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Despite the increase of divorces after a long relationship, this trend remains a neglected research topic. The present contribution seeks to identify patterns of psychological adaptation to divorce after a long-term marriage. Data from a questionnaire study with 308 persons aged 45 – 65 years, who divorced after having been married for an average of 25 years, are presented. Exploratory latent profile analysis with various well-being outcomes revealed five groups: one with average adapted, one with resilients, and three small groups with seriously affected individuals. Discriminant variables between the groups were: personality, time since separation, a new relationship, and financial situation. Age, gender and length of marriage played a marginal role; satisfaction with the former marriage and initiator-status were not relevant
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Article
Patterns of psychological
adaptation to divorce after
a long-term marriage
Pasqualina Perrig-Chiello
1
, Sara Hutchison
1
and Davide Morselli
2
Abstract
Despite the increase in divorces after a long relationship, this trend remains a neglected
research topic. The present contribution seeks to identify patterns of psychological
adaptation to divorce after a long-term marriage. Data from a questionnaire study with
308 persons aged 45–65 years, who divorced after having been married for an average of
25 years, are presented. Exploratory latent profile analysis with various well-being
outcomes revealed five groups: one with average adapted, one with resilients, and three
small groups with seriously affected individuals. Discriminant variables between the
groups were personality, time since separation, a new relationship, and financial
situation. Age, gender, and length of marriage played a marginal role; satisfaction with the
former marriage and initiator status were not relevant.
Keywords
Divorce, long-term marriage, personality, psychological adaptation, resilience,
vulnerability
While the negative effects of divorce on well-being are well documented in research
literature, the large individual differences in psychological adaptation are still not well
understood (Amato, 2010). This is especially the case for marital breakup after long-
term marriage, which is still a neglected research topic (Pudrovska & Carr, 2008;
1
University of Berne, Switzerland
2
University of Lausanne, Switzerland
Corresponding author:
Pasqualina Perrig-Chiello, Institute of Psychology, University of Berne, Fabrikstrasse 8, Bern 3012, Switzerland.
Email: pasqualina.perrigchiello@psy.unibe.ch
J S P R
Journal of Social and
Personal Relationships
2015, Vol. 32(3) 386–405
ªThe Author(s) 2014
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0265407514533769
spr.sagepub.com
Sweeney, 2010). This research lag stands in contrast to the relevance of the phenomenon,
given the increase in divorce rates among adults aged 50 and older. In the U.S., divorce
rates in this age-group have doubled in the last 20 years (Brown & Lin, 2012), as it did in
most European countries. In Switzerland, where the present research was conducted, the
divorce rate for marriages of a length of more than 20 years has risen from 15%in 1970
to 28%in 2010 (Swiss Federal Office of Statistics, 2011).
1
Demographic and social
changes (longer life expectancy and rising expectations for personal fulfillment from
marriage) in recent decades are major explanations for this trend. Furthermore, objective
barriers to divorce (e.g., economic dependence of women) as well as subjective ones
(impact of family values and religious convictions) have been considerably lessened
(Wu & Schimmele, 2007).
Most people concerned are in their middle years and have been married for more than
one or two decades. A crucial question in this context is whether the research results
regarding psychological adaptation to divorce found in younger age-groups also apply to
divorcees after long-term marriages. In fact, even though a number of studies have exam-
ined the impact of divorce on individuals’ well-being, a majority did not explicitly raise the
issue of age at the time of divorce. However, it is known that the age at which one experi-
ences a critical life event can shape both the nature and context of the event as well as the
individual’s subsequent adjustment (Pudrovska & Carr, 2008). For middle-aged individu-
als, divorce may be accompanied by some of the challenges younger persons face but also
by a set of distinctive age-related risks as well as resources (Pudrovska & Carr, 2008).
Indeed, most people in this age-group have to deal with personal changes (e.g., meno-
pause) as well as with multiple and often stressing social roles both professionally and pri-
vately (e.g., expectations for help and care from frail elderly parents; Perrig-Chiello &
Hutchison, 2010; Perrig-Chiello, Hutchison, & opflinger, 2008). Furthermore, many in
this stage see fewer opportunities for new intimate relationships (Wrosch & Heckhausen,
1999). On the other hand, they are not newly confronted with the challenge of raising chil-
dren; in addition, they possibly have better emotional regulation, given their longer life
experience than individuals who divorce younger (Charles & Carstensen, 2007).
Strongly related to the issue of age is the duration of the marriage. Marital breakup
after a long-term marriage often necessitates a departure from accustomed roles and in
turn adaptation to new ones after decades of adhering to a specific status quo. It has been
shown that the length of a marriage proves predictive for agitation or stress symptoms
(Chiriboga, 1982; Wang & Amato, 2000). However, just as for age the duration of mar-
riage has hardly been considered in divorce research.
Considering these research gaps, the overarching aim of the present research is to
explore psychological adaptation to marital breakup in individuals who have been
married for an average of 25 years.
Background
Psychological adaptation to divorce
There is a great body of empirical evidence that associates divorce with symptoms of
depression, grief, and anger, which may in turn have detrimental effects on well-being
Perrig-Chiello et al. 387
(Amato, 2010; Lorenz, Wickrama, Conger, & Elder, 2006). For most individuals, marital
breakup is psychologically stressful and socially destabilizing, but the way adaptation
occurs can vary widely. There have been several theoretical attempts to explain the
effects of divorce on well-being outcomes. One of the most influential approaches, on
which we rely on in this research, is the divorce-stress-adjustment perspective (Amato,
2000). This approach considers marital dissolution as a process that begins before the
event happens and ends after divorce is concluded. The divorce process is typically asso-
ciated with various stressors that increase the risk of negative psychological distress and
health outcomes (Amato, 2010). The severity and duration of the adaptation process
depend on a variety of protective factors such as personal resources (Amato, 2010).
Embedded within the divorce-stress-adjustment perspective are two contrary models.
The one, the crisis model, assumes that the negative consequences of divorce represent
a temporary phenomenon to which most individuals adapt over time (Clark & Georgel-
lis, 2010). The other one, the chronic strain model, contrastingly presumes that being
divorced entails chronic stress (Amato, 2000).
Research of the last two decades is inconclusive regarding whether the crisis or the
chronic strain model is more appropriate for explaining adaptation to divorce (Amato,
2010). Whereas many individuals adapt rapidly to marital breakup, others remain vul-
nerable over a longer period of time, and some do not seem to recover at all. Results from
longitudinal studies, for example, by Hetherington (2003) suggest that there are indeed
various patterns of adaptation to divorce. Six years after divorce, one fifth of their study
participants were very well adjusted to their new situation, whereas 10%were still
hopeless and depressed. The others, the large majority, adapted quite well and had average
scores for most indicators. Another study conducted by Mancini, Bonanno, and Clark
(2011), which examined trajectories of life satisfaction in the years before and after
divorce, the majority of participants showed little change in annual assessments of life
satisfaction, while some trajectories diverged sharply from the modal response.
Taken together, it seems that while the crisis approach applies for most people, for a
minority it does not. By adopting this differentiated and extended crisis perspective,
the aim of this article is to explore the variability of psychological adaptation to divorce
after a long-term partnership and its determining factors.
