individual: for some, triggers or physical cues were used to
start their routines: “anything to say ‘show time’” (Oliver); while a narrow, specific focus on
the target was also important, illustrated by Luke: “When I feel like I’m in the zone…all I
think about when I’m hitting the shot is “target”…I can kind of picture the shot before I hit it,
and then all you have to do is aim.” Most of these golfers also referred to pre-shot
visualisation, in being able to picture the shot before they hit it, while pre-shot positive self
talk was also an important factor for some players. A final concept was that of committing to
the shot and being absolutely certain about the shot they want to hit before beginning their
routine.
Playing well described the players’ awareness that their overall performance was going to
plan and they were on track to achieve their goals. The concepts of swinging well and hitting
good shots helped the players feel like they were performing well, and in turn facilitated flow.
Some players also discussed a link between psychological momentum and flow. For example,
Matt described that if you “start to hit good shots that drags you into the zone”, and Oliver
discussed that “you do get absorbed in the moment, you get competitive and momentum
builds.”
Factors Preventing Flow Occurrence
Non-optimal environmental and situational conditions referred to interfering elements
outside of the golfer’s control. Non-optimal playing conditions could prevent flow, either
through tough weather or course-set up, as could a negative perception of the place or course,
particularly if the player hasn’t played well there previously. For some golfers, competing
against better opposition could prevent flow by distracting them from their own performance
and focusing more on the presence of these competitors. Similarly, playing partners were also
reported as being able to prevent flow experiences, especially those in pro-am tournaments
such as amateurs and high-handicappers. Non golf-related factors could also prevent flow,
including problems in your personal life (e.g., breaking up from a long-term relationship), or
organisational stressors (e.g., doing a lot of travelling or having another job, such as
coaching) that take time and focus away from golf.
Non-optimal preparation and readiness captured two subcategories; first, lack of
practice/preparation: “Fail to prepare, prepare to fail, right? If you’re not (prepared)…you’re
on the golf course and it might take you a couple of holes to get basically where you should
be…it could be gone at that stage” (Jack). Similarly, rushing preparation was reported to
have a preventative effect, and physical problems such as lethargy, illness or fatigue were also
reported to prevent flow experience.
Negative state, comprising of lack of confidence/self-belief, anxiety, negative attitude,
and fear/worry, also prevented flow from occurring. This category was summarised by Matt:
“If you’re worried about failing, or worried about what other people think, or worried about
succeeding…whatever you’re afraid about, if you let that affect your performance then you’re
not playing to your full ability.”
Flow Occurrence in Elite Golf
11
Lack of, or inappropriate, focus contained the themes mind drifting, not being focused,
and inappropriate thinking. Participants mentioned both over-analytical and negative thinking
as being able to prevent their flow experiences, illustrated by Nick’s quote that:
(if) your second shot is a 3 iron to a green that has water all the way around it, or a green
that has out of bounds right and left and long, and bunkers everywhere, it’s very difficult
not to think about the trouble.
Non-optimal motivation combined concepts of either a lack of motivation or excessive
motivation. Some golfers discussed that a lack of nerves or challenge prevented their flow
experiences, while others talked about ‘forcing it’ and trying too hard, as Jack discussed:
“you’re never in the flow when you’re forcing it”.
Not playing well referred to the players’ performance being below the standard required
for them to achieve their goals in that event. This suggests that it is difficult or impossible to
get into flow while performing badly, which is perhaps unsurprising considering the link
between flow and peak performance.
Factors Disrupting Flow Experience
Non-optimal environmental and situational conditions referred to factors external to the
golfer that interrupted their experiences, and included concepts such as inconsistent weather
in terms of wind and rain, and change in pace of play (e.g., rushing). Stoppages in play were
discussed as being particularly disruptive:
you’re leading a tournament, you’re in the zone, you’re focused, and all of a sudden…it’s
called off for a period of time, then your mind starts to go again. You’ve lost your focus,
you’ve lost your zone. So I think a stoppage in play (is) a nightmare (James).
Furthermore, other golfers noted that coming across a shot or hole that they disliked
could affect their focus and disrupt flow, as could “normal” distractions (such as sudden
noises), distracting interactions with others, and bad luck. The concepts in this category
disrupted flow by distracting the player from the task at hand.
Loss of, or inappropriate, focus also disrupted flow experiences for these golfers, and
could occur relatively easily, as Paul described: “your head drifts to a lot of different places
because you have so much time.” Becoming aware of the situation was also a disrupting
theme that caused the players to realise how well they were performing and lose focus on the
task at hand (e.g. by thinking ahead to outcomes of the performance). Luke also discussed the
effects of negative focus in terms of seeing the danger on holes: “If you kind of see danger
you start focusing on that...and it’s harder to focus on the target.” This category relates to
focusing on variables irrelevant from the task at hand, which could then lead to playing the
next shot badly.
