Article

'Los meses flacos': Seasonal food insecurity in a Salvadoran organic coffee cooperative

Taylor & Francis
The Journal of Peasant Studies
Authors:
  • CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security
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Abstract

Central American coffee farmers commonly refer to annual periods of food insecurity as ‘los meses flacos’ – the thin months – indicating a recurring season in which they are unable to meet household food needs. Although this is a common phenomenon, little empirical research has documented the seasonal food insecurity that many small-scale coffee farmers face. Household surveys and focus groups were conducted with 29 members of an organic coffee cooperative in western El Salvador to determine the causes of, and responses to, seasonal food insecurity. Ninety-seven percent of households faced food shortages during some period of the year. The two most common proximate causes of food shortages were lack of income-generating opportunities to buy food and running out of staple food crops. Families coped with seasonal food shortages by borrowing money and food, seeking work outside of the community, changing diet, and selling livestock. It is clear that small-scale coffee farmers seek to maintain a balance between coffee, which provides income, and food crops, which provide staple food. Livelihood and income diversification are important coping strategies that should be supported; however, we conclude that efforts to address food insecurity in coffee regions require deeper structural changes to support peasant farmers.

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... Food availability and access are interrelated in subsistence agricultural systems, as subsistence farmers are the producers and consumers of their main sources of food. To maintain household food security, subsistence farmers globally are faced with the ongoing challenge of balancing crop production for both sustenance and income [1]. The ability to utilize food produced through subsistence agriculture in a nutritionally and culturally significant way is another critical dimension of food security for households reliant on small-scale subsistence agriculture, with food security defined not only as having an available and accessible food supply, but one that is culturally preferred and nutritious [1,2]. ...
... To maintain household food security, subsistence farmers globally are faced with the ongoing challenge of balancing crop production for both sustenance and income [1]. The ability to utilize food produced through subsistence agriculture in a nutritionally and culturally significant way is another critical dimension of food security for households reliant on small-scale subsistence agriculture, with food security defined not only as having an available and accessible food supply, but one that is culturally preferred and nutritious [1,2]. For subsistence farmers, this can mean producing crops that are culturally significant, in spite of economic disincentives to do so [3,4]. ...
... In the context of a changing climate, the stability of food availability, access, and utilization over time is an aspect of food security that is increasingly challenged in subsistence agricultural systems [1,6,7]. Across Central America, the 'lean' or 'hungry' season has been documented as a time in which food availability and access among many households reliant on subsistence agriculture is insufficient [1,6,8,9]. ...
Article
Full-text available
In the context of climate change, a nutritional transition, and increased pressures to migrate internally and internationally, this study examined the relationship between seasonal food insecurity and demographic, socioeconomic, and agricultural production factors among small-scale subsistence farmers in rural northern Honduras. Anchored by a partnership with the Fundación para la Investigación Participativa con Agricultores de Honduras (FIPAH) and the Yorito Municipal Health Centre, a cross-sectional household survey was administered in Yorito, Honduras, in July 2014. The study population included 1263 individuals from 248 households across 22 rural communities. A multivariate mixed effects negative binomial regression model was built to investigate the relationship between the self-reported number of months without food availability and access from subsistence agriculture in the previous year (August 2013–July 2014) and demographic, socioeconomic, and agricultural production variables. This study found a lengthier ‘lean season’ among surveyed household than previously documented in Honduras. Overall, 62.2% (95% confidence interval (CI): [59.52, 64.87]) of individuals experienced at least four months of insufficient food in the previous year. Individuals from poorer and larger households were more likely to experience insufficient food compared to individuals from wealthier and smaller households. Additionally, individuals from households that produced both maize and beans were less likely to have insufficient food compared to individuals from households that did not grow these staple crops (prevalence ratio (PR) = 0.83; 95% CI: [0.69, 0.99]). Receiving remittances from a migrant family member did not significantly reduce the prevalence of having insufficient food. As unpredictable crop yields linked to climate change and extreme weather events are projected to negatively influence the food security and nutrition outcomes of rural populations, it is important to understand how demographic, socioeconomic, and agricultural production factors may modify the ability of individuals and households engaged in small-scale subsistence agriculture to respond to adverse shocks.
... Some farmers engage in vertical diversification within coffee (Rodríguez Padrón and Burger, 2015). Despite the diversity of food-and income-generating activities, many smallholder households experience seasonal food insecurity (Morris et al., 2013;Bacon et al., 2014;Fernandez and Méndez, 2018), and face challenges in earning a 'livable' income, even when participating in sustainable certification schemes (Robles Berlanga, 2011;Jaffee, 2014;Caswell et al., 2016;Sherfey, 2017). In addition, a changing climate poses further challenges to coffee producers (Imbach et al., 2017). ...
... These agroecosystems generate many vital ecosystem services that provide "agroecological resistance" to climate change (Perfecto and Vandermeer, 2015, p. 230;Altieri, 2009), and contribute to farmer households' food and livelihood security (Toledo and Moguel, 2012). For instance, fruit trees not only provide shade to coffee but also contribute to household nutrition through the production of fruits that are rich in vitamins and minerals (Albertin and Nair, 2004;Morris et al., 2013). Likewise, several species of plants, insects and mushrooms that inhabit the understory of shade coffee plantations are important to traditional cuisine and are used to complement diets (Luna-González and Sørensen, 2018;Fernandez and Méndez, 2018). ...
... Examples of these livelihood shocks include natural disasters (Eakin et al., 2012) and declines in global coffee prices (Jaffee, 2014;Hausermann, 2014;Rodríguez Padrón and Burger, 2015). Diversification can also serve as a means of dealing with persistent livelihood stressors, such as seasonal food insecurity (Baca et al., 2014;Morris et al., 2013) or changing climate patterns (Ruiz Meza, 2015). Regardless of what pushes or pulls farmers to diversify, the decision of what activity to pursue also hinges on whether the household seeks a temporary coping mechanism or a long-term strategy (Westphal, 2008;Jaffee, 2014;Gerlicz et al., 2018). ...
Article
It has been widely argued that agroecological science, which originally developed as the application of ecological principles to agricultural systems, should engage with the social and political issues that affect production agriculture, and incorporate knowledge from a variety of sources. In this paper we use techniques from network science and bibliometrics to evaluate the degree to which this transformation has taken place. By creating networks based on over 3,000 agroecology papers and the roughly 160,000 references they cite, we distinguish the sub-fields ("research fronts") that made up agroecology in three time intervals: 1982 - 2004, 2005 - 2013, and 2014 - 2018. We also identify the main disciplines from which the research fronts in 2014 - 2018 drew their supporting knowledge. We suggest that, very broadly, themes in agroecological research include: Ecosystem services; (agro)biodiversity; approaches to agricultural intensification; tropical agroecosystems (particularly coffee); pest and weed management; organic agriculture; cropping systems; system transitions, modeling and design; climate change adaptation; food sovereignty; education; and the nature and purpose of agroecology itself. Some research fronts mainly cite papers in natural science fields such as ecology, environmental science, agriculture, and entomology. However, others draw upon work in social science areas including development studies, environmental studies, and anthropology. The analysis presented in this paper demonstrates that agroecology has indeed evolved to possess many of the characteristics of an "ecology of [the entire] food system". We anticipate that this work will also be of use to those wishing to gain an overview of the field or identify key papers, knowledge gaps and potential collaborations.
... El cultivo del café (Coffea arabica) se establece bajo el dosel de árboles y proporciona distintos beneficios socioambientales como la conservación de la vegetación (Bandeira et al., 2005; Toledo y Moguel, 2012) y de la fauna (García-Estrada et al., 2011;Pardee y Philpott, 2011;Briggs et al., 2013), la fijación de carbono (Häger, 2012;Richards y Méndez, 2014;Soto-Pinto y Aguirre-Dávila, 2015), el control biológico de plagas (Vandermeer INTRODUCTION C offee is an important product for income generation in Mexico, since approximately 500 thousand producers benefit from its cultivation, where Chiapas is the state with the highest production (SAGARPA, 2016). Coffee cultivation (Coffea arabica) is established under the canopy of trees and provides different socio-economic benefits, such as conservation of vegetation (Bandeira et al., 2005;Moguel and Toledo, 2012) and wildlife (García-Estrada et al., 2011;Pardee and Philpott, 2011;Briggs et al., 2013), carbon fixation (Häger, 2012;Richards and Méndez, 2014;Soto-Pinto and Aguirre-Dávila, 2015), biological pest control De la Mora et al., 2013); as well as the generation of other products for self-supply and for sale Phalan et al., et al., 2010;De la Mora et al., 2013), así como la generación de otros productos para autoabasto y para la venta Phalan et al., 2011;Rice, 2011;Caswell et al., 2012;Morris et al., 2013), entre otros. ...
... Debido a estas problemáticas y a que los apoyos de gobierno y las tendencias comerciales fomentan las cadenas alimentarias industriales, con altos insumos y a gran escala (Parra y Moguel, 1999;Appendini y Liverman, 1994;Appendini y Verduzco, 2002), las zonas cafetaleras están inmersas en un proceso de especialización, intensificación y simplificación del cultivo del café (Toledo y Moguel, 2012;Castellanos et al., 2013), que está causando modificaciones en el paisaje (Vandermeer y Perfecto, 2007;Toledo y Moguel, 2012;Eakin et al., 2014) y en los modos de vida campesinos (Fernández et al., 2013;Eakin et al., 2014;Eakin et al., 2015) que se ven reflejadas en cambios en la biodiversidad, el autocontrol de plagas y enfermedades, y otros procesos agroecológicos (Vandermeer y Perfecto, 2007;Gliessman, 2011Gliessman, ). 2011Rice, 2011;Caswell et al., 2012;Morris et al., 2013), among others. ...
... Para analizar la proporción de alimentos que provienen del huerto familiar se realizó un recordatorio de consumo de alimentos semanal a los 36 GD durante los meses de marzo y mayo de 2016, época de secas, donde de manera previa se ha reportado escasez de alimentos (Fernández et al., 2013;Morris et al., 2013). Se detalló la cantidad de alimentos consumidos, la forma de obtención y el lugar de procedencia por grupo doméstico (Serra et al., 2001;Hoddinot, 2002). ...
Article
Full-text available
Se analizaron las características socioeconómicas, los huertos familiares y la dieta de 36 grupos domésticos que se dedican al cultivo de café orgánico en nueve localidades de la Sierra Madre de Chiapas; con el objetivo de analizar los cambios, las tendencias y permanencias que se han dado en los huertos familiares en relación con los procesos de especialización e intensificación del cultivo de café. En los huertos familiares se encontraron plantas predominantes de los estratos herbáceo y arbustivo, con un gran número de especies ornamentales e introducidas. Entre generaciones estos han disminuido en tamaño, abundancia de plantas y usos, debido a la introducción de los patios de secado de café, la sucesión de tierras y la construcción de viviendas. De los grupos domésticos, 52.8% presenta condiciones de inseguridad alimentaria.