Role of stressors and resources for adaptation to divorce
The most studied stressors are related to the time before breakup (e.g., dissatisfaction
with relationship) as well as after it (e.g., continuing conflicts with ex-spouse). However,
the effects are not always clear. While some studies suggest that persons from low-
distress marriages have more difficulties in adapting than those from high-distress ones
(Amato & Hohmann-Marriott, 2007), other studies could not replicate these findings
(Johnson & Wu, 2002; Waite, Luo, & Lewin, 2009). Another stressor could be that one
spouse desires to end the marriage more than the other. It has been argued that being the
initiator of divorce enables the individual to have more control over the event, which thus
may lead to better adaptation after separation (Hewitt & Turrell, 2011; Wang & Amato,
2000). Further possible stressors include the way the divorce has been experienced,
388 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 32(3)
continuing conflicts with the ex-spouse, or increasing financial problems (Braver, Sha-
piro, & Goodman, 2006; Krumrei, Coit, Martin, Fogo, & Mahoney, 2007).
The effects of divorce-induced stress can be moderated by protective factors such as
intrapersonal resources like personality. Individuals with low scores in neuroticism and
high scores in openness and extraversion seem to be better able to adapt to the new sit-
uation (Hetherington, 2003; Pudrovska & Carr, 2008). But also trait resilience, which
refers to the ability to maintain relatively stable, healthy levels of psychological and
physical function in the face of disruptive events, can have a beneficial role on adapta-
tion (Bonanno, 2004; Mancini & Bonanno, 2009; Ong, Bergeman, Bisconti, & Wallance,
2006). Among the interpersonal resources, the existence of a new relationship results
in a significant predictor of good psychological adaptation after divorce (Kulik &
Heine-Cohen, 2011), but also having children can represent an important resource
(Williams & Dunne-Bryant, 2006).
Whether men and women differ with regard to adaptation is rather controversial.
Whereas some studies found men to adapt better and more quickly to the new situation
(Simon, 2002), others found just the opposite (Andress & Br¨ockel, 2007) and still others
did not find any gender differences at all (Gardner & Oswald, 2006; Strohschein,
McDonough, Monette, & Shao, 2005).
Research questions and hypotheses
Considering this background, the aim of the present article is to grasp the large individual
differences by exploring possible patterns of psychological adaptation to marital breakup
after a long-term marriage. Psychological adaptation is understood as a multidimensional
concept referring to an individual’s response to the critical life event. In order to have a
differentiated view, several indicators are taken into account: affective well-being
(absence of unpleasant affects namely depression, hopelessness, and mourning), cognitive
well-being (life satisfaction), and subjective health (Luhmann, Hofmann, Eid, & Lucas,
2012). In addition, we will examine the role of intra- and interindividual resources and
of possible stressors for group allocation. Thus, our research questions are as follows:
!What are the patterns of psychological adaptation (in terms of life satisfaction,
depression, mourning, hopelessness, and subjective health) in persons 45–65
years old who experienced a divorce within the last 5 years after a long-term
marriage (i.e., at least 15 years)?
!How do the individuals in the identified groups of patterns differ with regard to
intrapersonal resources (personality and resilience), interpersonal resources (new
relationship and having children), stressors related to marital history (dissatisfac-
tion with marriage, initiator status, and divorce experience), sociodemographic
variables (age, sex, education, work status, and financial situation), length of
marriage, and time since separation and divorce?
We expect:
!In accordance with the crisis approach (Dupre, Beck, & Meadows, 2009), and
substantiated by finding from resilience research, it can be expected that the large
Perrig-Chiello et al. 389
majority of individuals are well adapted, as the mean time since divorce in this
study was around 3 years. Specifically, we expect three patterns: a large cluster
of average-adapted individuals (moderately lowered life satisfaction, subjective
health, and moderately increased depression, mourning, and hopelessness) and
two small clusters, one consisting of vulnerable individuals (with the most nega-
tive outcomes) and another of persons showing the most positive outcomes.
!According to the divorce-stress-adjustment perspective, the three clusters are
expected to differ from each other primarily with regard to the individuals’ intra-
personal resources: the group with the most positive outcomes is expected having
the lowest scores in neuroticism, and the highest ones in extraversion, openness
and resilience, and the vulnerable group correspondingly the lowest respectively
the highest scores in these measures. The best adapted group is furthermore
expected of having the shortest duration of marriage, being the initiator of separa-
tion, being separated longer, having children and a new relationship, and being
financially better situated than the average adapted and, especially, than the vul-
nerable group. Considering the inconsistent findings, we do not have any specific
expectations concerning the satisfaction in former partnership, age, gender, edu-
cation, and occupational status.
Method
Study context and participants
Data come from a questionnaire study carried out in 2012 in Switzerland.
2
This study
aims at gaining insights about psychological adaptation to marital breakup in the second
half of life, be it due to divorce or bereavement. In this article, we concentrate on the
sample of divorced individuals. To generate the sampling frame, the Federal Office of
Statistics supplied us with a random quota sample stratified by age, gender, and marital
status. A total of 1,082 persons aged between 45 and 65 years who divorced within
the last 5 years were contacted by postal mail and asked to participate in a questionnaire
survey. Nonrespondents were recontacted twice by postal mail. Participants had the
choice between filling out a paper–pencil questionnaire or using an online version.
The return rate was 42.8%(n¼422); 9%used the online version. This return rate is quite
satisfactory, considering the fact that divorced people tend to have higher nonresponse
rates than their nondivorced counterparts (Mitchell, 2010).
In our analyses, we considered only those individuals who had been married at least
15 or more years prior to the divorce in order to ensure a more homogenous sample of the
long-term married, allowing thereby clearer conclusions. A total of 308 persons fulfilled
this criterion. Their average length of marriage was 23.62 years (range ¼15–40). The
final sample comprised 113 men (M
age
¼56.18 years; SD ¼5.80) and 195 women
(M
age
¼54.95 years; SD ¼5.33; no significant gender difference in age: Mann–Whitney
U¼9622.5, p¼.06). The large majority (84%)wasSwiss(14%European and 2%
other). The average time since divorce was around 3 years (M¼2.88; SD ¼1.56;
range ¼.6–5). In all, 31%of the women (n¼61) and 55%of the men (n¼62) were
in a new partnership (significant gender difference, f¼#.238, p< .001).
390 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 32(3)
Measures
Dependent variables. Life satisfaction was assessed with the Satisfaction with Life scale
(Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985; Schumacher, 2003) consisting of 5 items
(sample item: I am satisfied with my life) with answers on a 7-point scale (1 ¼completely
disagree to 7 ¼completely agree;M¼4.83, SD ¼1.23) and loading onto one factor.
The internal reliability of the scale was good (Cronbach’s a¼.87).
Depression was measured with the Centre of Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale
(ADS-K, Hautzinger & Bailer, 1993) consisting of 15 items (M¼.59, SD ¼.50; sample
item: During the past week I was bothered by things that usually don’t bother me)and
answers on a 4-point scale (0 ¼not at all;3¼all the time; internal consistency Cronbach
a¼.90).
Hopelessness was measured with a short version of the Hopelessness scale
(Beck, Weissman, Lester, & Trexler, 1974; Krampen, 1994). The 10 items (sample
item: I never get what I want, so it’s foolish to want anything; answer scale: 1 ¼very
much untrue to 6 ¼very much correct) assess negative expectations of persons
concerning themselves, their environment, and their future (M¼2.62, SD ¼.73;
Cronbach’s a¼.83).
Subjective health was assessed with the widely used single item question How are you
presently doing health-wise? The answer options range from 1 ¼very good to 5 ¼very
badly (M¼2.01, SD ¼.88).
