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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE
published: 17 June 2014
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00413
Evolving 50–50% bilingual pedagogy in Alberta: what does
the research say?
Rahat Naqvi 1*, Elaine Schmidt 2and Marlene Krickhan 3
1Werklund School of Education, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
2Calgary Board of Education, Calgary, AB, Canada
3Senator Patrick Burns School, Calgary Board of Education, Calgary, AB, Canada
Edited by:
Mary Grantham O’Brien, University of
Calgary, Canada
Reviewed by:
Gatis Dilans, Ventspils University
College, Latvia
Margot Kinberg, National University,
USA
Ibon Manterola, Universidad del País
Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea,
Spain
*Correspondence:
Rahat Naqvi, Werklund School of
Education, University of Calgary,
Education Tower 1004, 2500
University Drive North West, Calgary,
AB T2N 1N4, Canada
e-mail: rnaqvi@ucalgary.ca
This paper outlines the provincial frameworks that define the Spanish bilingual program in
Alberta, Canada, provides an historical overview of its pedagogic constraints and evolution,
and proposes a framework for bilingual pedagogy. The framework is conceptualized from
the research evidence of three local case studies, and is based on the centrality of cross-
linguistic transfer, in relation to linguistic interdependence and bilingual learning.
Keywords: bilingual pedagogy, cross-linguistic transfer, bilingual learning, Spanish
INTRODUCTION
Canada’s evolution as a global voice in language education was
facilitated by the 1969 Official Languages Act, and the 1971
articulation of the framework of multiculturalism and bilin-
gualism. Not only did this political underpinning immediately
facilitate a coast-to-coast bilingual education movement, i.e., the
internationally recognized and well-researched French Immer-
sion program; but also, it has been seminal in the evolution
of other significant provincial language and culture initiatives.
In this article about a specific provincial scenario, we discuss
emerging understandings regarding second language learning
pedagogies, as they exist within the current globalized educational
milieu.
In Western Canada, in the province of Alberta in particular,
an initiative akin to the French Immersion educational concept is
alternative bilingual language programs such as English-Chinese,
English-German, and English-Spanish (Alberta Education, 2000).
Similar to French Immersion, this bilingual model is additive in
intent. Its purpose is to develop strong language competencies and
literacy in two languages; an objective which is somewhat unique
within the scope of North American bilingual programming.
There is extensive research (for a complete review see Cummins,
1996,2001;Genesee and Lindholm-Leary, 2007) describing the
various types of bilingual programs prevalent in North Amer-
ica and other countries. The goals of the bilingual programs can
differ to a great extent. For example transitional bilingual educa-
tion, one of the most common forms of bilingual education for
minority students in the United States during the past 40 years,
aims only to promote students’ proficiency in English (Cummins,
2009). That is to say, when students develop sufficient English
language proficiency to follow instructions and write in English,
the home language instruction is discontinued and they transition
into mainstream classrooms.
In Alberta, the additive bilingual model also emphasizes a
range of other educational goals in keeping with current demo-
graphic realities and values, such as the trend toward increased
choice within public education systems, and the nurturing of
global citizenship and intercultural competencies (Holmes, 2008).
This approach aligns with the growing national and global trend
toward multilingualism and multiculturalism, and is confirmed in
Canada’s most recent census, which documents an 11% increase
in the population who speak languages other than the dominant
language; and a total of 20.6% of Canadians who have a mother
tongue other than English or French (The Globe and Mail, 2012).
The social dynamics associated with linguistic diversity, the impact
of emerging multi-modal technologies, and the central theme
of educational policy within economic discourse (Padoan, 2012)
result in a radically altered educational landscape that requires
both exploration and interpretation.
This paper outlines the provincial frameworks that define the
bilingual program, provides an historical overview of its pedagogic
constraints and evolution, and proposes a framework for bilingual
pedagogy based on theoretical underpinnings and local research
evidence.