... El cultivo del café (Coffea arabica) se establece bajo el dosel de árboles y proporciona distintos beneficios socioambientales como la conservación de la vegetación (Bandeira et al., 2005; Toledo y Moguel, 2012) y de la fauna (García-Estrada et al., 2011;Pardee y Philpott, 2011;Briggs et al., 2013), la fijación de carbono (Häger, 2012;Richards y Méndez, 2014;Soto-Pinto y Aguirre-Dávila, 2015), el control biológico de plagas (Vandermeer INTRODUCTION C offee is an important product for income generation in Mexico, since approximately 500 thousand producers benefit from its cultivation, where Chiapas is the state with the highest production (SAGARPA, 2016). Coffee cultivation (Coffea arabica) is established under the canopy of trees and provides different socio-economic benefits, such as conservation of vegetation (Bandeira et al., 2005;Moguel and Toledo, 2012) and wildlife (García-Estrada et al., 2011;Pardee and Philpott, 2011;Briggs et al., 2013), carbon fixation (Häger, 2012;Richards and Méndez, 2014;Soto-Pinto and Aguirre-Dávila, 2015), biological pest control De la Mora et al., 2013); as well as the generation of other products for self-supply and for sale Phalan et al., et al., 2010;De la Mora et al., 2013), así como la generación de otros productos para autoabasto y para la venta Phalan et al., 2011;Rice, 2011;Caswell et al., 2012;Morris et al., 2013), entre otros. ...
... Debido a estas problemáticas y a que los apoyos de gobierno y las tendencias comerciales fomentan las cadenas alimentarias industriales, con altos insumos y a gran escala (Parra y Moguel, 1999;Appendini y Liverman, 1994;Appendini y Verduzco, 2002), las zonas cafetaleras están inmersas en un proceso de especialización, intensificación y simplificación del cultivo del café (Toledo y Moguel, 2012;Castellanos et al., 2013), que está causando modificaciones en el paisaje (Vandermeer y Perfecto, 2007;Toledo y Moguel, 2012;Eakin et al., 2014) y en los modos de vida campesinos (Fernández et al., 2013;Eakin et al., 2014;Eakin et al., 2015) que se ven reflejadas en cambios en la biodiversidad, el autocontrol de plagas y enfermedades, y otros procesos agroecológicos (Vandermeer y Perfecto, 2007;Gliessman, 2011Gliessman, ). 2011Rice, 2011;Caswell et al., 2012;Morris et al., 2013), among others. ...
... Para analizar la proporción de alimentos que provienen del huerto familiar se realizó un recordatorio de consumo de alimentos semanal a los 36 GD durante los meses de marzo y mayo de 2016, época de secas, donde de manera previa se ha reportado escasez de alimentos (Fernández et al., 2013;Morris et al., 2013). Se detalló la cantidad de alimentos consumidos, la forma de obtención y el lugar de procedencia por grupo doméstico (Serra et al., 2001;Hoddinot, 2002). ...
... Some farmers engage in vertical diversification within coffee (Rodríguez Padrón and Burger, 2015). Despite the diversity of food-and income-generating activities, many smallholder households experience seasonal food insecurity (Morris et al., 2013;Bacon et al., 2014;Fernandez and Méndez, 2018), and face challenges in earning a 'livable' income, even when participating in sustainable certification schemes (Robles Berlanga, 2011;Jaffee, 2014;Caswell et al., 2016;Sherfey, 2017). In addition, a changing climate poses further challenges to coffee producers (Imbach et al., 2017). ...
... These agroecosystems generate many vital ecosystem services that provide "agroecological resistance" to climate change (Perfecto and Vandermeer, 2015, p. 230;Altieri, 2009), and contribute to farmer households' food and livelihood security (Toledo and Moguel, 2012). For instance, fruit trees not only provide shade to coffee but also contribute to household nutrition through the production of fruits that are rich in vitamins and minerals (Albertin and Nair, 2004;Morris et al., 2013). Likewise, several species of plants, insects and mushrooms that inhabit the understory of shade coffee plantations are important to traditional cuisine and are used to complement diets (Luna-González and Sørensen, 2018;Fernandez and Méndez, 2018). ...
... Examples of these livelihood shocks include natural disasters (Eakin et al., 2012) and declines in global coffee prices (Jaffee, 2014;Hausermann, 2014;Rodríguez Padrón and Burger, 2015). Diversification can also serve as a means of dealing with persistent livelihood stressors, such as seasonal food insecurity (Baca et al., 2014;Morris et al., 2013) or changing climate patterns (Ruiz Meza, 2015). Regardless of what pushes or pulls farmers to diversify, the decision of what activity to pursue also hinges on whether the household seeks a temporary coping mechanism or a long-term strategy (Westphal, 2008;Jaffee, 2014;Gerlicz et al., 2018). ...
... Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) 1 shows that of the 34 countries listed as in food crisis or at risk due to high food prices, over one-third (38.2%) are coffee-producing countries. Empirical work by Mendez et al, 2 Bacon et al, 3 Fujaska, 4 Gross, 5 and Morris et al 6 confirm that more than 50% of farmers are not in a position to meet their basic food needs in the coffee-growing regions of some Latin American countries, including Nicaragua, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, and the Dominican Republic. Beghin and Teshome 7 calculated that 43% of coffee-growing households experience food insecurity in Southwest Ethiopia. ...
... The Rome Declaration on World Food Security states that "Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" (FAO, 1996 cited in Morris et al 6 ). In this regard, cooperatives are assumed to contribute to both physical and economic access of food through enhanced production (by providing information, inputs, and facilitating technology adoption) and improving income (by increasing commercialization and price), respectively (see also Section 1 of this article). ...
... Two types of income have been considered for this study: total agricultural income obtained from coffee and noncoffee sources and income from coffee alone. The selected outcome variables were also used in other studies (eg, Morris et al; 6 Fisher and Lewin 25 ). ...
Article
Background: Most coffee in Ethiopia is produced by smallholder farmers who face a daily struggle to get sufficient income but also to feed their families. At the same time, many smallholder coffee producers are members of cooperatives. Yet, literature has paid little attention to the effect of cooperatives on combating food insecurity among cash crop producers including coffee farmers. Objective: The objective of the study was to investigate how coffee cooperative membership may affect food security among coffee farm households in Southwest Ethiopia. Methods: The study used cross-sectional household data on income, expenditure on food, staple food production (maize and teff), and utilization of improved inputs (fertilizer and improved seed) collected from 256 randomly selected farm households (132 cooperative members and 124 nonmembers) and applied an inverse probability weighting (IPW) estimation to assess the impact of cooperative membership on food security. Results: The result revealed that cooperative membership has a positive and significant effect on staple food production (maize and teff) and facilitated technological transformation via increased utilization of fertilizer and improved seeds. Nonetheless, the effect on food expenditure and income could not be confirmed. Conclusion: Findings suggest trade-off between coffee marketing and input supply functions of the cooperatives impairing their true food security impact from the pooled income and production effect.
... Vulnerability to seasonal hunger may lead farm households to take steps to smooth consumption between harvests. One of the more common strategies is farm diversification, which includes planting 'off-season' or perennial crops as well as carrying livestock (Maxwell, 1996;Mayanja, Rubaire-Akiiki, Greiner, & Morton, 2015;Megersa, Markemann, Angassa, & Zárate, 2014;Morris, Mendez, & Olson, 2013;Rademacher-Schulz, Schraven, & Mahama, 2014;Rosenzweig & Wolpin, 1993). Higher crop diversity on a smallholder's land has been associated with reduced levels of seasonal hunger and malnutrition (Abdalla et al., 2013;Afifi et al., 2015;Bacon et al., 2014;Devereux, 2009). ...
... Off-farm income opportunities help to fill seasonal income gaps by separating households from some of the risks associated with agriculture . Alternatively, the household may trade labour for money or food, or household members Seasonal hunger in Malawi 3 might temporarily migrate to another area in search of work (Afifi et al., 2015;Hadley & Patil, 2008;Maxwell, 1996;Mayanja et al., 2015;Morris et al., 2013;Rademacher-Schulz et al., 2014;Zug, 2006). Similar to the effects for urban food consumers, however, rural purchasers of food are likely to face higher prices in the lean season (Barrett, 1996). ...
... Households have been observed to sell assetsincluding livestockin order to purchase food (Heltberg, Hossain, Reva, & Turk, 2013;Mayanja et al., 2015;Rademacher-Schulz et al., 2014;Rosenzweig & Wolpin, 1993;Zug, 2006). Additionally, seasonally hungry households may borrow food or money to purchase food from either relatives or friends (Edeh & Gyimah-Brempong, 2015;Hadley & Patil, 2008;Maxwell, 1996;Mayanja et al., 2015;Morris et al., 2013;Zug, 2006). ...
Article
Full-text available
Relative to chronic hunger, seasonal hunger in rural and urban areas of Africa is poorly understood. This paper examines the extent and potential correlates of seasonal hunger in Malawi using panel data from 2011–2013. We find that both urban and rural households report seasonal hunger in the pre-harvest months. Certain strategies to smooth consumption, including crop storage and livestock ownership, are associated with fewer months of hunger. In addition, we find that Malawian households that experience seasonal hunger harvest their crops earlier than average – a short-term coping mechanism that can reduce the crop’s yield and nutritional value, possibly perpetuating hunger. © 2017 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
... This lack of generational continuity represents a great challenge for smallholding, since migration leaves less labor available for agricultural work; a factor that can result in reduced productivity and, consequently, lower income and food production for family consumption. In this way, migration has the potential to influence the local economy and culture and the dynamics of food security (affects indicator 2 Ec) (Harvey et al. 2021, Valbuena et al. 2021, Morris et al. 2013. ...
... ). To improve the socioeconomic conditions of peasants, more structural interventions (at a political level) are needed for the development of rural areas and strategies that enable sustainable livelihoods and sustainable agroecosystems(Morris et al. 2013).4.4. Sustainability indicators: «environmental dimension»The «environmental dimension» of Guateque and Guayatá can be classified as «partially sustainable». ...