Mourning: With a self-developed item we inquired whether the participants
mourned the loss of their partner: ‘‘Do you mourn your ex-relationship?’ Answer
options were 1 ¼yes, very much,2¼sometimes,3¼no,and4¼no, quite the opposite
(M¼2.64, SD ¼.91).
Independent variables
Pre- and postdivorce history (possible stressors).
Length of marriage and length of relationship: Besides the length of the marriage
(M¼23.62 years; SD ¼6.15; range ¼15–40) the length of the relationship was
also assessed, which includes also premarriage period (M¼26.05 years; SD ¼
6.19; range ¼15–47).
Satisfaction with former relationship: With this self-developed item respondents
rated on a 10-point scale (1 ¼very unhappy;10¼very happy), how generally
happy they felt in their former relationship (M¼5.84; SD ¼2.16).
In addition, respondents were asked whether they were the initiator of the separa-
tion process (44%), their partner was (40%), or both (16%).
Separation experience: Participants had to rate how they had experienced the
separation (1 ¼very negatively;10¼very positively;M¼4.21, SD ¼3.05).
Current relationship and familial situation: Respondents were asked whether
they were in a new relationship at the time of the survey, and how they judged
their current relationship with their former partner, rating it on a 5-point scale
(1 ¼extremely tense;5¼very good;M¼2.80; SD ¼1.34). Respondents had
also to indicate whether they had children in common with the former partner
(M¼.89; SD ¼.05).
Perrig-Chiello et al. 391
Resources. Personality was assessed with the Big Five Inventory (BFI-10; Ramm-
stedt & John, 2007), which consists of 2 items for each of the five personality dimen-
sions: extroversion (I see myself as someone who is reserved),agreeableness(Isee
myself as someone who tends to find fault with others), conscientiousness (Iseemyself
as someone who does a thorough job), neuroticism (I see myself as someone who gets
nervous easily),andopenness(Iseemyselfassomeonewhohasanactiveimagina-
tion). Each item can be scored on a scale from 1 ¼disagree strongly to 5 ¼agree
strongly.Meanscores:extroversionM¼3.32, SD ¼1.06; agreeableness M¼3.50,
SD ¼.77; conscientiousness M¼4.20, SD ¼.72; neuroticism M¼2.64, SD ¼.93;
openness M¼3.76, SD ¼.96.
Resilience was measured with the brief version of the Resilience scale (RS-11)
(Schumacher, Leppert, Gunzelmann, Strauss, & Ba¨hler 2005; Wagnild & Young, 1993).
The RS-11 is a one-dimensional scale with 11 items (I can usually look at a situation in a
number of ways; answer options range from 1 ¼I don’t agree to 7 ¼I agree completely,
M¼5.54, SD ¼.85) and correlates strongly with the full version of the RS-11 (r¼.95;
Schumacher et al., 2005). In our sample, the scale demonstrated good internal consis-
tency (a¼.86).
Time since separation and divorce, demographic. To control for the role of time on the
psychological adaptation to marital breakup, we considered the time passed since the
separation (years since the separation (M¼6.59; SD ¼3.58; range ¼.72–16.75) as well
as since divorce (M¼2.88; SD ¼1.56; range ¼.6–5), as the temporal gap between the
both events may vary to a considerable degree.
The analyses were controlled for respondents’ gender,age,level of education (from
1¼Primary school to 6 ¼University level;M¼4.00; SD ¼1.34), work status (85%
employed, 19%homemakers, 8%retired, and 2%unemployed), and self-declared finan-
cial situation (from 1 ¼Idonothaveenoughmoneytosupportmyselfto 3 ¼Ihavemore
than enough money to support myself;M¼1.99; SD ¼.43).
Analytical strategy
Following Asparouhov and Muthen (2013) and Lanza, Tan, and Bray (2013), a two-step
procedure was used to investigate individual differences in reacting to marital breakup.
In the first step, an exploratory latent profile analysis (LPA, Lazarsfeld & Henry, 1968)
was used to assess different types of responses to divorce. Like latent class analysis, LPA
is a person-centered approach that identifies respondents with similar patterns of
response on a number of numeric variables (Bauer & Curran, 2004; Marsh, Lu
¨dtke,
Trautwein, & Morin, 2009). The difference in variable-centered analyses—for example,
factor analysis—is that whereas those highlight relationships among the variables, the
LPA model highlights relationships among individuals. That is, LPA clusters individuals
into unobservable subgroups with different probability distributions (Lubke & Muthe´n,
2005), and the choice of the correct number of groups is estimated by means of
goodness-of-fit indexes (Nylund, Asparouhov, & Muthe´n, 2007). In this study, three
types of indicators were used: the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), the boot-
strapped likelihood ratio test (BLRT; McLachlan & Peel, 2000), and entropy. The BIC
392 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 32(3)
assumes that a model is penalized by the number of estimated parameters. The best
model is indicated by the lowest BIC. The BLRT indicates whether including one extra
class in the analysis produced a significant (i.e., larger than zero) improvement in the
model fit. The best fit is indicated by the last significant BLRT. Entropy gives informa-
tion on the probability of respondents being classified into more than one cluster. Values
of entropy near 1 indicate high certainty of classification, while small values of entropy
indicate a high probability that respondents could be classified in more than one class.
After having assessed the number of profiles, standard procedures assign each indi-
vidual to the most probable profile to estimate between-class differences on covariates
(Clogg, 1995; Morselli & Passini, 2012). This method uses the latent classification as
an observed variable, thus losing the benefits of a latent model that account for classifi-
cation uncertainty (Clark & Muthe`n, 2009; Lanza, Tan, & Bray, 2013; Vermunt, 2010).
Alternatively, Lanza and colleagues (2013) proposed a technique that estimates the clas-
sification as a latent variable and at the same time the difference between the estimated
classes on a number of independent (distal) variables. In Lanza’s method as implemented
on Mplus 7.11 (Muthe´n & Muthe´n, 1998–2013), an auxiliary model is estimated where
the distal variables are used as latent class predictors within a multinomial logistic
regression in addition to the original LPA measurement model. This method has the
advantage over other methods for the use of covariates in LPA (e.g., Clark & Muthe`n,
2009; Vermunt, 2010) not allowing the distal variables to drastically change the compo-
sition of the classes. Thus, the equality of means across the latent profiles is tested for
each independent variable one at a time using an overall Wald’s test as well as pairwise
class comparisons between distal variable means (Asparouhov, 2010).
Given that the Lanza’s method is also fairly robust under violation of the assumptions
of multinomial logistic regression (Asparouhov & Muthen, 2013), it is of particular
interest for comparing profiles of adaptations to critical events in which maladaptation or
complete resilience may be relatively rare and researchers need to compare small and
large groups of people (e.g., Bonanno et al., 2002). To ensure that model results did not
depend on local maxima, each final model was reproduced by increasing the number of
random starts to 5,000, the number of iterations to 1,000, and the number of final-stage
optimizations to 500 (Hipp & Bauer, 2006; Marsh et al., 2009).
Results
Latent profiles of responses to divorce
One to six LPA models with the five indicators (life satisfaction, depression, hope-
lessness, subjective health, and mourning) were tested via maximum likelihood esti-
mation with robust standard error. Indicators were controlled for the questionnaire mode
(paper–pencil vs. online) and centered on the grand mean. Centering in LPA allowed to
estimate which indicators were significantly different from the grand mean and con-
tributed to identify each profile. The best fit of data was given by the five-group model,
as reported in Table 1.