EDUCATIONAL FRAMEWORKS THAT PROVIDE THE CONTEXT
FOR BILINGUAL PROGRAMS IN ALBERTA
The Spanish bilingual program in Alberta is governed by var-
ious key documents, and programming guidelines, outlined
below:
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Naqvi et al. Evolving 50–50% bilingual pedagogy in Alberta
ALTERNATIVE BILINGUAL PROGRAMS
Section 11 of the School Act gives school boards the authority to
offer instruction in French or any other language, and Section 21
creates opportunities to learn other languages through alternative
programs (Alberta Education, 2000). However, the Alberta Guide
to Education states that all programs must offer a minimum of
50% of instructional time in an official language, i.e., English or
French (Alberta Education, 2012). Consequently, there is signif-
icantly less instructional time allotted to the additional language
within a bilingual program than within French Immersion which
can dedicate up to 100% of instructional time in French. Bilingual
programs operate at 50% English – 50% in the target language at
the elementary level, changing to 65% English – 35% in the target
language at the junior high level, and 75% English – 25% in the
target language at the senior high level, which is determined at the
discretion of the school jurisdiction offering the program.
ALBERTA BILINGUAL PROGRAMS OF STUDY
All grades 1 to 12 bilingual programs share a common frame-
work, rationale and broad objectives as outlined in the respective
language arts programs of study. As these language programs
with entry points at kindergarten and grade 1, were designed for
learners with no previous knowledge of the language, bilingual
programs are accessible to all students irrespective of linguistic
heritage (Alberta Education, 2005). Functional fluency in the L2 is
targeted in each of the four competency areas (reading, writing, lis-
tening, and speaking), as well as the capacity for grade appropriate
content learning in the L2.
INTERNATIONAL SPANISH ACADEMY (ISA)
Each alternative bilingual program has evolved somewhat differ-
ently and has been influenced by the international relationships
that have been nurtured by both the province and each of
the school jurisdictions involved. For example, the 26 Spanish
bilingual program schools that are unique to the province of
Alberta in Canada, have ISA status based on a memorandum
of understanding (MOU) for Education Cooperation between
the Ministry of Education and Science of the Kingdom of Spain
and the Department of Education of the Province of Alberta.
This MOU identifies general English-Spanish bilingual program
expectations and strategies for advancing international relations
and understanding between cultures, including access to visiting
international teachers, resources, and professional development
(Alberta Education, 2006).
PEDAGOGIC CONSTRAINTS AND EVOLUTION OF BILINGUAL
PEDAGOGY
From the outset, the alternative bilingual language programs in
Alberta have been strongly impacted by the traditional assump-
tions and pedagogy of French Immersion, including strict segre-
gation of learning by language and subject, and by the maximum
exposure hypothesis implication that only 50% of time in L2 is a
deficiency to be managed relative to the learning of the L2 (Cum-
mins, 2001). The notion of creating a dual-language space for
explicitly comparing and contrasting languages has not been con-
sidered best pedagogical practice, with the view that translation or
code switching threatens L2 language growth (Cummins, 2000).
This article highlights challenges faced in light of the cur-
rent research and emphasizes the need for a pedagogical shift
from the monolingual solitude assumption toamoreflexible
approach to language pedagogy (Cummins, 1979,2005;Creese
and Blackledge, 2010;García and Sylvan, 2011;Ó Duibhir and
Cummins, 2012). Drawing upon emerging theory on integrated
models of language learning, i.e., the strongly supported view of
language-as-a-resource (Escamilla and Hopewell, 2009) and the
counterbalanced approach to language learning in content areas
(Lyster, 2011;Lyster et al., 2013), researchers discuss the need to
inform practice around evolving bilingual pedagogy and literacy
acquisition. They highlight the learning potential associated with
the linguistic interdependence principle (Cummins, 1981,2001),
and recognize metalinguistic awareness as being critical in the
learning process (Ó Duibhir and Cummins, 2012).
The Spanish bilingual program has encountered a series of
unique pedagogical constraints, which are partially rooted in the
monolingual solitude assumption (Cummins, 1979,2008;Howatt,
1984). First, by segregating languages of instruction into compart-
mentalized subject areas, English and Spanish are not integrated
into a shared learning space, which could otherwise enhance stu-
dents’ ability to express their thought processes and to deepen
knowledge creation across and between languages (Celic and
Seltzer, 2011). Second, when student curiosity is not peaked
through relevant cross-curricular work, motivation decreases
(Friesen and Jardine, 2009); which in turn conversely impacts
language learning (Cummins, 2011;Lyster, 2011). Third, the seg-
regation of languages and subject areas restrict teachers’ abilities to
plan inter-disciplinary inquiry projects, and to assess students’lit-
eracy skills considering the entire scope of their linguistic abilities
(Cummins,2005;Escamilla and Hopewell, 2010;Soltero-González
et al., 2010).