Article
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El policultivo es una práctica de producción más sostenible y ofrece varios beneficios ambientales, económicos y sociales a la sociedad, como promover la biodiversidad y los servicios ecosistémicos, aumentar la productividad y la rentabilidad o mejorar los medios de vida, entre otros. Sin embargo, existe una tendencia mundial de cambio en los sistemas de producción basados en policultivos hacia sistemas de monocultivos. En este escenario, el departamento de Boyacá (Colombia) se ha enfrentado a diversos cambios en la fabricación de alimentos, a medida que se impulsa la producción de café en la región. Con este estudio, se tiene como objetivo investigar los aspectos productivos, económicos, ambientales y sociales de los campesinos que desarrollan una agricultura familiar a partir de diversos cultivos alimentarios y de aquellos involucrados en la transición agrícola del policultivo a la caficultura en dos municipios de Boyacá. Los datos se obtuvieron a través de cuestionarios y entrevistas semiestructuradas y fueron analizados con base en la metodología Mesmis. A nivel regional, las dimensiones social y ambiental eran parcialmente sostenibles, mientras que la dimensión económica era insostenible. El municipio de Guayatá invierte más en la producción de café. Se presentan factores referentes a tres dimensiones que pueden fortalecer prácticas sustentables y reducir prácticas con gran impacto negativo.
... The drawbacks of smallholder livelihood strategies dependent on coffee alone are highlighted for Central America and Mexico (Fernandez et al., 2013;Bacon et al., 2014;Anderzén et al., 2020) as a larger issue for food sovereignty and sustainable development in rural communities. Increasing seasonal food insecurity measured as "lean months" is associated with greater percentage of household land in coffee, declining on-farm production of annual food crops and low-income diversification (Morris et al., 2013). Pinoargote et al. (2017) in their comparison of three coffee production systems of increasing diversity found that coffee was the main income in all three systems. ...
... -Food: 0 -none; 1 -monthly; 2 -seasonal perishable; 3seasonal storable; 4 -emergency seasonal. The seasonality of food availability is highlighted in the studies on the lean months (Fernandez et al., 2013;Morris et al., 2013) suggesting that this benefit should have sub-categories by season. We also envisioned differences between perishable fruits and stored products like seeds and emergency foods which are sourced primarily in times of stress. ...
Article
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Sixty percent of global coffee is produced from farms of <5 ha. Studies show that returns from such farms do not generate a living income for producers or workers threatening supplies. Smallholders use agroforestry to reduce coffee production costs, diversify income and address livelihood needs. We undertook a three-phase analysis to test the following hypothesis. Current coffee agroforestry must shift from a low labor, low risk-stable return, slowly-changing matrix to more active management of species and stem turnover in system renovation cycles targeted to sustaining, reorienting and intensifying ecosystem-based benefits to coffee production, diversified income and household food. First, we conducted a document survey of current traditional tree diversity, research trends, and market drivers for more benefits-oriented agroforestry. Second, we proposed a framework for multiple benefits quantification converting tree use characteristics and density into five categories of benefits, each with sub-categories which we tested using previously collected data of stem density by species from coffee agroforestry in northern Nicaragua. Third, we modeled radiation in mixed canopy scenarios using the program SExI-FS based on modifications of species and density to target food and income diversification and tested our framework by quantifying benefits. We found that smallholder coffee faces farms decreasing coffee margins, labor scarcity, new pests and climate variability best addressed with targeted and adaptive shifts in coffee varieties and associated trees. Increasing data demands from certification and regulations provide a basis more data-driven coffee farm management. Our data bases of stem density by species of established agroforestry systems were sufficient to identify gaps in food and income benefits which were addressed in the scenarios thereby verifying the hypothesis. The benefits ranking both of current systems and three scenarios also provided insights into data collection specifications for a more rigorous academic test of the hypothesis and data-driven grower strategies for agroforestry transformation.
... La simplificación provoca una menor robustez del sistema agrícola al reducir la contribución al autoabastecimiento de alimentos, la conservación de la biodiversidad y otros servicios ecosistémicos, como ha ocurrido en algunas áreas de México y otros países de América Latina. Asimismo, reduce el potencial de producir alimentos, por lo que en algunas zonas cafetaleras se reporta hambruna estacional (Bacon et al. 2008;Morris et al. 2013;Rice, 2008;Rosset, 2008). Calidad y rendimientos de café. ...
... En las zonas cafetaleras de la Sierra Madre, como en otras de México y otros países, se ha observado una especialización hacia el café; esto, aunado al minifundio, ha restado espacio a las milpas y huertos familiares, reportándose hambruna estacional (Morris et al. 2013). ...
... The latter reflect studies pointing that certified farmers often face challenges in meeting their food needs, despite obtaining certain benefits (e.g. training, infrastructure development, savings) [76][77][78][79]. ...
... This 'expectation' seems to be quite obvious in our results as well, considering that despite certified farmers having higher yields and income (section 3.2) [13,76], certification adoption has low or uncertain food security outcomes (section 3.4, table 6) [14,22,23]. On a broad scale, this clearly points to the need to rethink the mechanisms through which certification standards are expected to enhance food security. ...
Article
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Cocoa and oil palm are the major commodity crops produced in Ghana and livelihood options for hundreds of thousands of rural households. However, their production has negative environmental and socioeconomic impacts. Certification standards have been promoted as a market-led mechanism to ensure their sustainable production. Even though food security does not feature in the theory of change of most certification standards, there are interesting intersections. This paper assesses the food security outcomes of certification adoption among cocoa and oil palm smallholders in Ghana. We analyse 608 household surveys from two study sites using propensity score matching and multiple standardized metrics of food security such as the Food Consumption Score (FCS), the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and the Coping Strategies Index. Certified cocoa/oil palm farmers are more food secure than uncertified farmers and food crop farmers across most indicators and group comparisons. However, the differences are for most indicators not substantial or statistically significant (except the HFIAS). In fact, 65% and 68% of the certified cocoa and oil palm farmers are vulnerable to food insecurity in terms of the FCS. These results suggest that even though certification adoption can improve the livelihoods and yields of farmers, in reality it has marginal effect on food security. Certification standards would need to emphasize food security in their guidelines, theories of change and support packages to smallholders if they are to enhance food security and have a truly positive effect on the sustainability of cocoa and oil palm production.
... While our study is based on self-reporting of food insecurity and, like all such studies, is subjective and could potentially overreport the severity of the issue (Maxwell et al. 2008), other studies have also noted high levels of food insecurity among rural populations in Central America. For example, Morris et al. (2013) reported that 97% of smallholder coffee farmers in El Salvador depleted their maize and bean reserves during the lean months of June-September. In Nicaragua, smallholder coffee farmers face food shortages for an average of 3 months per year (Bacon et al. 2017). ...
... Our results show that households with at least one member having a technical education were less likely to experience recurrent food shortages than those lacking this education. Our results are similar to other studies (e.g., Maxwell et al. 2008;Davis et al. 2010;WFP 2017) that highlight the positive role of technical education in improving household food security and facilitating the implementation of on-farm adaptation measures (e.g., Morris et al. 2013), and suggest that investments in technical education should form a component of any agricultural policies or programs targeting improved food security. ...
Article
Full-text available
To ensure food security among rural communities under a changing climate, policymakers need information on the prevalence and determinants of food insecurity, the role of extreme weather events in exacerbating food insecurity, and the strategies that farmers use to cope with food insecurity. Using household surveys in Guatemala and Honduras, we explore the prevalence of food insecurity among smallholder farmers on both a recurrent (seasonal) and episodic (resulting from extreme weather events) basis, analyze the factors associated with both types of food insecurity, and document farmer coping strategies. Of the 439 households surveyed, 56% experienced recurrent food insecurity, 36% experienced episodic food insecurity due to extreme weather events, and 24% experienced both types. Food insecurity among smallholder farmers was correlated with sociodemographic factors (e.g., age, education, migration) and asset ownership. The factors affecting food insecurity differed between type and prevalence of food insecurity. Our results highlight the urgent need for policies and programs to help smallholder farmers improve their overall food security and resilience to extreme weather shocks. Such policies should focus on enhancing farmer education levels, securing land tenure, empowering women, promoting generational knowledge exchange, and providing emergency food support in the lean season or following extreme weather events.
... For instance, research on coffee producers in Uganda finds that UTZ-Rainforest Alliance-4C certification creates substantial economic benefits whereas Fairtrade-Organic certification reduces productivity and economic returns Vanderhaegen et al., 2018). Moreover, four studies found no or even a negative effect on famers' income levels and food security (Bacon et al., 2008(Bacon et al., , 2014Méndez et al., 2010;Morris et al., 2013). In their assessment of the existing literature, Meemken and Qaim (2018a) even suggest that organic certification increases food prices and consequently worsen food security in developing countries where consumers have limited purchasing power. ...
... In addition, Vellema et al. (2015) find that certification does not necessarily lead to higher household income (and food security) as farmers often rely on multiple sources of income and participation in a certification program can incentivize farmers to shift land and labor away from these other sources of income. Moreover, Morris et al. (2013) show that market premiums are often used for expenses other than food and that certification is ineffective in addressing problems with seasonal food insecurity. ...
Article
What is the impact of sustainability certification on food security in developing countries? This article explores the issue through a systematic review of the extant scholarship, complemented by a selective review of key studies examining the wider socio-economic effects of certification that may affect food security indirectly. To guide the analysis, we identify three main causal mechanisms – economic, land use and land rights, and gender effects – that link certification to local food security. Our review finds that food security remains a blind spot in the literature on certification impacts. Existing research points to a positive, albeit weak and highly context-dependent, relationship between certification, farmers’ income, and food security. However, there is only indicative evidence about the relationships that link certification to food security via its influence on land use, land rights, and gender equality.
... Despite valuing long-term sustainability, farmers are often pressured to disproportionately consider short-term profits due to the economically precarious nature of farming. For instance, many coffee farmers experience seasonal periods of food insecurity-the 'thin months'-due to their reliance on an economically variable commodity that earns them income once per year at harvest time (Morris et al., 2013). This 'hungry farmer paradox' may be especially pronounced for coffee farmers, as the product they produce does not directly provide food (Bacon et al., 2014). ...
... Vegetationally heterogeneous farms can provide additional social, economic, and environmental benefits to farmers and surrounding communities that we were not able to incorporate into our study: they retain soil fertility, sequester carbon, protect against drought and disaster, prevent erosion, and shelter workers from the hot tropical sun (Tscharntke et al., 2011). Furthermore, coffee from shaded systems can also be of higher quality (da Silva Neto et al., 2018) and can benefit household food security by providing additional products for consumption or sales, thereby decreasing the risk of relying on a single product and helping to weather the 'thin months' (Mendez, 2008;Méndez et al., 2010;Morris et al., 2013). Therefore, our results are likely conservative, signifying that fewer financial incentives than suggested by our economic analyses would be sufficient to encourage more heterogeneous farming systems. ...