The five groups extracted by the LPA were composed of two larger groups of indi-
viduals that adapted quite well or very well to marital breakup, and of three smaller
Perrig-Chiello et al. 393
groups that in contrast had a hard time to adjust to the new situation. The largest group
was named the ‘average copers’ (n¼151, i.e., 49%of the sample). The mean scores of
this group were the closest to the overall sample mean, with lower scores on the
depression scale and a tendency to higher life satisfaction and better subjective health
(Table 2; Figure 1). Compared with the test standardization sample, their depression
percentile rank (PR) was 41 (Hautzinger & Bailer, 1993) and for hopelessness 50
(Krampen, 1994).
In contrast to this group, the ‘‘malcontents’ (n¼37, i.e., 12%of the sample) and the
‘vulnerables’ (n¼18, 6%of the sample) showed the most negative well-being out-
comes of all groups, with similar patterns of response in all five dependent variables
(Figure 1). Although patterns were similar, the deviance of vulnerables from the grand
mean was larger. Members of both groups reported low satisfaction with life and high
lack of hope, but the vulnerables also scored markedly higher on the depression scale
(PR
depression
¼96; PR
hopelessness
¼98) and lower on subjective health. The ‘resigned
ones’ (n¼12, i.e., 4%of the sample) category grouped respondents with high scores
on the depression scale (PR ¼86; Figure 1). This group revealed the highest scores in
the mourning measure and relatively low subjective health, although coefficients were
not significant. Due to the small number of cases in this group, confidence intervals
were relatively large.
In contrast to these three groups with negative outcomes, the ‘resilients’ (n¼90, i.e.,
29%of the sample) group included respondents with the highest scores in life satis-
faction and health and the lowest in hopelessness (PR ¼16), depression (PR ¼14), and
Table 1. Fit indexes for model with 1 to 6 latent profiles.
Group number BIC BLRT Entropy
13,778.76
23,393.06"1,846.40*** .91
33,308.66"1,636.37*** .80
43,289.63"1,576.97*** .82
53,278.63"1,550.27*** .83
63,295.31"1,527.58 .85
Note. BIC ¼Bayesian information criterion; BLRT ¼bootstrapped likelihood ratio test.
***p< .001.
Table 2. Average latent profile probabilities for most likely latent profile membership (row) by
latent profile (column).
12345
1. Malcontents .892 .000 .017 .057 .035
2. Resilients .000 .907 .000 .093 .001
3. Vulnerable .067 .000 .926 .000 .007
4. Average copers .019 .093 .000 .879 .009
5. Resigned ones .012 .000 .002 .106 .880
394 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 32(3)
mourning (Figure 1). Respondents classified under this profile are those who could be
described as having successfully adapted to marital breakup.
Profile differences
To explore the differences among the five profiles, the independent variables were
introduced as distal outcomes in the model. The mean scores for each profile, Wald’s test
approximate w
2
, and pairwise comparisons are reported in Tables 3 and 4.
The only age difference was between resigned ones and the other profiles: members of
the former being older than the others. Concerning gender,themalcontentgroupcontained
on average more women than other profiles; however, the difference was statistically
significant only in relation to the resilients and the average copers. In addition, malcontents
had also a systemically lower levels of education than resilients and average copers, but
similar levels to the other two profiles. Resilients were more educated than average copers;
however, both profiles did not differ from the vulnerables and the resigned ones. Similarly,
resilients declared to be in a better financial conditions than the average copers. No per-
sistent difference was found between average copers and the resigned ones. The most
maladapted profiles (malcontents and vulnerables) declared lower financial resources than
all the others. No or marginal statistical difference was found concerning work status.
However, the resigned ones and the malcontents were the less likely to be employed.
Figure 1. Latent profile analysis on the independent variables.
*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001.
Perrig-Chiello et al. 395
The length of the former relationship was fairly similar across the five profiles, with
the resigned ones having experienced a longer relationship. This applies also for the ex-
marriage length; however, the resilients tended to have a shorter marriage than the
average copers (w
2
¼3.90, p< .05). Virtually all vulnerables and average copers had
children with the previous partner, and in this differed from resilients and malcontents,
which were characterized by similar percentages of respondents with children. It is worth
noting that the percentage was fairly high (minimum 76%) across all profiles.
Concerning the reported satisfaction with the former relationship, surprisingly there
were no statistical differences across profiles.
The role of time differed significantly among the profiles: The resigned ones had
separated and divorced more recently than all other groups. On average, the malcontents
had the earliest separation and divorce; however, the difference with the average copers
and the resilients was not significant. A similar picture is revealed when looking at the
length of the transition: the resigned ones also experienced the shortest transition. The
time lapse between divorce and separation was similar between average copers and
malcontents and between resilients and vulnerables.
Interestingly, no statistical difference emerged across profiles when comparing the
initiator of the separation.Whenlookingatgroupdifferences,thevulnerablesandthe
resigned ones were more likely to attribute the separation to the partners’ decision than
their own, and vice versa, for the resilients and the average copers, although the results
were not statistically significant.
With regard to intrapersonal resources, the overall picture shows the resilients being
generally opposed to the maladaptive profiles (resigned, malcontents, and vulnerables),
while such opposition was less marked for the average copers. In particular, the resilients
scored lower on neuroticism than all the other profiles, while the vulnerables, mal-
contents, and resigned ones scored significantly higher. On extraversion, resilients also
scored significantly higher than the vulnerables and malcontents. Significant differences
were found between the resilients and malcontents, resigned ones and average copers on
Table 3. Profile means, standard errors, and equality tests of means of the demographics.
Resilients
Average
copers Resigned ones Malcontents Vulnerables
Wald’s
test
Variable MSEMSEM SE M SE M SE
Approx.
w
2
Men .45 .05
a
.37 .04
a
.38 .13
a,b
.17 .06
b
.31 .11
a,b
13.89**
Age 54.75 .56
a
55.72 .45
a
60.63 1.08
b
55.06 .89
a
53.31 1.23
a
27.88***
Level of
education
4.34 .13
a
3.96 .11
b
4.14 .34
a,b.c
3.40 .22
c
3.85 .32
a,b,c
14.63**
Employed .89 .31
a
.89 .03
a
.56 .14
b
.66 .08
b
.84 .09
a,b
12.95*
Financial
conditions
2.16 .45
a
2.02 .03
b
2.13 .11
a,b
1.77 .07
d
1.71 .11
d
30.06***
Note. Means with differing superscripts within rows are significantly different at the p< .05 based on Wald’s
test paired comparisons.
*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001.
396 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 32(3)
Table 4. Profile means, standard errors, and equality tests of means of distal variables.