These pedagogical constraints were further validated at the
National Conference of the Association Canadienne des Pro-
fesseurs d’Immersion in October 2013, in which renowned Cana-
dian bilingual education researchers and advocates, Jim Cummins,
Sharon Lapkin, and Fred Genesee engaged in dialog with adminis-
trators of Canadian French Immersion education about the need
to update the monolingual instruction assumptions upon which
French Immersion has operated for nearly 50 years. Empirical
studies in recent years (see Dressler and Kamil, 2006 for a review)
have consistently promoted the idea of cross-lingual interde-
pendence. Results support Cummins’ longstanding position that
learners’ common underlying proficiency be explicitly and strate-
gically developed in order to maximize the cognitive, linguistic and
socio-affective capacity of bilingual learners. Cummins posits that
“if students are making cross-linguistic connections throughout
the course of their learning in a bilingual or immersion program,
why not nurture this learning strategy and help students to apply
it more efficiently?”(Cummins, 2014).
This perspective is further strengthened by Garcia’s idea of
translanguaging based on extensive research with Spanish-English
bilingual students and communities living in New York (Gar-
cía, 2009). According to Garcia, the blurred lines between the
languages of bilinguals make it important to consider the pedagog-
ical implications and potential cross-linguistic strategies that arise
from this interconnectedness. Moreover, within the context of
Frontiers in Psychology |Language Sciences June 2014 |Volume 5 |Article 413 |2
Naqvi et al. Evolving 50–50% bilingual pedagogy in Alberta
interlanguage awareness, effective instructional strategies promot-
ing two-way transfer across languages in mainstream multilingual
classrooms produce clear evidence of how students develop a crit-
ical awareness of the social and cognitive functions of languages
in their lives (García, 2009).
Although specific to the Spanish bilingual model in Alberta, the
proposed framework which promotes general beliefs and values
around teaching for transfer across languages is equally valid for
other multilingual learning and teaching contexts.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE THAT INFORMS A CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK FOR 50–50% BILINGUAL PEDAGOGY
Between 2011 and 2013 a three part research study was carried out
through ongoing collaboration between researchers at the Univer-
sity of Calgary and a Calgary public school district (school-based
leaders and teacher practitioners in a primary Spanish bilingual
context). In this district, the Spanish bilingual program has grown
from approximately 125 students in kindergarten to grade 2 at
its inception in 2001, to 3002 students, kindergarten to grade
12 in 2013 (Calgary Board of Education, 2013). To date a vast
majority of the students entering the program have been native
English speakers who have no previous knowledge of the Span-
ish language, albeit previously noted national census data shows
changing trends in this regard. The continual program growth
experienced within the district provoked the need for action
research in various components of instructional planning and
pedagogy.
The articulated research questions for each study are:
(1) How can the introduction of dual language books (DLB) be
used as an instructional strategy in the Spanish bilingual class-
room, for strengthening young emerging bilinguals’ explicit
awareness of both English and Spanish?
(2) How can authentic task design strengthen cross-linguistic
transfer and bilingual identities?
(3) (a) What are the critical principles of an evolving bilingual
pedagogy within a holistic learning context? (b) What is the
nature of professional learning support needed to leverage
such a shift in bilingual pedagogy?
Researchers examined the initial findings of each of the sub-
sequent action research studies in which teachers and students
explored the role of cross-linguistic transfer relative to engag-
ing content learning, literacy development in both languages, and
pedagogic approaches to second language acquisition. Emerging
trends from each of the studies’ key findings were then extrapo-
lated and further described in a proposed framework for bilingual
pedagogy.