... The most relevant indicators -levels of food selfsufficiency and internal input use-were given twice the weight since recent studies in Central America (Katlyn et al. 2013;Bacon et al. 2014) found that food self-sufficiency is a factor of vulnerability for small coffee growers and showed the difficulties that farmers face during certain seasons. Regarding the dependence on external inputs, some studies have compared conventional coffee systems with organic or agroecological ones in Costa Rica and Brazil, proving that crops where organic fertilizers were employed and which were subject to agroecological practices had higher quality soils, gave better yields, depended less on external input and could also reduce production costs, leading to improved living conditions among the growers (Souza et al., 2012). ...
... Likewise, they do not carry out recycling practices within the farm, which could lead them to a decreased coffee production and to become more vulnerable to production costs. Studies in Central America have proven that the main vulnerability factors of small coffee growers are food insecurity (represented in a period of famine) and the dependence on external inputs (fertilizers and pesticides), together with longterm instability of the coffee harvest and price variations (Katlyn et al. 2013;Bacon et al. 2014). ...
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This research was carried out in the Porce river basin, Antioquia (Colombia) with nine coffee growing families in charge of conventional systems and in transition to the organic production of coffee. The farms were characterized from an agroecological perspective, while evaluating the social, economic and technical-productive dimensions. It was detected that the two main threats faced by small farmers in this area are climatic variability and fluctuations in coffee prices. Using the RIH Risk Index methodology, a set of indicators was proposed to reflect the vulnerability and the response capacity of these families.
... Studies in the last decade demonstrate that many smallholder coffee farmers in Mesoamerica suffer annual periods of seasonal hunger Caswell, Méndez, and Bacon 2012;Fujisaka 2007;Méndez et al. 2010;Morris, Méndez, and Olson 2013). These periods can range from 1 to 8 months and are the result of a complexity of factors that include farmer's capacity to produce food crops; coffee price volatility and timing of payments; low yields; high staple food prices; and limited access to support networks, among others (Caswell, Méndez, and Bacon 2012;Morris, Méndez, and Olson 2013). ...
... Studies in the last decade demonstrate that many smallholder coffee farmers in Mesoamerica suffer annual periods of seasonal hunger Caswell, Méndez, and Bacon 2012;Fujisaka 2007;Méndez et al. 2010;Morris, Méndez, and Olson 2013). These periods can range from 1 to 8 months and are the result of a complexity of factors that include farmer's capacity to produce food crops; coffee price volatility and timing of payments; low yields; high staple food prices; and limited access to support networks, among others (Caswell, Méndez, and Bacon 2012;Morris, Méndez, and Olson 2013). This study assesses and analyzes the impact of agrobiodiversity on reducing the extent of seasonal hunger in coffee growing communities of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, Mexico. ...
Article
This paper analyzes the relationship between agrobiodiversity and food security. Results demonstrate that agrobiodiverse landscapes can contribute to food and nutrition security. Maize and bean production, as well as overall agrobiodiversity, were significantly correlated with a reduction in number of months of food insecurity. Due to the volatility of the coffee market, the high prices of food, the inadequate quality of food, and the limited availability and access to food produced inside or outside the communities, strategies that strengthen and diversify local food systems are essential to improving food and nutrition security, as well as livelihoods in general.
... De acuerdo a Katlyn et al., (2013) los caficultores invierten más tiempo y energía en la producción de café, que en producir alimentos para su seguridad alimentaria, lo cual da como resultado que muchos pequeños caficultores y sus familias pasen periodos de escasez de alimentos, a esto se suma la pobreza, la ausencia de educación, la falta de diversificación en la producción y de redes de mercado, en Colombia la Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia (FNCC), es quien regula el precio y la comercializacicn del café, además es la institución que supervisa, verifica y es responsable de hacer seguimiento de la calidad del café (Abaunza et al., 2013). En cuanto a la vulnerabilidad de los pequeños caficultores, esta se debe en parte a los altos costos de la producción de café y a la fluctuación de los precios internacionales como se evidenció en el año 2013, y en algunos casos a la tenencia de la tierra o cambios en el uso de la misma y variabilidad climática (Hausermann, 2014). ...
... y a la dependencia de la cosecha de café. Katlyn et al., 2013. Grado de uso interno de insumos (dependencia insumos externos) ...
Chapter
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Este artículo introduce dos investigaciones que complementariamente resaltan alternativas para seguir construyendo resiliencia socioecológica en Bolivia. El primer caso es la producción diversificada de coca en los Yungas de La Paz, la cual aporta en la construcción de la resiliencia mediante la reducción de la erosión de suelo, estrés hídrico, pérdida de materia orgánica y deslizamientos. A nivel económico, la coca juega un rol fundamental en la economía familiar, y culturalmente es importante para diferentes clases de rituales. El segundo caso describe el diálogo de conocimientos y consensos comunales para la resiliencia al cambio climático en dos valles de altura, Agoyu Jirapata en el Departamento de Potosí, y Chomoco en el Departamento de Cochabamba. Las experiencias tienen como aspecto común la necesidad de la auto-organización en forma de diálogo y análisis conjunto para avanzar hacia la adaptación a factores externos como el cambio climático, ya sea a nivel familiar (caso de producción de coca en sistemas agroforestales) o a nivel comunal (caso de Agoyu Jirapata y Chomoco). Esto se relaciona con el hecho de que los efectos del cambio climático no solo son de índole ecológico, sino también se materializan en los diferentes ámbitos de las dinámicas de vida, como por ejemplo, la organización del manejo del predio y los conocimientos aplicables ante contextos cambiantes.
... La literatura resalta la relevancia de cultivos complementarios, como el maíz, para complementar la producción cafetalera, esto con el fin de diversificar las fuentes de ingreso, garantizar el consumo familiar y manejar los riesgos asociados a la incertidumbre (Morris et al., 2013). El cultivo del maíz entre los caficultores de Tepatlaxco refleja el predominio de esta estrategia de subsistencia y estabilización de ingresos; mientras que, la incorporación de cultivos comerciales como el plátano, la palma y la caña, representa más una alternativa de diversificación económica (Benítez et al., 2015). ...
Article
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La caficultura es una actividad fundamental para la economía y sustento de millones de familias en Latinoamérica. Sin embargo, enfrenta múltiples perturbaciones como el cambio climático, incremento de plagas y volatilidad de precios. Ante este panorama, se requiere investigar cómo operan los procesos de adaptación y transformación en contextos locales. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la percepción de los productores en torno al impacto de las perturbaciones, así como las trayectorias de adaptación y transformación de los sistemas socioecológicos cafetaleros en el municipio de Tepatlaxco, Veracruz. Con base en 29 encuestas a productores y cuatro entrevistas a informantes clave, se determinaron las principales perturbaciones y trayectorias de las unidades de producción. Se encontró que la capacidad adaptativa de los productores de la zona baja se sustenta en la diversificación y la adopción de prácticas que incorporan valor agregado, mientras que en la zona alta depende, principalmente, del acceso a programas sociales. Los procesos de transformación se atribuyen al abandono de la agricultura o a los cambios de cultivo. Se concluye que las políticas públicas deben focalizarse en función de las dinámicas regionales, facilitando innovación en la zona baja y mejorando condiciones para la comercialización en la zona alta.
... This assumption is only partially true: although agriculture continues to be the main source of food in rural areas worldwide, gathering and hunting still play a fundamental food-provisioning role (Bharucha & Pretty, 2010;Chappell et al., 2013;Guzmán Luna et al., 2022;Fernandez & Méndez, 2018). Hunting and gathering are especially important during the "lean months" when families deplete the annual food reserves of staple crops Morris et al., 2013). The agroecological approach to restructuring the food system "from the farm to the table" (Gliessman, 2016) has shown limited consideration for the crucial role of foods sourced from nonagricultural ecosystems, riverbeds, or farm borders. ...
Chapter
Forests and riverbeds are recognized for their positive impacts on adjacent agricultural plots. While ethnoscience studies have indicated that these environments can enhance food self-sufficiency, there has been limited agroecological research focusing on the role of forests and riverbeds as sources of non-crop food for farming communities. In this chapter, we present the findings from a case study that analyzed the contribution of edible non-crop plants and mushrooms to the food security of five farming communities in the highlands of Cofre de Perote, central Veracruz, Mexico. The selected communities varied in their distances from urban areas. We evaluated: 1) variations in the richness of consumed non-crop plants and mushrooms across different habitats and farming communities; 2) the influence of proximity to urban centers on the consumption of these species; and 3) the willingness of participants to engage in advocacy efforts to promote the sustainable consumption of edible non-crop species. Within each community, we conducted five focus groups and field surveys in agricultural plots (milpas), riverbeds, and forest patches. Additionally, we surveyed 50 households to investigate how edible non-crop species contribute to the food security of farming families. Participants in the workshops and field surveys identified over 60 edible non-crop plants and 25 edible mushroom species/morphotypes. Both forests and milpas served as equally important sources of edible plants, while forest patches were the sole source of mushrooms. Notably, the distance between communities and urban centers did not correlate with the richness of edible non-crop species/morphotypes. Participants expressed interest in: 1) advocating for the protection and consumption of these species through community recipes; 2) cultivating edible herbs in domestic greenhouses; and 3) restoring local ecosystems. Our research demonstrates that the utilization of edible non-crop plants can significantly enhance food security in these and similar farming communities, drawing upon the communities' traditional ecological knowledge, aspirations, and practices. Furthermore, this study underscores the necessity of evaluating non-crop food sources from an agroecological perspective.
... En la literatura autores (Katlyn et al., 2013y Bacon et al., 2014, afirman que, el 85% de los caficultores son pequeña propiedad y en su mayoría indígenas, caracterizados por poseer áreas mínimas de producción, como se evidencia en América Latina, países como Nicaragua donde el promedio de la unidad de producción es de 3.5 ha, los cuales producen el 85% de la cosecha de café (Donovan y Poole, 2014). En Costa Rica las áreas mínimas son 0.17 ha y máximo 4.9 ha (Castro et al., 2012). ...