Resilients Average copers Resigned ones Malcontents Vulnerables Wald’s test
Variable MSE M SE M SE M SE M SEApprox. w
2
Length of the relationship 25.20 .61
a
26.32 .51
a
30.38 1.79
b
26.26 1.00
a
24.85 1.43
a
8.78
Length of marriage 22.53 .57
a
24.06 .52
b
29.55 1.86
c
23.40 .97
a,b
22.50 1.37
a,b
15.06**
Children in common .87 .04
a
.95 .02
b,c
.76 .12
a,c
.87 .06
a
1.00 .00
d
32.04***
Satisfaction with former relationship 6.20 .21
a
5.75 .18
a
5.43 .61
a
5.68 .36
a
5.26 .52
a
4.89
Years since separation 6.05 .38
a,b
7.01 .35
a
3.46 .99
c
7.29 .73
a,b
5.36 .72
b,c
16.31***
Years since divorce 3.04 .15
a
2.84 .35
a,b
1.84 .39
c
3.34 2.42
a
2.22 .37
b,c
14.58**
Length of transition 3.17 .28
a
4.03 .31
b
1.80 .57
c
4.02 .62
a,b
3.04 .55
a,b,c
13.79**
Initiator: self .56 .05
a
.44 .04
a
.37 .13
a
.44 .08
a
.36 .12
a
5.17
Initiator: both .11 .03
a
.18 .03
a
.13 .09
a
.15 .06
a
.07 .06
a
4.617
Initiator: partner .34 .05
a
.38 .04
a
.50 .14
a
.42 .08
a
.57 .12
a
4.201
Separation experience 5.13 .31
a
3.92 .25
b
3.92 .82
a,b
3.95 .48
b
2.09 .44
c
31.706***
BFI—neuroticism 1.91 .07
a
2.67 .07
b
3.25 .15
c
3.39 .17
c,d
3.71 .19
d
180.475***
BFI—extraversion 3.68 .10
a
3.28 .09
b,d
3.30 .27
a,c,d
2.78 .17
c
2.71 .24
c
30.146***
BFI—agreeableness 3.71 .08
a
3.43 .06
b
3.37 .15
b
3.37 .15
b
3.36 .18
a,b
10.869*
BFI—openness 4.00 .09
a
3.76 .08
b,c
3.65 .17
a,c
3.00 .20
b
3.77 .23
a
21.376***
BFI—conscientiousness 4.33 .07
a
4.18 .06
a
4.08 .15
a
4.20 .14
a
4.03 .19
a
4.771
Resilience 6.21 .05
a
5.57 .05
b
4.90 .19
c
4.81 .14
c
4.45 .23
c
180.391***
Current relationship with ex-partner 3.04 .14
a
2.79 .11
a,c
3.39 .36
a
2.47 .22
b,c
1.78 .27
c
32.038***
Currently in a relationship .60 .05
a
.39 .04
b,d
.29 .13
c,d
.18 .06
c
.06 .06
c
60.642***
Note.BFI¼Big Five Inventory. Means with differing superscripts within rows are significantly different at p< .05 based on Wald’s test paired comparisons.
*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001.
397
agreeableness, and between resilients and malcontents in relation to openness. Unex-
pectedly, resilients did not differ from the vulnerables on openness, and only marginally
on agreeableness (w
2
¼3.18, p¼.07). The mean scores of average copers were not
statistically different from resigned ones on extroversion and from resigned ones, mal-
contents, and vulnerables on agreeableness and openness. The five profiles did not
significantly differ on conscientiousness. The resilients scored higher than all other
groups on resilience with the average copers scoring second highest, while the three
maladaptive profiles did not significantly differ.
Concerning the relationship situation, resilients, average copers, and resigned ones
had similar mean scores and declared a significantly better relationship with the ex-
partner than malcontents and vulnerables. The vulnerables declared on average a more
tense relationship with the former partner than all other groups and were the least likely
to be in a new relationship. More respondents in the average coper profile were in a new
relationship than those in the malcontent and vulnerable groups but less than the resili-
ents. Indeed, 60%of the resilients had started a new relationship, much more than the
39%of the average copers and the 16.36%of the maladaptive groups.
Discussion
Despite the existing vast body of consolidated knowledge on divorce and psychological
adaptation, various shortcomings still remain. This article makes three main contribu-
tions to close some specific gaps. First, it extends prior research by focusing on marital
breakup after long-term marriages, namely after around 25 years. Traditional research
has largely neglected this increasingly relevant topic. Second, it makes an innovative
contribution to clarify the role of time in the psychological adaptation process by disen-
tangling two factors that were often confounded in research, namely the time since
divorce and the time since separation. It is known—especially in long-term mar-
riages—that a considerable time lag between the two events can be expected. Third, it
uses a most innovative methodology that allows to shed light on the heterogeneity in
adaptation to divorce.
This article identifies patterns of psychological adaptation inherent in marital
breakups after a long-term marriage and sheds light on the discriminant features of these
patterns in terms of life satisfaction, depression, mourning, hopelessness, and subjective
health. In accordance with our expectations, our results revealed a large group of aver-
age-adapted individuals (49%of the sample) with moderately lowered or increased indi-
cator outcomes in addition to another relatively large group (29%)ofdivorced
individuals who showed rather positive outcomes (resilients) when compared with the
other groups and to the test standardization norms. These results are similar to those
found by both Hetherington (2003) and Mancini and colleagues (2011), demonstrating
that a majority of the divorced adapt quite well after marital breakup. Additionally, ana-
logous to both the aforementioned studies, only a minority (20%) shows pronounced
psychological problems. However, in contrast to our expectations, the psychologically
less adapted individuals did not constitute one distinct group, but three smaller ones, sug-
gesting that the suffering from marital breakup is diverse. Of all groups, the vulnerables
(6%) showed the most negative outcomes with regard to all indicators of psychological
398 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 32(3)
adaptation, followed by the malcontents (12%)withfewerpronouncednegativeout-
comes except for life satisfaction, which was extremely negative. Finally, the pattern
of the resigned ones (4%) was evenly negative, without extreme peculiarities.
The comparison of the five groups with regard to resources and stressors allows for
interesting insights. As expected, the patterns of adaptation to divorce depend on intra-
and interpersonal resources. A good adaptation is primarily associated with intrapersonal
resources, namely low neuroticism and high scores in extraversion, openness, and
resilience. Compared with the resilients, all other four groups scored higher in neuro-
ticism and had lower scores in extraversion, openness, and trait resilience. These results
confirm previous research—especially with regard to the negative impact of neuroticism
(Holland & Roisman, 2008; Pudrovska & Carr, 2008)—and augment it by showing the
important role of resilience, which has rarely been investigated as a predictor in this
context. There is some empirical evidence suggesting that psychological resilience
predicts accelerated recovery from stressful events (Bonanno, 2004; Ong et al., 2006;
Sbarra, Smith, & Mehl, 2012); however, little literature devotes attention to the role of
resilience in psychological adaptation to divorce. These results suggest that persons with
higher levels of emotional stability and adaptability are in general psychologically better
adjusted after marital breakup.
Interpersonal resources proved to be of the utmost importance for psychological
adaptation. Being in a new relationship was a significant factor for overcoming the
breakup. This result, which confirms our expectation, is also in line with the findings by
Johnson and Wu (2002) who found in their longitudinal study that psychological distress
due to marital breakup declines only upon remarriage or the formation of a new coha-
bitating relationship. In fact, a new romantic partnership and remarriage have also been
found to increase adjustment in various other studies with younger participants (Locker,
McIntosh, Hackney, Wilson, & Wiegand, 2010; Quinney & Fouts, 2003; Wang &
Amato, 2000). There are several factors that may account for this result, but essentially a
new partner may limit the extent to which an individual focuses on negative thoughts
concerning the old relationship and alternatively contributes to positive behaviors
including increased social interaction.