PART 1: DUAL LANGUAGE BOOKS IN KINDERGARTEN AND GRADE 1
Dual language books are illustrated books, written in two lan-
guages: generally, one language is featured on a page, and the
facing page features the other language. By reading these languages
in tandem (Sneddon, 2009), it is possible to allow language learn-
ers to access a unique fund of knowledge and encourage transfer
of conceptual knowledge and skills across languages (Cummins
et al., 2005). This study explored the question: how can the intro-
duction of DLBs be used as an instructional strategy in the Spanish
bilingual classroom, for strengthening young emerging bilinguals’
explicit awareness of both English and Spanish?
Participants and methodology
The research involved 102 students in kindergarten and grade 1,
several grade 3 and grade 4 students selected as reading partners
and four teachers and parents. Informed consent was obtained for
the varying participants, based on district-level ethics protocols.
The researchers organized several professional development ses-
sions hosted by the school in which best practices were shared for
developing holistic bilingual literacy instruction. As part of these
sessions, DLBs were introduced as possible instructional tools
and further information was provided to the parent community
through letters and meetings. Several goals were identified: (a)
to establish targeted instructional strategies for enhancing met-
alinguistic awareness in pre-readers, (b) to draw in parents as
educational partners within the bilingual program, and (c) to
encourage older students in the school to participate as readers
in the DLB reading program.
Preparatory work to discuss the principles and functions of
DLB reading included a 1-hour session for parent readers and
mini-sessions for selected grade 3 and grade 4 advanced stu-
dent readers. Three 20 minute DLB reading sessions, filmed by
researchers and assistants, were held weekly and attended by the
parent readers. In the first reading, the teacher built vocabulary
in Spanish for the text and read a page in Spanish, followed by a
parent reading the same passage in English. In the second reading,
the parent participant read in Spanish (L2), and the teacher read
in English with a focus on explicit metalinguistic awareness. This
included vocabulary building, drawing on previous experience
with themes, and direct comparisons between the two languages.
This was aided by projecting the books using interactive white
boards (Smart board technology). In the third reading, the grade
3 and grade 4 students read the text with their younger buddies
(kindergarten or grade 1) in six small groups (each group was pro-
vided with a copy of the dual language text). The grade 3 and grade
4 students made observations, asked questions, modeled leader-
ship, and interacted with the kindergarten readers about the DLB
texts.
All sessions were recorded to capture conversation between
all participants on the similarities and differences between lan-
guages. Teacher participants, together with other colleagues on
the campus, analyzed the video recordings for evidence of metalin-
guistic awareness. These recordings were also used in professional
learning community discussions.
Results
When students within the early years bilingual context are pro-
vided with strategic mini-readings of DLBs, students, teachers,
parents, and student readers have permission to explore common-
alities and differences between languages and initiate conversa-
tions about language as an object of thought and a resource for
enriching interdependent language proficiencies. Further, when
languages are displayed on the interactive whiteboard so that com-
parisons can be made as a class, students develop sophisticated
metalinguistic awareness, which supports not only strong second
language learning, but also enhances students’ knowledge of their
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Naqvi et al. Evolving 50–50% bilingual pedagogy in Alberta
first language. During a reading of a DLB the teacher reflected
on the purposeful way that students engaged with both languages,
for example one student commented on the different number of
letters in the Spanish and English alphabet because the ñs (eh-
nyeh) in Spanish adds another sound and symbol to the Spanish
alphabet.
Results taken from video vignette analyses also demonstrated
development of leadership skills in student readers as they mod-
eled their bi-literacy and bilingual identity to younger participants.
Older students facilitated heightened language awareness and
comparison of similarities and differences in text between English
and Spanish through a series of noticing exercises. From the
professional learning perspective, as a result of the use of DLBs
teachers engaged in discussion and exploration of pedagogical
strategies to support the growth of metalinguistic awareness,
bi-literacy and the emerging bilingual identity of young readers.
As well as increasing parent community involvement in the
classroom as a result of volunteering as DLB readers, this pro-
cess provides the opportunity to coach parents in ways of using
bilingual texts to engage readers at home and to further pro-
mote metalinguistic awareness in young children. Students were
exposed to different accents in Spanish. One teacher described
how two mothers from different Hispanic backgrounds had to
verify certain words before reading.“So when we were reading the
Spanish both of them at different times had to take the turnip
book in particular. The lady who was from Mexico had to take and
she had to write down words that were written in Spanish because
she never heard them before. Same with Señora C from Chile she
identified words that she had never seen before.”