Article
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La cafeticultura se considera una actividad estratégica que impulsa cadenas productivas, genera divisas, empleos y servicios ambientales; de esta actividad depende el modo de vida de miles de pequeños productores. En México la producción se concentra en regiones con altos índices de pobreza, las cuales han enfrentado desde hace años la caída de los precios debido a la apertura de mercados, cambios en las políticas agrícolas, exceso de oferta, cambios en los gustos del consumidor. El objetivo de este trabajo fue realizar una revisión de literatura relacionada con las estrategias que adoptan los productores de café para enfrentar esta problemática. Para ello se consultaron 35 distintas fuentes de información a través de búsquedas en bases de datos referenciales y de acceso libre. Los resultados indican que los cafeticultores utilizan dos estrategias para enfrentar esta situación, por un lado, la diversificación de las actividades productivas que complementan sus ingresos, y por otro, la especialización y certificación de su producto para acceder a nuevos mercados, resulta complejo considerar una estrategia como la mejor alternativa para el desarrollo social del productor, estas dependen de los capitales presentes en la unidad de producción. Se concluye que si bien, en algunos casos la especialización genera mayores recursos económicos, la pluriactividad representa una forma de vivir para enfrentar choques tanto económicos como ambientales.
... Las mismas dinámicas de adelgazamiento de los medios de producción y de trabajo rural marginal, han sido los causantes de que la mayoría de los GD ganadiarios experimenten carestía alimentaria. Como se reportó en los trabajos sobre "La paradoja del hambre campesina" (Bacon et al., 2014) y "Los meses flacos" (Morris et al., 2013), planteamientos que dilucidan la imposibilidad de los hogares rurales para abastecer sus necesidades alimentarias anuales a través del autoconsumo o la adquisición monetaria, el 74% de los GD reportan condiciones subalimentarias demarcadas temporalmente, siendo esta de al menos seis meses al año para un 36% de los GD (tabla 3). Los GD conciben las condiciones subalimentarias como dejar de disponer de maíz y frijol totalmente o bajar el consumo habitual de manera considerable en alguna temporada del año, así como no disponer de los medios monetarios para comprar alimentos consumidos regularmente. ...
Article
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Tras el surgimiento del concepto de régimen agroalimentario, los estudios rurales experimentaron un recambio en las lecturas internas del poder de las sociedades agrarias, frente a los análisis verticales sobre las relaciones contractuales que los complejos agroindustriales establecen con los campesinos. A partir de una investigación mixta, que incluyó observación participante, encuestas a 120 grupos domésticos y entrevistas con sujetos sociales clave, retomamos una lectura foucaultiana para analizar críticamente la conformación histórica, así como las implicaciones actuales de las microfísicas del poder que se reproducen en un sistema campesino de abasto agroalimentario en Chiapas, México. Se concluyó una reflexión alrededor del carácter de epifenómeno rural que expresan los micropoderes campesinos.
... Coffee is one of the most valuable global commodities and central to the livelihoods of millions of farmers, yet (Clay et al., 2018;Dohrn, 2013), despite the great wealth generated in the sector, many coffee growing families live in poverty and lack access to financial resources, technologies and other resources (Grabs and Ponte, 2019;Hassan et al., 2020;Lyon, 2018;Macdonald, 2007;Valkila et al., 2010). Due to price volatility in coffee markets, the seasonal nature of agriculture and 'inability to adapt to market demands', farmers have a difficult time finding a balance between producing coffee for income, and food for their own consumption (Fridell, 2014;Morris et al., 2013;Pitts, 2019). Regardless, the coffee link between the world's most developed markets and the world's poorest rural areas is undeniable (Valkila et al., 2010;Vicol et al., 2018). ...
... Also those smallholders who produce for the export market, may experience food insecurity, malnutrition poverty, have limited access to healthcare and may lack land, capital, and knowledge (Becchetti & Costantino, 2008;Beuchelt & Zeller, 2011, 2013Chiputwa et al., 2015;Morris et al., 2013). Households in the surrounding communities of export agriculture have experienced environmental pollution (soil, air, water) and can face severe competition and conflicts regarding land and water (Behrman, Meinzen-Dick, and Quisumbing 2012;Li 2017Li , 2011O'Laughlin, 2017;Schutter 2011). ...
Article
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To address the undesired environmental and social impacts of agricultural export production, the agricultural industry increasingly relies on sustainability standards. These standards neglect food security, although rights‐based food security criteria were recently developed. This research analyses the responsibilities of global supply chain actors for the Right to Food and identifies a feasible implementation pathway to support the operationalization of these criteria. Based on qualitative research, a theory of change was developed and tested in six case studies across the globe. The theory of change discusses relevant stakeholders, necessary changes, expected impacts, and emphasizes the role of market demand and institutional frameworks.
... Our definitions of food and water security and measures of lean food and water months also revealed important temporal dimensions of smallholder food and water access challenges. Specifically, by expanding our analysis from the well-documented food insecure months (Méndez et al. 2010, Morris et al. 2013 to include lean water months, we see that the water insecure months (Jan-May or March-May) combined with the food insecure months (June-July or June-August) amount to a combined period of 4.5 or 6.5 lean months on average in SJ and B, respectively. Recent work replicating an analysis of the matched food and water lean month indicators developed here suggests the applicability of these findings throughout northern Nicaragua (Bacon et al. 2021) and the validity of these lean month indicators and findings despite sample size limits. ...
Article
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Few studies assess the relationship between food and water access, despite global concerns about people's inability to maintain access to both food and water. We conducted a mixed-methods comparative case study in northern Nicaragua, with smallholders from two neighboring communities that differed in water availability and institutional strength, using a feminist political ecology framework and food and water security definitions that focus on access, availability, use, and stability. We adopted a participatory approach that included: a sex-disaggregated survey in 2016; interviews, participant observation, and community-based water quality testing from 2014 to 2019; and analysis of a severe drought that occurred from 2014 to 2017. Our results suggest that uneven power relations, biophysical conditions, gender, and institutions shape food and water access, and indicate that households across both communities average 2 months of drinking water insecurity during the dry season followed by an average of 2.5 months of food insecurity early in the growing season. The average duration of lean food months was similar across communities and sex, but water insecurity lasted longer in the community that had weaker local institutions and less surface water availability. Ethnographic research helped to document uneven and gendered experiences of water access and to illustrate how they were also shaped by conflicts over water for irrigation vs. domestic uses and cross-scalar limitations in water and land governance. Although we found that gender and institutions were not strong predictors of several food and water insecurity indicators on their own, both factors influenced the terms of access, conflict, and cooperative governance needed to secure resources and well-being. Our study highlights the need for theory, methods, and field research that integrate the analysis of food and water security, and it contributes to developing a feminist political ecology approach that unifies this analysis with a focus on gender.
... The risks of relying solely on the coffee income to sustain an entire household, motivate farmers also plant other crops for household consumption. Additional food production is often not sufficient to protect against the risks and it is rarely enough to support families through the months when no income flows into the household, even when coffee yields and prices are favorable (Morris et al., 2013). ...
Article
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Coffee is an important agricultural sector in Central American, directly employing over 1.2 million people in Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Although export revenues from coffee trade have an overall positive effect on the gross domestic product (GDP) of these countries, poverty still prevails. The COVID-19 pandemic has placed additional pressure on the sector which is vulnerable to fluctuations in the international coffee prices, low productivity levels, and climate change effects and damages caused by pest and diseases. This paper examines the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and analyzes if the sector is resilient to withstand unexpected external shocks such as the pandemic and the hurricanes which impacted the region in the last months of 2020. The capacity to absorb, adapt, and/or transform to these shocks was assessed from the perspective of small-scale coffee farmers, traders, exporters and the entire sector in two time periods—immediately after the start of the pandemic and after the coffee harvest. Although the actors in the coffee value chain absorbed these shocks and could withstand them, adaptation to the disruptions has been challenging for small-scale farmers. Despite the vulnerability to unexpected external shocks, results indicate that a long-term transformation of the sector to build resilience is likely to be slow.
... Coffee is one of the most valuable global commodities and central to the livelihoods of millions of farmers, yet (Clay et al., 2018;Dohrn, 2013), despite the great wealth generated in the sector, many coffee growing families live in poverty and lack access to financial resources, technologies and other resources (Grabs and Ponte, 2019;Hassan et al., 2020;Lyon, 2018;Macdonald, 2007;Valkila et al., 2010). Due to price volatility in coffee markets, the seasonal nature of agriculture and 'inability to adapt to market demands', farmers have a difficult time finding a balance between producing coffee for income, and food for their own consumption (Fridell, 2014;Morris et al., 2013;Pitts, 2019). Regardless, the coffee link between the world's most developed markets and the world's poorest rural areas is undeniable (Valkila et al., 2010;Vicol et al., 2018). ...
... A third critical research area is to better understand the socioeconomic and ecological impacts of the changes in coffee landscapes, including potential impacts on coffee production, farmer livelihoods, sustainable development, and the conservation of biodiversity, soil, and water. Coffee farmers across the region are already facing multiple socioeconomic challenges including low-income generation, high poverty levels, recurring food insecurity, high production costs, limited access to education and health services, migration of young male farmers, social conflict, an aging farmer population, and low adaptive capacity (Morris et al. 2013;Baca et al. 2014;Bacon et al. 2017;Harvey et al. 2018;Panhuysen and Pierrot 2018), as well as environmental challenges such as the contamination of water by agrochemicals, soil erosion, biodiversity loss, climate change, and deforestation (Jha et al. 2014;Panhuysen and Pierrot 2018). As discussed in the previous section, it is not yet clear how the ongoing biophysical changes in coffee landscapes will affect landscape-level social, economic, and ecological outcomes. ...
Article
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In Latin America, the cultivation of Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) plays a critical role in rural livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable development. Over the last 20 years, coffee farms and landscapes across the region have undergone rapid and profound biophysical changes in response to low coffee prices, changing climatic conditions, severe plant pathogen outbreaks, and other drivers. Although these biophysical transformations are pervasive and affect millions of rural livelihoods, there is limited information on the types, location, and extent of landscape changes and their socioeconomic and ecological consequences. Here we review the state of knowledge on the ongoing biophysical changes in coffee-growing regions, explore the potential socioeconomic and ecological impacts of these changes, and highlight key research gaps. We identify seven major land-use trends which are affecting the sustainability of coffee-growing regions across Latin America in different ways. These trends include (1) the widespread shift to disease-resistant cultivars, (2) the conventional intensification of coffee management with greater planting densities, greater use of agrochemicals and less shade, (3) the conversion of coffee to other agricultural land uses, (4) the introduction of Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora) into areas not previously cultivated with coffee, (5) the expansion of coffee into forested areas, (6) the urbanization of coffee landscapes, and (7) the increase in the area of coffee produced under voluntary sustainability standards. Our review highlights the incomplete and scattered information on the drivers, patterns, and outcomes of biophysical changes in coffee landscapes, and lays out a detailed research agenda to address these research gaps and elucidate the effects of different landscape trajectories on rural livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, and other aspects of sustainable development. A better understanding of the drivers, patterns, and consequences of changes in coffee landscapes is vital for informing the design of policies, programs, and incentives for sustainable coffee production. Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13593-021-00712-0.