Concerning pre- and postdivorce stressors, our results harmonize only partly with our
expectations. Satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the ex-marriage, is in contrast to existing
research, not necessarily related to better adaptation to divorce. Also in contrast to our
expectations and existing literature (Wang & Amato, 2000), the initiator status seems not
to play a relevant role for psychological adaptation. In the current literature with younger
participants, it has been suggested that people who initiate a marital breakup generally are
better off because they, through their perceived instigation and anticipation, have an
increased sense of control over this critical life event (Hewitt & Turrel, 2011; Steiner,
Suarez, Sells, & Wykes, 2011). However, in our sample, for a large majority (69%)ofthe
divorced, the separation was not unexpected. It could be that in long-term marriages, a
separation is more likely to be anticipated, as the causes for separation are not unexpected
events but rather stem from long-lasting discord. A further revealed stressor was the way in
which separation was experienced as well as the postdivorce relationship with the ex-
partner. Especially the vulnerables reported the most negative emotional experience from
the separation as well as a more tensed relationship with the ex-partner than all other groups.
Perrig-Chiello et al. 399
With regard to the role of time since separation and divorce for psychological
adaptation, the results are in line with our expectations. The most maladapted of our
sample, specifically the resigned and vulnerable individuals, had separated and divorced
more recently than all other groups. Interestingly, the other group of maladapted, the
malcontents, had the largest time lag since separation and divorce (on average 7.29
years). This result substantiates on the one hand the crisis model and on the other the
chronic strain model. Whereas resigned and vulnerables still struggle with the critical
event, malcontents persist in negative feelings.
The role of age and length of relationship in dissolving a marriage was of major
interest in this study. Our results show that even though the resigned ones were sig-
nificantly older and had both a longer relationship and marriage than all other groups, the
other two maladaptive classes did not differ from resilients and average adapted on this
regard. This result suggests that a marital breakup at an older age after a long-term rela-
tionship is likely associated with feelings of resignation, possibly due to fewer resources
and options. However, age and length of relationship per se are not discriminative for
low psychological adaptation in general. Due to the previous lack of data, these results
are highly interesting and suggest that older age and longer relationship duration are not
necessarily factors that increase vulnerability in the case of a divorce.
Finally, gender was only of marginal importance for discriminating among the dif-
ferent groups. In contrast, the level of education, employment status, and financial
conditions (all highly correlated) were crucial variables for the group allocation. This
supports existing knowledge that postdivorce financial concerns are among the highest
stressors (Knox & Corte, 2007).
All things considered, our study results reveal a substantial degree of variability in
individuals’ adjustment to divorce after a long-term marriage. Perhaps the most impor-
tant and innovative contribution this research accomplishes is in demonstrating that the
maladapted are a reasonably heterogeneous group. This finding is of practical as well as
of scientific relevance and provide information regarding differences among the various
classes of maladapted concerning resources and stressors. In fact, this knowledge is
essential for developing both more differentiated and specific measures in counseling
and prevention and intervention techniques in clinical and social services. At the same
time, it became clear, that more research is needed to better recognize the differences
among the maladapted individuals with regard not only to resources and stress but also
to understanding the further trajectories of these specific subgroups. Furthermore, also
the factors that lead to a positive adaptation need to be more illuminated in future studies.
Despite the increasing interest in research on resilience and personal growth in overcom-
ing critical life events, the knowledge on positive adjustment to divorce is still rather
modest. Finally, our study provides compelling evidence that the crisis and chronic strain
approach should not be treated as contrasting but rather as complementary perspectives.
Even though our study makes a substantial contribution by extending existing
knowledge on divorce, some limitations must be considered. The first concerns the cross-
sectional design of this study, which does not supply a conclusive answer to the question of
whether marital separation can lead to enduring psychological vulnerability or if it instead
is a temporary crisis. Nevertheless, our results can be considered an important first step
toward a better understanding of the role of time passed since the critical life event.
400 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 32(3)
A second methodological limitation concerns the fact that some of our variables were
measured with single items (such as subjective health, relationship quality, and
mourning). Even though the utility and validity of single item questions (especially of
subjective health) are uncontested, we must maintain some critical reservations with
regard to their reliability (Bowling, 2005).
Finally, focusing on an increasingly larger category of divorcees (45- to 65-year-olds
divorcing after a long-term partnership) is on the one hand a strength of this study, as it
addresses an important age and relationship longevity-based research gap. On the other
hand, the generalizability of the results is limited, as we did not compare this group with
other groups of divorcees (e.g., same aged with shorter relationships). Given the lack of
data pertaining to divorce after long-term marriage, it will be important in future research
(a) to gather more data from this specific age-group and (b) to compare them systema-
tically with those of other divorced groups.
Funding
The authors were supported by a grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation (project no.
125770) awarded to P.P.C. The project ‘Vulnerability and growth: Developmental dynamics and
differential effects of the loss of an intimate partner in the second half of life’’ is part of the
National Centre of Competence in Research LIVES ‘‘Overcoming Vulnerability over life course’’.
Notes
1. The total divorce rate of 43%in 2012 in Switzerland is comparable to that of other European
countries such as Finland, Sweden, Germany, Belgium, Austria, France, Luxemburg (Rausa,
2009). Despite the fact that Switzerland has a multicultural population, there are no differences
among the language regions and cultures regarding divorce rates.
2. The study has been approved by the ethical committee of the University of Bern, Switzerland.
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... More than one quarter of today's divorces in the United States are gray divorces, including midlife (50-64) and old age (65 years and older) (Lin et al., 2022). Despite this reality, the consequences of divorce for older adults and their adult-children remain poorly understood (Cohen et al., 2024a;Greenwood, 2014) including psychological adjustment especially after a long-term marriage (Perrig-Chiello et al., 2015). Divorce results in being alone especially when it occurs at around age 60 years or older when children are independent adults. ...
... This coincides with Israel being a family-oriented society alongside valuing self-determination (Fogiel-Bijaoui & Rutlinger-Reiner, 2013). Divorce late in life can shape both the nature and context of the divorce as well as the individual's adjustment (Perrig-Chiello et al., 2015). Hence, it is important to understand intrapersonal components of life after divorce that affect well-being, such as loneliness and freedom. ...
... One of the major negative outcomes of late-life divorce identified was loneliness (e.g. Crowley, 2018;Wright et al., 2020), as manifested in difficulties adjusting to the personal and social changes after a long-term marriage (Perrig-Chiello et al., 2015) such as physically being alone, adjusting to living alone (Amato, 2014), and having no one to talk to or share one's activities with (Crowley, 2019). However, loneliness is often combined with positive aspects such as being happier, becoming liberated from ex-spouses, and acquiring independence and freedom, which might create ambivalent feelings (Crowley, 2018(Crowley, , 2019. ...
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Objectives: To examine in-depth experiences of loneliness and freedom after late-life divorce from an intergenerational familial/dyadic perspective in a family-oriented society that also values self-determination. Considering the expansion of late-life divorce, it is important to understand its consequences for the family wellbeing. Method: According to phenomenology tradition, data was collected through 51 semi-structured qualitative interviews, comprised from 7 family units (n = 33) including all/most family members and 9 parent-child dyads (n = 18), using thematic-analysis and dyadic interview-analysis principles. Analyzing family units enables a more complex examination of the phenomena, providing a holistic view of family life. Results: Loneliness and freedom experienced simultaneously was the most common. A gap was identified between generations regarding benefits and costs of late-life divorce. Whereas most divorcees emphasized the benefits of freedom, most of their adult-children mainly described the disadvantages of loneliness, perceiving both loneliness and freedom as negative. Conclusion: Late-life divorce is a complex experience comprised of both loneliness and freedom. Each generation experiences the benefits and costs of late-life divorce differently. Unique aspects of freedom and loneliness at old age in a socio-cultural context located between self-determination and family-oriented are discussed, including strategies of coping with loneliness. Implications for families and professionals are presented.