PART 2: CROSS-LINGUISTIC VIDEO LITERACY PROJECT IN GRADE 3
AND 4
Through a single case study the researcher explored the question:
How can authentic task design strengthen cross-linguistic transfer
and bilingual identities? The aim was to determine what spe-
cific aspects of cross-linguistic transfer occurred when engaging
in research on the ancient civilization of Peru in L1 (English), and
transferring knowledge into the development of a modern Indian
Jones story in L2 (Spanish). The video production included cre-
ating characters and a plot, writing a script in small groups, and
acting in, filming and editing the video recordings in both L1
and L2.
Participants and methodology
Over a period of 6 months a multi-grade bilingual teacher, an
English speaking professional videographer and 23 grade 3 and
grade 4 students participated in this project. Data from the teacher
interviews, student learning artifacts, student responses and self-
reflections was collected and the results triangulated through the
lens of three main aspects of cross-linguistic transfer: conceptual
knowledge, linguistic elements, and metacognitive/metalinguistic
effects (Ó Duibhir and Cummins, 2012).
Results
Analysis of the data revealed the effects of the teacher’s inten-
tionality in bridging conceptual knowledge between the program
of studies (Spanish) and the personal, lived experiences of the
students (English). Knowledge was created and shared using
extensive collaborative dialog, a key precursor to the writing pro-
cess, which students later worked on together in small groups.
The teacher extrapolated key outcomes in the program of stud-
ies for both languages, emphasizing the common processes for
social and cognitive development. She sought out how the stu-
dents could build their vocabulary in Spanish, while also learning,
building and investigating in English to broaden their knowledge
base. This approach positively influenced simultaneous, bilingual
literacy growth as well as the integration of learner identity across
and between Spanish and English.
Through analyzing student speaking parts of the video project,
an active interlanguage phase that includes awareness of content in
both languages is evident. The teacher regularly conducted confer-
ences on linguistic elements with small groups of students to build
vocabulary, grammatical structures and syntax as the transfer of
linguistic elements was weak (verb tenses, word gender, syntax,
and possession). These results support earlier work by Verho-
even (1994), in which syntactic functioning transfer is poor. These
conferences occurred strategically and in response to expressed
student needs. Students also showed sophisticated levels of aware-
ness about these linguistic elements. During student focus group
interviews and in reflection journals, they commented on how
their language had changed through more exposure to explicit
instruction in sentence structure and syntax.
Salient to the process of inquiry was the ongoing feedback that
the teacher requested of the students in their own, and each other’s
learning, including evaluating one another’s Spanish scripts, and
assessing aspects of oral language production through student-
created rubrics. A final reflection piece was given to students at
the conclusion of the project with questions posed in English,
such as: what new skills did you learn? and, how will these skills
help you in your life, or in another project? The teacher described
the metacognitive and metalinguistic awareness processes as being
integral to the building of self-awareness throughout content and
language learning.
Results of the case study confirm that students’ engagement
through meaningful, relevant inquiry is the most significant
indicator of their level of engagement with the second lan-
guage. Engagement is best supported through multi-disciplinary
tasks which intentionally enlist both L1 and L2 in the creation
of cross-linguistic knowledge transfer and ultimately enhance
bi-literacy and growth of bilingual identity in learners. Multi-
disciplinary tasks also facilitate strategic engagement of met-
alinguistic awareness and explicit development of features of
the L2.
PART 3: PROFESSIONAL LEARNING JOURNEY OF SPANISH BILINGUAL
PROGRAM TEACHERS
The multi-faceted goals of this provincially mandated additive
bilingual model combined with the lack of an articulated ped-
agogy for this model, produced a complex pedagogic challenge
for bilingual program teachers and leaders. They attempted to
shift their professional practice to explore bilingual pedagogy,
and simultaneously to identify, nurture, and sustain the pro-
fessional learning process needed to advance this exploration.
Consequently this study addressed a two-part question: (a) what
Frontiers in Psychology |Language Sciences June 2014 |Volume 5 |Article 413 |4
Naqvi et al. Evolving 50–50% bilingual pedagogy in Alberta
are the critical principles of an evolving bilingual pedagogy within
a holistic learning context? and, (b) what is the nature of profes-
sional learning support needed to leverage such a shift in bilingual
pedagogy?