... These factors include regular sources of social and environmental variability that influence food production. They also include social dynamics, structures, and categories of difference that limit access to productive resources, sustain social exclusion, and restrict people's capacities to respond to disturbances (Bacon et al., 2014;Morris et al., 2013;Rocheleau and Roth, 2007). ...
Article
Livelihood insecurity emerges from the interaction of factors and pressures affecting people's ability to cope with change. Yet, the effects of interactive stressors on the dynamic nature of livelihoods and their underlying gendered relationships are still unexplored. We evaluated a case study in Maria La Baja, a municipality in the Colombian Caribbean severely affected by the Colombian armed conflict and oil palm expansion. With the pacification of the conflict in the late 2000s, traditional inhabitants aimed to reconstruct their livelihoods amidst a context of reduced access to resources. We assessed how local livelihood strategies have been affected by the interplay of socio-political distress, agrarian change, agrobiodiversity loss, seasonality, and unequal access to resources for men and women. We conducted surveys and interviews to 1) characterize local livelihoods and their transformations; 2) evaluate current livelihood insecurity and pressures; and 3) assess whether disruptions in local livelihoods have equally affected men and women, and influenced their mechanisms to cope with change. Current livelihoods in Maria La Baja have been largely characterized by months with water, crop and income scarcity. These effects have been shaped by the reduced access to resources and social control that resulted from the armed conflict and oil palm expansion. Such pressures also induced the spatial segregation of women. Diversification of livelihood activities was a coping strategy to overcome the effects of resource scarcity. Despite segregation by gender, diversification was greatly conducted by women. Women-led diversification may become more important in contexts of increasing socio-ecological change.
... Furthermore, to better understand food security it is also crucial to use qualitative measurements along with the quantitative measurements. Often, qualitative measurements are guided by the target community's subjective perception such as their own definition of food security/insecurity and/or accessing (Maxwell 1996;Kennedy 2002;Morris, Mendez and Olson 2013). Such kinds of measurements data are collected using in-depth interviews, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups. ...
Thesis
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Climate change impacts are likely to occur in and are channeled through agriculture, which is the most natural resource-based and climate-sensitive sector. The study examined the local smallholder perceptions, attitudes, and understanding of climate change, identified the climate-smart adaptive measures they undertook, analyzed the determinants that influence their choice of adaptation methods, and classified the barriers that impede adaptation along with evaluating the farming households’ food security levels. Design-methods-approach : The study is based on cross-sectional, quantitative survey. Primary data was collected from 120 randomly-selected households from nine villages in central Bekaa using a structured questionnaire. The study compromised two sets of questionnaires : the first aimed to assess the farming households’ resilience to climate change and variability and second intended to evaluate household food security adopting four indexes developed by international agencies (i.e., HFIAS, MIAHFP, FCS and CSI). The analysis used descriptive statistics and a Poisson Regression Model to estimate the number of adaptation strategies the smallholder farmers implemented and the intensity of coping with changes in temperature and rainfall. Findings : The majority of farmers in central Bekaa believe that climate change is occurring and mostly due to human activities. The severity index (SI) of the farmers’ perceptions, attitudes and knowledge are all in the “agree” range. Farmers adopt a combination of practices to meet the challenges posed by climate changes, mainly crop diversification, improved irrigation systems, soil conservation techniques, and chemical fertilizers. Further, the most critical barriers hindering adaptation are water scarcity, limited access to agriculture markets and lack of agricultural policy. The econometric results revealed that different aspects of human, financial, natural-physical and institutional-social capital impact the adoption likelihood.
... Por su parte Barham et al. (2011), indican que la diferencia en el ingreso de efectivo neto por hectárea entre los hogares certificados con comercio justo, orgánico y convencional en México, proviene principalmente de las diferencias en los rendimientos y no de los precios, demostrando que la certificación en comercio justo y orgánico no proporciona un camino potencial hacia la solución de la pobreza rural persistente. De acuerdo con Katlyn et al. (2013), en El Salvador los pequeños caficultores pasan períodos de hambre debido a que no diversifican su producción, ya que invierten su tiempo y energía exclusivamente a la producción de café, poniendo en riesgo su seguridad alimentaria. ...
Article
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Se realizó una revisión de diversos estudios enfocados para establecer el impacto ambiental generado en las fincas productoras de café certificadas con diferentes sellos de buenas prácticas agrícolas y socioeconómicas en las diversas regiones productoras del grano. De esta revisión se establecieron los impactos de mayor persistencia, así como los de mayor singularidad en todo el mundo.
... Such lack of means of production, lack of local work opportunities, and dependence on government food subsidies have led the majority of ganadiario DGs to experience food scarcity (Mazoyer, 2001). As reported in studies addressing "the hungry farmer paradox" (Bacon et al., 2014) and "lean months" (Morris et al., 2013), 74% of the DGs interviewed in the present study state that they experience marked seasonal food scarcity, while 36% of these report such conditions at least six months per year ( Figure 5). These DGs perceive malnutrition as complete lack of maize and beans (the basic crops of the Mexican peasant diet) or considerably lowering habitual 11 Existing contractual jobs consist of federal government positions in the natural protected area, hospitals and clinics, and schools, all of which are occupied by workers from outside the micro-region. ...
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In recent years, rural studies have transitioned from analyzing internal agrarian dynamics within peasant societies to exploring contractual relationships in a vertical manner between agribusiness and peasants with respect to food production and marketing. The present study follows the tradition of classical agrarian research in order to develop an ascendant Foucauldian analysis that is both genealogical (historical) and critical (addressing current effects) of peasant micropower that domestic groups reproduce in their local agrifood supply system in six ejidos of the Sierra Madre region of Chiapas, Mexico. This study used a mixed methodology consisting of a regional ethnography, surveys regarding the peasant economy with 120 domestic groups, interviews with founders of the rural communities and directors of local peasant organizations, factorial statistical and cluster analyses, and visualization of social networks. As a result of the study, we (a) elucidate sociohistorical conditions that have resulted in differentiation among different types of peasants within the micro-region, (b) analyze contemporary social dynamics that have led to polarization between two principal sets of domestic groups based on their means of production, and (c) show how the fact that the majority of domestic groups of the micro-region experience seasonal food scarcity and lack formal employment has led to low rural wages and monopolization of the internal agrifood supply system by those peasants who have greater means of production. We conclude by reflecting on peasant micropower as a phenomenon that can be found in social relations of many agrarian regions around the world, in which the challenge would be to understand its processes of reproduction, analyze effects of this micropower, and propose alternative academic approaches that may contribute to generating public policy and political action to counteract rural inequality. Key words: Peasant micropower; Agrifood supply systems; Social reproduction; Domestic groups; Mexico.
... For instance, a study of oil palm and cacao producers in Ghana revealed that the intensity of household cash crop production was associated with a decline in food availability, access, and utilization; outcomes that were largely attributable to the concurrent rise in food prices and increased competition for land caused by the cash crop boom (Anderman et al. 2014). The reduced production of subsistence crops in the region has rendered many households more prone to food gaps since staple crops (mainly cassava, maize, and plantains) provide a more continuous flow of income and consumable food compared to the irregular lump sum payments generated by cash crops 3 (Anderman et al. 2014; c.f. Morris et al. 2013). Gaps in food access can also coincide with seasonal food price variations. ...
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Development practitioners and policymakers often posit that promoting cash crop expansion to generate rural employment has the potential to alleviate poverty and improve food security. Focusing upon the recent expansion of oil palm production in the northern lowlands of Guatemala, we critically evaluate this claim. To do so, we draw upon survey data collected in two neighbouring villages – one where oil palm is the main land use, another where maize and secondary forest are prevalent – to investigate how the expanding cultivation of the cash crop shapes local food access and rural livelihoods. We find that oil palm has improved food access for some households with oil palm employment. However, number of beneficiaries is relatively small and the practice does not lift them from the ranks of the food insecure. For most households in the village where oil palm is prevalent, the ability to access food has decreased, as the expansion of oil palm has displaced staple grain production and eliminated relatively more inclusive forms of agricultural employment. In contrast, households from the village where staple maize production remains predominant are notably more food secure. We conclude that, in the absence of deep changes that address the underlying causes of widespread vulnerability in Guatemala’s northern lowlands, the self-provisioning of maize and other staples will continue to serve as a cornerstone of food security, while the promotion of cash crops like oil palm will exacerbate inequalities in households’ ability to access food.
... El equipo de investigación respondió reorientando la investigación y aprendiendo e interactuando con otros proyectos enfocados en la seguridad alimentaria en varias regiones cafeteras de Mesoamérica. Dos estudiantes de doctorado de UVM enfocaron sus tesis a este tema (Morris et al. 2013b, Olson et al. 2012, y surgieron nuevas colaboraciones con grupos en Nicaragua y México. Los resultados de investigación de estos esfuerzos incluyeron un número significativo y una amplia variedad de publicaciones en inglés y español, incluido un libro editado sobre agroecología, medios de subsistencia/ sustentos y la crisis del precio del café. ...
... Such is the case for traditional coffee polycultures and indigenous agroforestry systems (Bandeira, López-Blanco, and Toledo 2003;Soto-Pinto et al. 2000). But despite the benefits of highly biodiverse coffee plantations, coffee farmers and farmworkers frequently experience seasonal hunger and food shortages (Fujisaka 2007;Morris, Méndez, and Olson 2013;Shriar 2007). Food-related challenges are mostly reported from smallholdings. ...
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Coffee was introduced to Mexico in the late eighteenth century, but it was not until the late nineteenth century that wealthy European immigrants purchased “unregistered” land and invested in coffee cultivation. Displaced farmers, mostly indigenous, returned to the region as plantation workers and learned how to cultivate coffee. After the Mexican Revolution and when land reform reached the southern states, small farmers began cultivating coffee. Coffee transformed landscapes and people in southern Mexico and today continues to do so. Focusing on the Soconusco region of the state of Chiapas in southern Mexico, we examine how coffee landscapes affect people and nonhuman nature. In particular, we discuss how “technified” coffee landscapes affect biodiversity and created the conditions that may have led to the coffee rust outbreak in 2012.We also discuss the impact of the plantation system on social relations and the impact that this system has on permanent and temporary farmworkers. Finally, we explore potential connections between the ecological and social impacts of the plantation system in the Soconusco region.