... Resilience is one of the most studied resources in adverse situations [45]. Resilience is considered a coping factor that involves maintaining relatively stable and healthy levels of psychological and physical functioning and regaining optimal levels of well-being when facing stressful life events [46]. Resilient individuals have high emotional stability, can adapt flexibly to unexpected events, and even emerge stronger from them [47]. ...
... Therefore, it seems relevant to analyze whether co-parenting can make a difference in families and the consequences of divorce in a person-centered analysis rather than a variable-centered approach. This methodology follows the line of previous studies that have tried to assess the impact of divorce from a multidimensional perspective [46,51]. The main goal of this approach is to capture individual differences through a combination of family variables-parental symptomatology and co-parenting-and subsequently create typologies of individuals. ...
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Although the consequences of divorce and conflict have been extensively studied, most research has focused on children rather than ex-spouses, although variables such as parental health or co-parenting may have an influence on children’s development through processes such as emotion socialization. In addition, the relationship between these variables has never been considered in high-conflict divorces. Therefore, the present study aimed to analyze the impact of physical and psychological symptomatology and co-parenting on the emotion socialization patterns of parents experiencing high-conflict divorces. Furthermore, the moderating role of resilience was considered, as it has been highly studied as a coping mechanism in adverse situations but barely in divorce at the parental level. For this purpose, a Latent Profile Analysis was carried out with Mplus 8.10, using a sample of 239 parents from Family Visitation Centers. Results revealed, on the one hand, that parents with fewer physical and psychological symptoms sowed more emotion socialization behaviors than those with more symptomatology. On the other hand, in situations of high interparental conflict, the role of co-parenting and resilience seems less relevant than that of physical and psychological symptomatology when analyzing parental skills like emotion socialization.
... Other studies have reported significant associations between two aspects of strong romantic connection-early commitment to maintaining the relationship and emotional closeness in the relationship-and the degree of distress experienced after the breakup (e.g., Fine & Sacher, 1997;Rhoades et al., 2011;Sprecher et al., 1998). Still other research has shown that post breakup distress is more acute (and adaptation more difficult) if one perceives that the partner is involved with someone else or if one is the recipient rather than the initiator of the breakup (e.g., Perrig-Chiello et al., 2015;Sprecher et al., 1998). ...
... Notably, too, married and nonmarried couples have been shown to cope with the distress of a breakup in similar ways (Hald et al., 2022). For example, consistent with the literature on nonmarital breakups, several studies have demonstrated the value of a new romantic partner in facilitating readjustment following marital separation (Locker et al., 2010;Perrig-Chiello et al., 2015;Soons et al., 2009;Symoens et al., 2014). ...
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To investigate the perceptions of ex-romantic partners regarding the extent to which and ways in which psychotherapy facilitates coping with the consequences of the dissolution of past relationships, a multipart survey (Representations of Past Significant Others) that included Likert-type, multiple-choice, and open-ended questions about the ways in which individuals remember a past significant relationship and the ways in which they have moved toward closure from that relationship was disseminated via social media and networking. An attachment status measure (Experience in Close Relationship Scale–Short Form) was also administered. A total of 1,846 respondents, mean age 30.6 and predominantly White, heterosexual, female, and from the United States, completed the survey, 74.6% of whom attended psychotherapy post breakup. On average, respondents who engaged in therapy following their breakup found it to be moderately to very helpful; younger respondents, those in longer term relationships, and those with higher scores on the Experience in Close Relationship Scale–Short Form Anxiety subscale evaluated the helpfulness of therapy more highly. Multiple clinical interventions were perceived as helpful in coping with romantic breakups, including normalizing respondents’ feelings about their experience, encouraging them to be more aware of their feelings, encouraging them to move forward with their lives, reminding them of their strengths, exploring the story of the relationship and the breakup, and challenging their self-critical thoughts or feelings. Understanding who is best served by postbreakup therapy and the specific interventions, psychotherapeutic and otherwise, that move individuals toward closure may facilitate therapists’ efforts to help with this common source of client distress.
... The weaknesses, inefficiencies, and mismanagement of the financial system and institutions around the world which caused poverty and other social and environmental concerns could be addressed by financial restructuring under a set of SDGs for prosperity and well-being of the world (Ayayi & Sene, 2018). Financial sustainability is a core challenge to be faced, that needs to be seriously addressed for achieving the world's mission of sustainability by improving financial models (Naderi et al., 2022;Sontag-Padilla et al., 2012). These models need to promote SF by overcoming the problems faced by the financial sector and facilitate the introduction of green finance, green insurance, and green securities to provide easy accessibility to a range of financial services at a reasonable price to all (Ogiemwonyi & Eneizan, 2024;Peng et al., 2018). ...
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The study aims to inquire about the level of understanding of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Sustainable Finance (SF), and Financial Inclusion (FI) among business graduates. The data were collected through a self‐administered questionnaire from 342 business graduates from different universities in a developing country like Pakistan. The findings revealed that the respondents have a no‐to‐low understanding of SF, FI, and the role or importance of these in achieving the 17 SDGs. The findings suggest major revisions in the structure and contents of different business degrees in Pakistan. Overall, the study opens new avenues for research and provides important insights for all the key stakeholders, including universities, higher education institutions (HEIs), the Higher Education Commission (HEC), students, and parents. The study also has social and practical implications for various stakeholders in the HEIs.
... These factors compound the risks for poorer health outcomes as the effects of these problematic characteristics impact health before the divorce as well as the stressful impact of the divorce itself. This theoretical assumption may be reflected in the 12% of divorcees who experience health difficulties years prior to and after their divorce (Malgaroli et al., 2017;Perrig-Chiello et al., 2015). The research related to the Selection Perspective has almost exclusively regarded whether characteristics of divorcees such as delinquency, antisocial behavior, and mental health concerns are associated with divorce, which is then in turn associated with poor health outcomes for the divorcees and their children after divorce (see Amato, 2000Amato, , 2010Amato, , 2014 for reviews). ...
... Indeed, one study found that >70% of participants exhibited stably high levels of subjective well-being after divorce, while another 9% reported increases in well-being (Mancini, Bonanno, & Clark, 2011). Other research has found that individuals who initiate a divorce are likely to adapt better afterwards (Hewitt & Turrell, 2011); that those with higher education or better financial conditions were more likely to be resilient after divorce (Perrig-Chiello, Hutchison, & Morselli, 2014); and that divorced women were more likely than their unhappily married female peers to be professionally successful and have high levels of self-worth and self-efficacy (Hetherington, 2003). Thus, positive outcomes post-divorce are not uncommon. ...
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Background Prior research has reported an association between divorce and suicide attempt. We aimed to clarify this complex relationship, considering sex differences, temporal factors, and underlying etiologic pathways. Methods We used Swedish longitudinal national registry data for a cohort born 1960–1990 that was registered as married between 1978 and 2018 ( N = 1 601 075). We used Cox proportional hazards models to estimate the association between divorce and suicide attempt. To assess whether observed associations were attributable to familial confounders or potentially causal in nature, we conducted co-relative analyses. Results In the overall sample and in sex-stratified analyses, divorce was associated with increased risk of suicide attempt (adjusted hazard ratios [HRs] 1.66–1.77). Risk was highest in the year immediately following divorce (HRs 2.20–2.91) and declined thereafter, but remained elevated 5 or more years later (HRs 1.41–1.51). Divorcees from shorter marriages were at higher risk for suicide attempt than those from longer marriages (HRs 3.33–3.40 and 1.20–1.36, respectively). In general, HRs were higher for divorced females than for divorced males. Co-relative analyses suggested that familial confounders and a causal pathway contribute to the observed associations. Conclusions The association between divorce and risk of suicide attempt is complex, varying as a function of sex and time-related variables. Given evidence that the observed association is due in part to a causal pathway from divorce to suicide attempt, intervention or prevention efforts, such as behavioral therapy, could be most effective early in the divorce process, and in particular among females and those whose marriages were of short duration.