Negative state referred to negative thoughts and feelings that could occur during the flow
or over a shot, which then disrupted the experience, including the concepts fear/worry,
anxiety, and loss of self-belief. This factor could be caused by other disrupting influences
(e.g., inappropriate focus) or could be related to the situation that the player is in (e.g., the last
hole in a tournament) as Oliver noted: “sometimes we cannot trust. It’s the biggest
Christian Swann, Richard Keegan, David Piggott et al.
12
contradiction in golf. Like the 18
th
, I hit it out of bounds yesterday. The very time you should
be standing there trusting yourself, you cannot do it.”
Hitting bad shots described the (flawed) process that the golfer goes through in
performing the shot, and combined concepts of feeling uncomfortable about hitting it, not
committing to the shot, rushing the shot, and getting out of routine. These processes could
then result in negative outcomes for that shot (e.g., finishing in a difficult position such as a
bunker), in turn leading to negative emotions (e.g., anger), which the player may struggle to
recover from. This can then disrupt flow.
Controllability of Flow
Four of these elite golfers (Oliver, Alex, Rory, Luke) explicitly stated that they perceived
flow to be controllable, providing responses such as: “I would think you could help induce it”
(Oliver). The other five participants alluded to similar control: James suggested that “I think
you can practice and improve it” through exercises designed to increase focus, and
motivational talks; Matt believed that “it’s definitely possible to intervene”; Paul felt that he
would be able to control flow “if I was conditioned from a younger age”; Jack suggested that
breathing exercises and effective use of psychology could help; while Nick believed flow
could be controlled, “but the only way to do that is by winning.” These perceptions were,
once again, highly individual.
Negative Flow
Emerging from the data was a concept of “negative flow” opposite to the optimal
experience, which two golfers alluded to: Rory noted that “you always get into a rhythm
when you’re on the golf course, whether it be a bad or a good one”; and Jack reported that
“you could start off with 3 bogeys or something and all of a sudden that’s the flow you’re in
then…you’re on the back foot straight away” and on certain occasions “people know that “oh
this is going to be a struggle”…negative flow starts going, and all of a sudden (the
performance) goes the other way.”
D
ISCUSSION
This study aimed to establish a description of how flow occurred within a sample of elite
golfers, and suggest whether flow may occur differently in golf than in previously researched
sports due to golf’s self-paced nature. While explicit comparison is difficult because each
previous study has presented and labelled their findings differently, the main concepts found
to influence flow in elite sport thus far relate to preparation, mental attitude, focus,
motivation, arousal, and environmental and situational conditions (Jackson, 1992, 1995;
Young, 2000; Sugiyama and Inomata, 2005; Chavez, 2008). These were also found in the
present study, which suggests there are similarities between the occurrence of flow for these
elite golfers and the previously researched sports. Similarly, these findings suggest that this
sample of golfers perceived flow to be at least potentially controllable, as has been the case
with previous research (e.g., Chavez, 2008; Jackson, 1995; Sugiyama and Inomata, 2005).
Flow Occurrence in Elite Golf
13
However, a number of differences were also apparent within this sample. The use of pre-
shot or pre-task routines does not appear in extant literature exploring flow in elite sport.
These routines helped these golfers achieve an optimal internal state prior to performing each
shot, and were perceived by the golfers to be an important facilitator of flow, a suggestion
supporting that of Singer (2002). This sample also reported that hitting good shots, playing
well and momentum facilitated the occurrence of flow. Due to the period of time between
shots, it could be the case that flow occurrence is linked to a build up of momentum in golf.
Singer (2002) supports this link by proposing that pre-shot routines are immediately followed
by evaluation and feedback, which then leads back into preparation for the next shot, and
hence there is a cyclical element within the use of pre-shot routines that could build
momentum. Landsberger and Beauchamp (1999) attempted to establish indicators of
performance momentum during a competitive round of golf using a system that quantified
momentum gains and losses relative to expectations for each stroke and hole. Although they
made no link to flow, such a system could be useful for exploring the relationship between
flow and momentum in future research.
Situational conditions outside of golf influenced flow occurrence for these athletes, which
does not appear to have been reported by existing literature. This finding also differs from
Kimiecik and Stein’s (1992) Person x Situation Flow Framework which suggested that only
situational factors within sport could influence flow. This could be a golf-specific difference
in how flow occurs possibly due to the lengthy periods between shots, during which players
have time to dwell on these situational conditions (e.g., problems in their personal life). This
is less likely to be the case in more reactive, externally paced sports.