... For example, one may ask a direct yet surprisingly complicated question: Why do farmers cultivate biologically complex agroecological systems? Through multiple lenses, responses could include, but are not limited to: (i) To ensure nutrient cycling, yield stability, and ecosystem services [1]; (ii) as an expression of autonomy and bulwark against uncertain and uneven market relations [23,33]; (iii) to carve out alternative agrarian spaces defined by non-commodified exchanges of labour and education [34]; (iv) to counter macro-scale political and economic phenomena and strive for social justice [35]; and/or (v) to improve household and community food security [36][37][38]. Motivations for engaging with agroecological practices are derived from a range of thematic and methodological approaches, including environmental and biological sciences, political economy, labour, food sovereignty, and justice. ...
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This article surveys the current state of agroecology in Canada, giving particular attention to agroecological practices, the related social movements, and the achievements of agroecological science. In each of these realms, we find that agroecology emerges as a response to the various social and ecological problems associated with the prevailing industrial model of agricultural production that has long been promoted in the country under settler colonialism. Although the prevalence and prominence of agroecology is growing in Canada, its presence is still small and the support for its development is limited. We provide recommendations to achieve a more meaningful integration of agroecology in Canadian food policy and practice.
... Coffee smallholders in most of Mesoamerica are a historically marginalized social group, who are already vulnerable to seasonal hunger (Morris et al., 2013;Bacon et al., 2014), fluctuations in the international Arabica coffee market (Renard, 2010;Doane, 2011), and the impacts of climate change on agriculture (Gay et al., 2006;Morton, 2007;Bellon et al., 2011). Although coffee arrived in Mesoamerica as a "colonization" crop brought by European settlers at the beginning of the 19 th century, cultivated in large plantations as part of a vast market with oligopolistic production and consumption (Topik, 2004), today farmers have appropriated this crop to support their livelihoods. ...
... The fact that Ángel 2 is 100% self-sufficient in sorghum production is positive from the nutritional viewpoint; however, it leads us to think that it is also the community with the biggest maize shortage. This limits food choices or preferences related to the access to certain foods [68,69]. ...
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Farmer field schools (FFSs) emerged in response to the gap left by the worldwide decline in agricultural extension services. With time, this methodology has been adapted to specific rural contexts to solve problems related to the sustainability of peasant-farming systems. In this study we draw upon empirical data regarding the peasant-farming system in the Nicaraguan highlands to evaluate whether FFSs have helped communities improve the sustainability of their systems and the food security of their residents using socioeconomic, environmental, and food and nutrition security (FNS) indicators. In order to appreciate the long-term impact, we studied three communities where FFSs were implemented eight, five, and three years ago, respectively, and we included participants and nonparticipants from each community. We found that FFSs have a gradual impact, as there are significant differences between participants and nonparticipants, and it is the community that first implemented FFSs that scores highest. The impact of FFSs is broad and long lasting for indicators related to participation, access to basic services, and conservation of natural resources. Finally, this paper provides evidence that FFSs have the potential to empower farmers; however, more attention needs to be paid to critical indicators like production costs and the use of external inputs in order to scale up their potential in the future.
... Understanding the impacts of climate change on smallholder farmers and developing appropriate adaptation strategies are critical issues in Central America, a region where small-scale agriculture is central to economic development, food security, and local livelihoods [11]. There are an estimated 2.3 million smallholder farmers in Central America [12], many of whom farm on steep lands with thin soils, are poor, and suffer seasonal food insecurity [13][14][15]. Two common smallholder farming systems in the region are basic grain (maize and beans) and small-scale coffee production. ...
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Background Smallholder farmers are one of the most vulnerable groups to climate change, yet efforts to support farmer adaptation are hindered by the lack of information on how they are experiencing and responding to climate change. More information is needed on how different types of smallholder farmers vary in their perceptions and responses to climate change, and how to tailor adaptation programs to different smallholder farmer contexts. We surveyed 860 smallholder coffee and basic grain (maize/bean) farmers across six Central American landscapes to understand farmer perceptions of climate change and the impacts they are experiencing, how they are changing their agricultural systems in response to climate change, and their adaptation needs. Results Almost all (95%) of the surveyed smallholder farmers have observed climate change, and most are already experiencing impacts of rising temperatures, unpredictable rainfall and extreme weather events on crop yields, pest and disease incidence, income generation and, in some cases, food security. For example, 87% of maize farmers and 66% of coffee farmers reported negative impacts of climate change on crop production, and 32% of all smallholder farmers reported food insecurity following extreme weather events. Of the farmers perceiving changes in climate, 46% indicated that they had changed their farming practices in response to climate change, with the most common adaptation measure being the planting of trees. There was significant heterogeneity among farmers in the severity of climate change impacts, their responses to these impacts, and their adaptation needs. This heterogeneity likely reflects the wide diversity of socioeconomic and biophysical contexts across smallholder farms and landscapes. Conclusions Our study demonstrates that climate change is already having significant adverse impacts on smallholder coffee and basic grain farmers across the Central American region. There is an urgent need for governments, donors and practitioners to ramp up efforts to help smallholder farmers cope with existing climate impacts and build resiliency to future changes. Our results also highlight the importance of tailoring of climate adaptation policies and programs to the diverse socioeconomic conditions, biophysical contexts, and climatic stresses that smallholder farmers face
... La estrategia de la canasta de bienes y servicios territoriales se puede adaptar muy bien a uno de los sistemas productivos locales en el medio rural de México y América Latina más representativo, como lo es el cultivo del café dado que, en términos agroecológicos, se enclava en zonas de importancia para la biodiversidad y que coinciden, por lo general, con áreas rurales con gran pobreza, desempleo y fuerte migración. En estas áreas se puede cultivar el café de sombra y de altura en forma de policultivo y en coexistencia con la preservación de la biodiversidad, la variedad forestal y el aprovechamiento sostenible de productos rurales como frutales, la miel de abeja local o, bien, las plantas epifitas locales que en el mercado de ornamentales tiene potencial económico (Souza et al. 2012;Goodall et al. 2014;Bacon et al. 2014;Morris et al. 2013;Toledo-Aceves et al. 2013;Méndez et al, 2013;Caswell et al. 2012). ...
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Developing a basket of land goods means a systemic strategy for small farmers because it allows reaching multiple objectives in order to promote territorial competitiveness to access market niches with varied rural goods, strengthen social capital and generate better local levels in employment and income, together with increasing and preserving the environment. This analysis implied the application of a system dynamics model which produced possible future scenarios (through Vensim® DSS 5.8) about employment and income obtained by smallholder coffee farmers from Xicotepec de Juárez municipality in Puebla, regarding the setting of the above mentioned strategy for rural development. Results showed that this strategy was implemented successfully and also revealed opportunities for: a) improving the development capacity of small farmers; b) making the institutional context favorable; c) The reinforcement of social capital essential to implement this land strategy
... The research team responded by re-directing research and reaching out to learn and interact with other efforts focusing on food security in several coffee regions of Mesoamerica. Two doctoral students from UVM focused their dissertations on this topic [37,38], and new collaborations with work in Nicaragua and Mexico emerged. Research outcomes from these efforts included a significant number and wide variety of publications in English and Spanish, including an edited book on agroecology, livelihoods and the coffee price crisis [39]. ...
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The last decade has seen an increasing advancement and interest in the integration of agroecology and participatory action research (PAR). This article aims to: (1) analyze the key characteristics and principles of two case studies that integrated PAR and agroecology in Central America; and (2) learn from the lessons offered by these case studies, as well as others from the literature, on how to better integrate PAR and agroecology. Key principles identified for effective PAR agroecological processes include a shared interest in research by partners, a belief in collective power/action, a commitment to participation, practicing humility and establishing trust and accountability. Important lessons to consider for future work include: (1) research processes that did not start as PAR, can evolve into it; (2) farmer/stakeholder participation in setting the research agenda, from the outset, results in higher engagement and enhanced outcomes; (3) having the right partners for the desired outcomes is key; (4) intentional and explicit reflection is an essential component of PAR processes; and (5) cross-generational collaborations are crucial to long-term benefits. Key challenges that confront PAR processes include the need for time and resources over longer periods; the complexity of multi-actor process facilitation; and institutional barriers within the academy and development organizations, which prevent shifting investment towards integrated PAR agroecological processes.
... La estrategia de la canasta de bienes y servicios territoriales se puede adaptar muy bien a uno de los sistemas productivos locales en el medio rural de México y América Latina más representativo, como lo es el cultivo del café dado que, en términos agroecológicos, se enclava en zonas de importancia para la biodiversidad y que coinciden, por lo general, con áreas rurales con gran pobreza, desempleo y fuerte migración. En estas áreas se puede cultivar el café de sombra y de altura en forma de policultivo y en coexistencia con la preservación de la biodiversidad, la variedad forestal y el aprovechamiento sostenible de productos rurales como frutales, la miel de abeja local o, bien, las plantas epifitas locales que en el mercado de ornamentales tiene potencial económico (Souza et al. 2012;Goodall et al. 2014;Bacon et al. 2014;Morris et al. 2013;Toledo-Aceves et al. 2013;Méndez et al, 2013;Caswell et al. 2012). ...
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p> La formación de una canasta de bienes territoriales representa una estrategia de índole sistémica para los pequeños agricultores, al permitir alcanzar múltiples objetivos que den resultados en materia de elevar la competitividad territorial, por medio de acceder a nichos de mercado de bienes rurales diferenciados, fortalecer el capital social y generar mejores niveles locales de empleo e ingresos, así como también mejorar y conservar el entorno ambiental. El análisis consistió en la aplicación de un modelo de dinámica de sistemas que generó posibles escenarios futuros (con el software Vensim® DSS 5.8) en torno a empleos e ingresos de campesinos cafetaleros minifundistas del municipio de Xicotepec de Juárez, Puebla, en relación a la adopción de dicha estrategia de desarrollo territorial rural. Los resultados fueron favorables para la implementación de dicha estrategia e indica las oportunidades para: a) mejorar el desarrollo de capacidades de los pequeños agricultores; b) hacer favorable el contexto institucional; c) fortalecer el capital social indispensable para dicha estrategia territorial. </p
... For subsistence farmers, the commercialization of agriculture that includes substituting food crop cultivation with cash crop cultivation could adversely impact their nutritional security, even while providing the cash to secure food at both subsidized and market rates. Thus, while cultivation of cash crops like coffee can reduce the 'lean months' , food security and an impoverished diet can persist as a major cause for concern (Morris, Mendez, and Olson 2013). In the past, food crops grown by Soligas in the study sites were able to meet household needs for only about 5-8 months. ...