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Introduction This study is based on the paradigm of collaborative law and the current absence of instruments that evaluate the lawyer-client relationship as a function of the needs of the family system. The objective was to construct and validate an instrument, conceptualizing the lawyer-client relationship as a helping relationship. Method Two groups of experts and 239 parents (58% mothers and 42% fathers), users of Family Visitation Centers, participated in the study. The content, construct, and criterion validity of the instrument, as well as its invariance for both parents, were analyzed. Results The resulting 12-item instrument has been shown to have a two-dimensional structure, invariant for both parents, with high psychometric solidity. Discussion The LCR scale seems to be a valuable and effective measure for use in a legal context, with important correlations with the parents’ psychological well-being, leading to a promising and relevant instrument for the holistic approach to the divorce process.
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Objective: The study examines how the individual perceptions of aging (PA) differ by partnership status and develop with the transitions to widowhood, of divorce/separation, and repartnering in later adulthood in Germany. Background: In previous research from other countries, there is contradictory evidence on the association of partnership status/transitions and PA. Although PA are a crucial indicator for the living conditions of older adults, little is known about their associations with partnership transitions in Germany. Method: We use panel data from six waves of the German Ageing Survey (1996-2017, n=4,227) and the first two waves of the NRW80+ study (2017-2020, n=845) for retired respondents. We apply linear hybrid models to analyze inter- and intra-individual differences after widowhood, divorce/separation, and the formation of new partnerships. Results: We observe stable associations of partnership status/transitions and PA only for single dimensions of aging. For example, widowed individuals feel more dependent on others than married individuals. After the transition to widowhood, individuals feel freer to spend their time as they like. Repartnered individuals have more positive PA than singles. Additionally, we found contradictory gender differences for older and oldest old individuals. Conclusion: In contrast to recent findings, we show that there is only little association of partnership status or partnership transitions and PA in Germany. Our findings emphasize the importance of a multidimensional conceptualization of PA in current research.
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Divorce can be a distressing event. Although various studies have been conducted to better understand this phenomenon, little research has focused on the combined effect of age, initiator status, spousal infidelity, and spiritual well-being on divorce adjustment. To determine the effect of these 4 factors on divorce adjustment, 133 divorced women in the United States were surveyed using the Fisher Divorce Adjustment Scale, Spiritual Well-Being Scale, and a participant questionnaire. Results indicate that initiator status, spousal infidelity, and spiritual well-being together can predict 38% of the variance in overall divorce adjustment for women. Spiritual well-being was found to be the strongest contributor. Recommendations for researchers and implications for clinicians are discussed.
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Researchers using latent class (LC) analysis often proceed using the following three steps: (1) an LC model is built for a set of response variables, (2) subjects are assigned to LCs based on their posterior class membership probabilities, and (3) the association between the assigned class membership and external variables is investigated using simple cross-tabulations or multinomial logistic regression analysis. Bolck, Croon, and Hagenaars (2004) demonstrated that such a three-step approach underestimates the associations between covariates and class membership. They proposed resolving this problem by means of a specific correction method that involves modifying the third step. In this article, I extend the correction method of Bolck, Croon, and Hagenaars by showing that it involves maximizing a weighted log-likelihood function for clustered data. This conceptualization makes it possible to apply the method not only with categorical but also with continuous explanatory variables, to obtain correct tests using complex sampling variance estimation methods, and to implement it in standard software for logistic regression analysis. In addition, a new maximum likelihood (ML)-based correction method is proposed, which is more direct in the sense that it does not require analyzing weighted data. This new three-step ML method can be easily implemented in software for LC analysis. The reported simulation study shows that both correction methods perform very well in the sense that their parameter estimates and their SEs can be trusted, except for situations with very poorly separated classes. The main advantage of the ML method compared with the Bolck, Croon, and Hagenaars approach is that it is much more efficient and almost as efficient as one-step ML estimation. © The Author 2010. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Political Methodology. All rights reserved.
Book
Contributors thoroughly survey the most important statistical models used in empirical reserch in the social and behavioral sciences. Following a common format, each chapter introduces a model, illustrates the types of problems and data for which the model is best used, provides numerous examples that draw upon familiar models or procedures, and includes material on software that can be used to estimate the models studied. This handbook will aid researchers, methodologists, graduate students, and statisticians to understand and resolve common modeling problems.
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The chances of experiencing a disruptive marital transition in late life are increasing through population aging, and growing numbers of individuals will experience a major transition in familial life during their old age. In this article, the authors discuss the principal trends related to uncoupling in late life and the main reasons for and consequences of it. Primarily, the discussion is focused on uncoupling through martial dissolution.
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We examined a range of predictors that might influence the speed with which people recover emotionally from the breakup of a romantic relationship, focusing specifically on concrete, situational variables, including initiator status, presence of social support, length of relationship, amount of time the couple typically spent together day-today, how much in love participants were, how soon they began dating again, how many previous relationships they had, and how often they saw their ex after the breakup. The results showed that relationship length and how quickly the individual began dating someone new were predictors of recovery from the breakup of a romantic relationship. Gender differences were also examined.
Chapter
This chapter on the latent class model has three purposes: The latent class model (LCM) is introduced in a way that assumes little prior knowledge of the model. This introduction does, however, draw on other backgrounds, methodological or statistical, as do other chapters in this book. The goal is to show how the LCM arises naturally from the theory or the subject matter of social research, in many contexts at least. Many papers or books can serve as introductory treatments of LCMs as well as reviews of the literature: Andersen (1982, 1991), Bergan (1983), Goodman (1974b), Langeheine (1988), Langeheine and Rost (1988), Lazarsfeld and Henry (1968), McCutcheon (1987), Dillon and Goldstein (1984, chap. 10), and Schwartz (1986), among others. Because so many detailed introductions exist already, an abbreviated introduction should suffice here.
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The paper reports the evaluation of the German version of the Resilience Scale by Wagnild and Young (1993) in a large community sample of the German population (N = 2.031; aged 14-95 years), as well as the development of a new brief scale consisting of only 11 items (RS-Il). "Resilience" (psychosocial stress-resistance) is conceptualized as a protective personality factor that is associated with a healthy development of children, adolescents, and adults. Besides resilience, general self-efficacy and subjective body complaints were assessed using self-rating scales (the General Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale and the Short Form of the Giessen Subjective Complaints List). For the original 25-item-form of the Resilience Scale (RS-25) a high internal consistency was found. The RS-subscales (personal competence, acceptance of self and life) appeared to be highly correlated. A principal component factor analysis with oblique rotation could not identify the 2-factor structure of the RS that was postulated by the au-thors. The best factor solution comprised only one general factor. The newly developed RS-11, conceptualized as an unidimensional scale, is shown to be a reliable and valid instrument that allows an economic assessment of resilience. It could also be demonstrated that resilience and general self-efficacy were positively correlated. Despite the conceptual similarity of both variables, they predict independent parts of the extent of subjective body complaints in a regression model. Standard scores (percentile ranks) for both, the RS-25 and RS-11, are reported.
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