Participants and methodology
Over a period of three school years a campus team of 25 kinder-
garten to grade four Spanish-English bilingual program teachers
participated in the study. Within the school’s Professional Learning
Community (PLC) structure, members of the team collaborated
in designing authentic inquiry-based learning tasks across the two
languages (L1 and L2), exploring the tasks with students, and then
collecting, sharing and analyzing artifacts and feedback with col-
leagues in the PLC context. The bilingual pedagogic challenges
and strategies and the collaborative professional learning needs
were tracked through several cycles of professional inquiry during
the 2010–2011 school year. Qualitative data was gathered using
the tools of individual teacher questionnaires, a teacher focus
group, and PLC reflections. As well, at the end of the year, four
grade 3 and grade 4 students were interviewed to validate and fur-
ther inform teacher perceptions about this experience. During the
next two school years 2011–2012 and 2012–2013, two individual
follow-up teacher video interviews were conducted, and addi-
tional professional learning community questions were generated
during a staff retreat. This additional data contributes to build-
ing a longitudinal perspective about this professional learning
experience.
Results
Through the eyes of practicing bilingual teachers and corrobo-
rated by student voice, this study tracks shifts in practice from
traditional teacher-directed language learning to increased design-
for-learning that capitalized on activation of cross-linguistic
transfer. Teachers cited examples of increasing sophistication
in critical thinking and increased levels of intellectual engage-
ment as students made conceptual connections and applied skills
across languages. One teacher describes both languages as the
tools that support the content, which is the star of each con-
versation. She continued to say that sometimes students are not
aware that they are asking a question in Spanish. At the same
time, students articulated approaches and strategies for dealing
with language related challenges, which demonstrates increas-
ing awareness of their personal control of learning. For example
one student commented on the ease of learning when con-
nections existed between the classroom languages, and another
student articulated how her strategy to independently borrow
and read library books in L2 has positively impacted her Span-
ish pronunciation and her confidence to take risks in learning.
From the perspectives of teachers and students, engagement
in learning was being activated by the discovery of meaning-
ful connections across content and across languages. Further,
engagement facilitated by cross-linguistic transfer contributed
positively to the growing bilingual identity of students, as was
demonstrated by the increased amount of natural flow between
languages.
Teachers quickly identified pedagogic questions and challenges
relevant to a shift that focuses on cross-linguistic learning in a
holistic environment. This includes questions about task design
and strategies for cross-linguistic transfer, appropriate interactive
classroom structures for L2 practice and feedback, and prin-
ciples of instructed language learning as they pertain to the
effective role of L1 and access to extended time to L2. Teach-
ers were adamant that access to expert knowledge on current
pedagogy and collaborative exploration of professional learning
environments including, observation, peer coaching and resource
development are critical to the effective evolution of a 50–50%
bilingual pedagogy.
To summarize, this professional inquiry perspective data sup-
ports several key findings: (1) when students learn in holistic
contexts, there is strong evidence of cross-linguistic transfer, as
well as growing metalinguistic awareness and an evolving bilingual
identity, (2) teachers identified their need for articulating appro-
priate second language acquisition strategies within this context
and for facilitating student collaboration environments, (3) teach-
ers identified their need for access to expertise on second language
pedagogic approaches, and for regular collaborative inquiry and
peer-coaching opportunities.
FRAMEWORK FOR BILINGUAL PEDAGOGY: THE ROLE OF
CROSS-LINGUISTIC TRANSFER
As a result of ongoing research and collaboration between the
school jurisdiction and the University of Calgary, the authors pro-
pose a conceptual framework representing an evolutionary shift
in pedagogical practices in elementary bilingual schools. While
the principles highlighted below are specific to one elementary
Spanish bilingual school, they provide relevance to other bilingual
settings in Alberta as well. In the framework shown in Figure 1 the
researchers situate cross-linguistic transfer, rooted in the principle
of linguistic interdependence, at the center of bilingual learning.