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This paper examines trends in farming and livelihood activities among forest-dwelling Adivasi farmers (Soligas) in a tiger reserve from 2008 to 2015. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted in two contrasting, but representative villages. Traditional mixed-crop farming was being replaced by cash crops such as coffee, maize and cotton. Access to state-subsidized food supply, increasing cash income through wage labor, coupled with increasing depredation of food crops by wild animals were some causes for the shift to cash crops. Declining supply of non-timber forest produce (NTFP) and the subsistence cash it provided has also impacted farmer livelihoods and indirectly contributed to this shift. The changing aspirations of younger Soligas and inadequate state support for mixed-crop farming also could be contributing factors. Soligas consistently maintained that increasing wildlife depredation of food crops, reduction in supplies of wild foods, and the decline in NTFP was because of poor forest health. The transition to cash crops improved cash flows but exposes the Soligas to market risks. While food security has also improved, the nutritional quality of diet declined. Soligas are adopting new farming practices, diets, and livelihood strategies, and importantly, leveraging rights historically denied to them, all a reflections of their social resilience.
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O presente estudo tem como objetivo principal, investigar a agricultura familiar, seu processo de contribuição para o desenvolvimento socioeconômico. Essa temática desperta interesse para pesquisadores, agricultores de economia familiar, políticas públicas. A trajetória da pesquisa trilha um diálogo com os aportes teóricos de Bourdieu para análise e reflexões, da natureza, das especificidades e dos fundamentos para com a agricultura familiar. Para investigar esse processo, os caminhos metodológicos contam com a pesquisa bibliográfica, descritiva, qualitativa sobre a agricultura familiar. Os resultados da pesquisa permitem as especificidades da agricultura familiar, ao se constituir, se organizar e sobreviver ao longo da história, o que remete ao papel da importância da agricultura familiar no contexto rural brasileiro, de maneira particular no que diz respeito à sua resiliência em um quadro de concentração da produção e de esvaziamento demográfico do campo. Aponta-se como sugestão, que para maior qualificação dessa discussão, se faz necessário de três fatores: primeiro, a análise dos avanços na área conceitual; segundo, a realização de pesquisas empíricas junto ao setor; e terceiro, a importância de novos olhares a respeito da diversidade setorial e regional no Brasil, considerando as diversidades para sua definição e modalidades de agricultura familiar.
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Seasonal food scarcity during pre-harvest months is, widely, considered to be the principal manifestation of food insecurity, for some 600 million members of smallholder families, who rely on a variety of coping strategies. This paper analyses both the peasant-economy variables that explain the presence and intensity of seasonal food scarcity, and the coping strategies of 120 rural households in a microregion of southern Mexico. We, also, examine how supply networks for six archetypical foods of the peasant diet express robustness or vulnerability during seasons of abundance and scarcity. The method combines surveys, ethnographic fieldwork, statistical models and social network analyses. Results show that 74% of households experience at least one month of food scarcity annually, and 34% of shortages last more than six months. In total, 29% of affected households gather wild foods, and 14% use intense coping strategies, such as international migration, taking out rural loans, and parental food buffering. During scarce seasons, self-sufficiency networks for maize and beans contract, but still maintain the food supply of peasant households, while cash-consumption networks such as those of beef become accessible only to a small sector of economically differentiated households. In contrast to the vast majority of research, which simply reports the presence of seasonal food shortages and describes the coping strategies of rural households, this paper provides an in-depth analysis-based upon a novel methodological integration-of the socioeconomic , agrifood, and land tenure conditions that may determine why many peasant territories in the Global South face the "farmer-food-scarcity paradox".
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This study has had the general objective of knowing and making visible the dynamics of the management and use of the peasant coffee production system in the northeast region of the Anzoátegui State, especially analyzing the participatory activity of the human component in that agroecosystem, making its experience visible within the political horizon that defines Food Sovereignty. The diagnosis of the physical-biological, socioeconomic and institutional aspects that this article raises, constitutes a strategy to highlight those potentialities and opportunities that farmers hardly come to visualize, and that serve as a starting point to achieve a fundamental development in addressing real problems and their needs concrete. Therefore, we have tried to identify and discuss precisely the causes that limit development and not effects; also know how we use producers the resources they have and that due to ignorance or bad management are being underutilized.
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Soil degradation, caused by land misuse and soil mismanagement, has plagued humanity since the dawn of settled agriculture. Many once thriving civilizations collapsed due to erosion, salinization, nutrient depletion and other soil degradation processes. The Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, that saved hundreds of millions from starvation in Asia and elsewhere, by-passed Sub-Saharan Africa. This remains the only region in the world where the number of hungry and food-insecure populations will still be on the increase even by 2020. The serious technological and political challenges are being exacerbated by the rising energy costs. Resource-poor and small-size land-holders can neither afford the expensive input nor are they sure of their effectiveness because of degraded soils and the harsh, changing climate. Consequently, crop yields are adversely impacted by accelerated erosion, and depletion of soil organic matter (SOM) and nutrients because of the extractive farming practices. Low crop yields, despite growing improved varieties, are due to the severe soil degradation, especially the low SOM reserves and poor soil structure that aggravate drought stress. Components of recommended technology include: no-till; residue mulch and cover crops; integrated nutrient management; and biochar used in conjunction with improved crops (genetically modified, biotechnology) and cropping systems, and energy plantation for biofuel production. However, its low acceptance, e.g. for no-till farming, is due to a range of biophysical, social and economic factors. Competing uses of crop residues for other needs is among numerous factors limiting the adoption of no-till farming. Creating another income stream for resource-poor farmers, through payments for ecosystem services, e.g., C sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems, is an important strategy for promoting the adoption of recommended technologies. Adoption of improved soil management practices is essential to adapt to the changing climate, and meeting the needs of growing populations for food, fodder, fuel and fabrics. Soil restoration and sustainable management are essential to achieving food security, and global peace and stability.
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Fair trade is a fast-growing alternative market intended to bring better prices and greater social justice to small farmers around the world. But is it working? This vivid study of coffee farmers in Mexico offers the first thorough investigation of the social, economic, and environmental benefits of fair trade. Based on extensive research in Zapotec indigenous communities in the state of Oaxaca, Brewing Justice follows the members of the cooperative Michiza, whose organic coffee is sold on the international fair trade market. It compares these families to conventional farming families in the same region, who depend on local middlemen and are vulnerable to the fluctuations of the world coffee market. Written in a clear and accessible style, the book carries readers into the lives of these coffee producer households and their communities, offering a nuanced analysis of both the effects of fair trade on everyday life and the limits of its impact. Brewing Justice paints a clear picture of the complex dynamics of the fair trade market and its relationship to the global economy. Drawing on interviews with dozens of fair trade leaders, the book also explores the changing politics of this international movement, including the challenges posed by the entry of transnational corporations into the fair trade system. It concludes by offering recommendations for strengthening and protecting the integrity of fair trade.
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This chapter details the reasons for the coffee crisis, which include supply and demand disequilibrium and market structure changes. Factors including managed market breakdown, introduction of new coffee producing entrants, and slack demand—thought to be responsible for misaligned demand and supply for coffee—are also explored. The challenges that small-scale coffee farmers face, such as an uncertain international price standard, a low retail price, the problem of acquiring farm credit, and alternative economic opportunities, are discussed, along with issues such as the profit made by the coffee roasting companies and marketers exporting the coffee. The importance of specialty coffee segment and proper management of farmers’ organizations for the well being of coffee farmers are also discussed.
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It is often asserted that genetically engineered crops can prevent a looming crisis of global agricultural productivity. Enthusiasts assert that these new, transgenic crops - varieties containing genes introduced in the laboratory - are essential to produce sufficient food for a burgeoning world population, and that they can avert ecological damage from the expansion of agriculture (Pardey 2001; Borlaug and Carter 2005; BIO 2005). The U.S. government, in cooperation with agribusiness interests, actively promotes this idea. Such arguments for a biotechnology-based solution to food insecurity can be dangerously misleading. The actual performance of transgenic crops has been mediocre, at best (see Chaps. 7 and 8, this volume). In the United States, their productivity has not generally been higher than that of conventional varieties, nor have they allowed reduced use of pesticides, as explained below. Nevertheless, advocates of crop genetic engineering commonly assume that European and U.S. farm technologies, regulatory practices, and food-producing systems are not only superior but also universally applicable. As I have argued elsewhere, many proponents of a genetic-engineering solution to hunger make use of idealized conceptions of molecular biology and exceptional examples of genetic engineering successes (McAfee 2003a). Most contributions to international biotechnology policy literature do recognize that transgenic crops cannot be adopted easily and without risk in all parts of the world. Many authors, however, focus on what they see as deficits in the institutions and personnel of "less developed" countries. If these lacks can be remedied by means of scientific and legal training and other so-called capacity building, they reason, then Latin America and other regions will be able to share in the expected benefits of transgenic crops. Proponents of a molecular-technology answer to hunger often fail to appreciate crucial differences between the ecological, cultural, institutional, and economic contexts of food systems in most developing countries and those of the United States, where most transgenic crops have been developed. Many forget to compare the hoped-for benefits of transgenics to the tremendous costs to developing countries of managing their risks and obtaining and enforcing the intellectual property rights that are required for their use. Most discussions of crop biotechnology for the global South fail to weigh the possible benefits of transgenics against the potential gains that could be obtained by more proven and promising uses of Southern-country expertise, institutions, and food-producing resources. And advocates of genetic-engineering responses to hunger rarely address the economic policies that discourage domestic food production in food-deficit countries. The first section of this chapter places the controversy over transgenic crops in the context of larger questions of U.S. relations with Mexico and Latin America. The following section outlines the rationales for genetic engineering put forward by the U.S. government. It illustrates how these arguments are being used to promote the globalization of intellectual property regimes and changes in multilateral trade and environmental rules that favor transnational corporations (TNCs) that have invested heavily in biotechnology. The third section explains why, even if transgenic crops were performing well in the United States, one could not extrapolate from this experience to predict net benefits from crop genetic engineering for Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The chapter concludes by pointing toward more promising approaches to improving Latin American agriculture.
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This chapter analyzes coffee agroforestry in Meseta, western Nicaragua by using household survey data from small shade-grown coffee growers of different social backgrounds, and presents information on the convergence of the shade-grown coffee system by two groups of growers. The first are the parceleros, originally known to be landless wage workers, who worked under the Sandinistas and received individual land plots; this was followed by plantations re-distribution in 1900s. The second group inherited or purchased their farms. The only catalyst common to both these groups was the collapse of agricultural modernization policies, resulting in withdrawal of rural credit and purchased inputs subsidies. The chapter concludes that adoption of shade-grown management by both these groups shows their adaptive power to respond to the changing circumstances and needs of the households.