The discussion of a “negative flow” by some of these participants also raised questions.
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) has discussed psychic entropy as an antithesis of flow, “a
disorganisation of the self that impairs its effectiveness…(which) can weaken the self to the
point that it is no longer able to invest attention and pursue its goals” (p.37). Similarly,
Allison and Duncan (1988) refer to antiflow in work settings, which they define as the
extreme experiences of boredom and anxiety. While extensive research has been conducted
on negative aspects of experience within sport, such as anxiety, burnout, and stress (Jackson,
1992), it does not appear that any has focused on the most negative states experienced by
athletes during performance. Therefore, future studies could begin investigating if, and how,
psychic entropy or “negative flow” is experienced in sport, and whether it relates only to golf
or other sports as well.
Another suggestion was that of hydration and snacking in order to maintain energy and
concentration levels, which has also been identified in previous physiology literature. For
example, Smith (2010) discussed that “the onset of mental and physical fatigue through
inadequate and/or inappropriate dietary practices will have a significant impact on the
player’s ability during performance” (p. 643). Therefore it appears to be logical that sufficient
energy levels could have an impact on flow states in golf. The use of psychological
interventions between shots to help maintain an optimal mental and physiological state was
also reported, including self-talk, visualisation, and breathing exercises. These abdominal
breathing exercises discussed by the players resonate with centering (e.g., Haddad and
Tremayne, 2009), which has been reported to yield physical balance, help the individual to
focus prior to a task, and help control physiological arousal (Nideffer, 1994; Nideffer and
Sagal, 2006). It seems reasonable that such exercises could be beneficial to golf performance
and flow states, and these links should be explored in future. These could all be golf-specific
Christian Swann, Richard Keegan, David Piggott et al.
14
differences due to the time available between shots, which is not the case in the previously
researched sports.
Applied Recommendations
Similar to those of Jackson (1992) and Young (2000), applied recommendations for
athletes, coaches, and practitioners revolve around putting relevant factors in place to improve
the likelihood of flow occurring for golfers. This involves: (i) the promotion of controllable
facilitators, (ii) negating controllable preventers and disruptors, and (iii) the practicing of re-
focusing strategies to overcome any distractions that may occur.
Setting challenging but achievable goals for an event is one way that the athlete can
achieve optimal motivation. These, combined with effective physical and mental preparation,
could facilitate challenge-skills balance whereby athletes enter the event believing that they
can achieve their goals if they perform at the best of their ability. During the event, the use of
psychological skills are encouraged to help the athlete maintain an optimal internal state,
particularly between shots; as are snacking and hydration, in order to help the golfer maintain
energy and concentration levels throughout the round. Golfers are also advised to employ
individualised pre-shot routines. These should foster external focus on the target (Bell and
Hardy, 2009), and could use physical cues or triggers, visualisation and self talk, essentially
aiming to help golfers feel completely confident and focused before they hit each shot.
Following these recommendations should help minimise controllable preventing and
disrupting categories, such as non-optimal preparation and readiness, non-optimal motivation,
and ineffective execution of the shot. However, golfers are also advised to develop re-
focusing strategies in order to cope with any distractions that do arise prior to or during the
event; Orlick’s (2007) recommendations for distraction control would be especially useful in
this regard. These golf-specific data and recommendations may be useful for golfers, coaches,
and psychologists to help prepare in ways that could increase the likelihood of experiencing
flow.
This study aimed to introduce the concept of flow to elite golf. Findings suggest that flow
may occur slightly differently for this sample of elite golfers than has been the case for
previously researched sports. However, it should be noted that these findings are only
discussed in relation to this sample and the methods used in the present study, and that they
do not suggest causality. If the results of this study do generalise to elite golf in general then
future research could conduct similar studies with different samples. For example, all of the
participants in this study were male, and further research could explore and compare the flow
experiences of female professional golfers. Furthermore, the eight players from this sample
who had competed on the European Tour did so only on certain occasions (e.g., via
invitation).
This means that although the golfers in the present study were elite, they did not perform
regularly at the highest level possible and there could be differences between these
professionals and more elite, full-time members of the European Tour. Therefore further
research should seek to explore the flow experiences of full-time European Tour players, and
could provide insight into flow at the very highest level of the game (e.g., winning European
Tour tournaments) and add richer data to that of the present study (e.g., in terms of possible
controllability of flow). Similarly, such an exploration could highlight similarities and
Flow Occurrence in Elite Golf
15
differences between flow experiences at each level, and could therefore provide applied
recommendations relevant for professional or elite-amateur golfers aiming to reach the
European Tour.
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