Cross-linguistic transfer at the center facilitates a flexible, recip-
rocal and dynamic interplay between content, language and the
student learning experiences. When viewed as a theory of action,
the framework proposes that when learning in the bilingual con-
text focuses on two-way transfer across languages, then learners
will develop stronger metalinguistic awareness and enhanced bi-
literacy skills; while experiencing greater student engagement and
therefore nurturing bilingual identities.
Our data demonstrates that as teachers and students involved
in the three action research studies explored the potential
of cross-linguistic transfer in various learning contexts, they
experienced extensive examples of linguistic interdependence
and related learning effects. Below, in the words of teachers
and students, we present examples that illustrate the specific
elements of this conceptual framework in relation to these
experiences.
BI-LITERACY DEVELOPMENT
In the professional learning study teachers repeatedly com-
mented that students were trying strategies without being asked,
and transferring the literacy skills from language to language.
Comments included: “Students are independently transferring
English story telling skills to relevant Spanish language con-
texts”; and “students spontaneously switched to debating in
Spanish during a news debate started in English.” Another teacher
www.frontiersin.org June 2014 |Volume 5 |Article 413 |5
Naqvi et al. Evolving 50–50% bilingual pedagogy in Alberta
FIGURE 1 |Conceptual framework for 50–50% bilingual pedagogy,
diagramming the centrality of cross-linguistic transfer in relation to
linguistic interdependence and bilingual learning.
commented on her own uncertainty as to whether she had
taught students the structuring of informative texts in Span-
ish or in English, she concluded by saying that ultimately it
did not matter because meaningful learning was happening in
both languages and the knowledge and skills taught or practiced
in one language were soon applied in other relevant learning
contexts. In the DLB study teachers provided similar exam-
ples where students were building a deeper knowledge of the
two languages: “It was really fun and delightful to see one
of my students,” “Well Señorita M. those two sounds are the
same when you hear them but they’re written differently in the
book.”
BILINGUAL IDENTITY
Teachers and students provided many examples of personal
engagement in either language when students participated in
meaningful tasks and in a risk-supported environment. One stu-
dent described his experience: “sometimes it just happens (in the
other language), it comes to mind and I switch.” A student par-
ticipating in the video literacy project said: “We came up with all
the ideas in our head in English, and it just came out in Spanish.
There was no – like – How do you fit this word in here?” Another
student shared: “at home in the middle of dinner, I speak some in
Spanish!” Children as young as 4 years old were negotiating vary-
ing colloquial terms for “school bus” in varying Spanish-speaking
countries, discussing the “wua-wua” in Cuba and the “camion” in
Mexico.
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS
As the study progressed students were able to articulate specific
aspects of their own languaging which had changed since being
in the bilingual program. For example when reflecting on the
video literacy project a student said: “When I was in kindergarten
I used to say,” “Yo gusta.” Now that I am in grade 4, there is no
such thing. Now it’s “A mi me gusta.” Another student shared:“In
kindergarten I couldn’t say anything, now I can say paragraphs and
sentences, I can finally write in Spanish.” They reflect on how they
spoke initially and on how their understanding of grammatical
elements and usage had grown. As such, they recognized their
own growth along the interlanguage continuum. Another student
contrasted the two languages:“the easiest part of learning Spanish
is the sounds, the way you pronounce is the way you read it, but
in English there are funny sounds; you can guess what the word is
in English.”
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT
Authentic tasks are at the heart of student engagement and when
cross-linguistic transfer is employed to deepen the learning expe-
rience, heightened student engagement and more self-directed
learning follows. As one teacher commented: “They didn’t ask
for help, they use their English skills...”; and from a students’ per-
spective: “Everything is connected in our class [topics in English
and Spanish], it helps us if it’s connected.” One teacher described
the level of ownership for learning that she was now experiencing
with her students: “They told me what to write on their report
cards and once they did that they owned it, they are engaged and
it leads to the adjustment cycle.” Within the context of the DLB
readings grade 3 and 4 students read to the grade 1 students in
Spanish and asked them to identify linguistic differences between
English and Spanish. “Today, in our last reading one group with
Jessica’s kids were umm Señora, we are, we have challenged these
grade ones today,we are challenging them to find five differences.”
Within the video literacy project, the teacher described her plan-
ning processes in this way: the students all began to think about
how they could tie in the Incan [people] with a story that sparked
their interest in unraveling ancient clues. We discussed what types
of personalities and characters they wanted to include. And we
held onto that piece that excited them in the theaters about Indi-
ana Jones, and with that they began to create their own story. I
began to think, most of the background information was con-
ducted in English. “How could we take that interest and start
to transform it, and to build their Spanish vocabulary around
it?”
We specifically refer to the Ó Duibhir and Cummins (2012)
report, in which extensive research highlights similar evidence to
support the view that:
“literacy-related skills and knowledge can be transferred across lan-
guages. When teachers encourage this transfer explicitly they make
learning more efficient for the learners and reinforce effective learning
strategies.” (p. 12).
This position is reinforced and mandated in the Alberta bilin-
gual programs of study, wherein the rationale explicitly addresses
cross-language competence, stating that many of the first language
skills of learners are transferable within the stated bilingual pro-
gramming context and that in acquiring a new language, these
skills can also be transferred to the first language (Alberta Edu-
cation, 2005). This document further identifies effective bilingual
Frontiers in Psychology |Language Sciences June 2014 |Volume 5 |Article 413 |6
Naqvi et al. Evolving 50–50% bilingual pedagogy in Alberta
learning environments as those where there is a significant rela-
tionship between various subject area experiences and where
connections to prior knowledge and experience are made (Alberta
Education, 2005).
DISCUSSION: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Referring back to Ó Duibhir and Cummins (2012) and to the ratio-
nale in the Alberta bilingual programs of study, the researchers
advocate for a pedagogy building on connections across languages
(in this specific example Spanish and English). Our results provide
powerful examples of flexible approaches to bilingual pedagogy
that foster higher levels of literacy engagement in both languages,
as well as other relevant learning effects as described in Figure 1.
“When we free ourselves from exclusive reliance on monolin-
gual instructional approaches, a wide variety of opportunities
arise...that acknowledge the reality of, and strongly promote
cross-linguistic transfer (Cummins, 2007).
Through our findings we invite practitioners to reflect on the
proposed framework as a stepping stone to evolving a collabora-
tive pedagogy with cross-linguistic transfer at the center of this
work. Our results provide a strong argument for practitioners and
researchers to address the following recommendations:
(1) Allow for flexibility in scheduling so that inter-disciplinary
and inter-linguistic learning facilitate cross-linguistic transfer;
ultimately supporting all elements in the framework.
(2) Participate in further action research regarding current bilin-
gual pedagogy that is tailored to each specific learning context
and the potential programming similarities and differences
in each [e.g., elementary years (kindergarten to grade 6)
50% English-50% Spanish vs. junior high (grade 7 to grade
9) 65% English-35% Spanish], as well as further research
regarding metacognitive and metalinguistic awareness in this
cross-linguistic learning environment.
(3) Research approaches for explicitly addressing the sec-
ond language learning component within this bilingual
context.
(4) Negotiate professional learning networks to participate and
collaborate in action research to further explore the dynamics
of inter-linguistic task design, with specific attention to feed-
back and practice in L2, and to address controversial elements
such as translanguaging and translation in the bilingual class-
room, while specifically outlining the role and purpose for
language usages in task design.
(5) Support recruitment and professional learning that assures
an aligned vision of appropriate pedagogy for the bilingual
context.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to gratefully acknowledge the participation of the research
team members, partner educators, parents, volunteer readers,
support staff and administration. As well we thank the stu-
dent participants who took part in the DLB reading program,
the video-literacy project, and the student interviews and ques-
tionnaires. Finally, we thank Professor Jim Cummins (Canada
Research Chair) at the University of Toronto for his interest in and
support of the work. This project was supported by the Calgary
Board of Education.
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Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was conducted
in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed
as a potential conflict of interest.
Received: 16 February 2014; accepted: 19 April 2014; published online: 17 June 2014.
Citation: Naqvi R, Schmidt E and Krickhan M (2014) Evolving 50–50% bilin-
gual pedagogy in Alberta: what does the research say? Front. Psychol. 5:413. doi:
10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00413
This article was submitted to Language Sciences, a section of the journal Frontiers in
Psychology.
Copyright © 2014 Naqvi, Schmidt and Krickhan. This is an open-access article dis-
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