ArticlePDF Available

Mindfulness Goes to Work Impact of an Online Workplace Intervention

Authors:
  • The Aikens Approach
  • University of California School of Medicine , San Francisco (UCSF) and University of Arizona School of Medicine

Abstract and Figures

Objective: The objective of this study was to determine whether a mindfulness program, created for the workplace, was both practical and efficacious in decreasing employee stress while enhancing resiliency and well-being. Methods: Participants (89) recruited from The Dow Chemical Company were selected and randomly assigned to an online mindfulness intervention (n = 44) or wait-list control (n = 45). Participants completed the Perceived Stress Scale, the Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire, the Connor-Davidson Resiliency Scale, and the Shirom Vigor Scale at pre- and postintervention and 6-month follow-up. Results: The results indicated that the mindfulness intervention group had significant decreases in perceived stress as well as increased mindfulness, resiliency, and vigor. Conclusions: This online mindfulness intervention seems to be both practical and effective in decreasing employee stress, while improving resiliency, vigor, and work engagement, thereby enhancing overall employee well-being.
Content may be subject to copyright.
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
FAST TRACK ARTICL E
[AQ1]
Mindfulness Goes to Work
Impact of an On-Line Workplace Intervention
Kimberly A. Aikens, MD, MBA, John Astin, PhD, Kenneth R. Pelletier, PhD, MD (hc), Kristin Levanovich, MS,
Catherine M. Baase, MD, Yeo Yung Park, PhD, and Catherine M. Bodnar, MD, MPH
Objective: The objective of this study was to determine whether a mindful-
ness program, created for the workplace, was both practical and efficacious
in decreasing employee stress while enhancing resiliency and well-being.
Methods: Participants (89) recruited from The Dow Chemical Company
were selected and randomly assigned to an on-line mindfulness intervention
(n=44) or wait-list control (n=45). Participants completed the Perceived
Stress Scale, the Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire, the Connor-
Davidson Resiliency Scale, and the Shirom Vigor Scale at pre- and postin-
tervention and 6-month follow-up. Results: The results indicated that the
mindfulness intervention group had significant decreases in perceived stress
as well as increased mindfulness, resiliency, and vigor. Conclusions: This
on-line mindfulness intervention seems to be both practical and effective
in decreasing employee stress, while improving resiliency, vigor, and work
engagement, thereby enhancing overall employee well-being.
Occupational pressure is now recognized as the major source of
stress for US adults, representing a serious hazard to employee
health and productivity. Unfortunately, this is an expensive problem,
in part due to the high medical costs associated with chronic long-
term stress, which can contribute to adverse health habits such as
alcoholism, smoking, and obesity.1,2 Furthermore, chronic stress is a
known risk factor in many disease states, including depression,3–5 up-
per respiratory tract infections,6cardiovascular disease,7–9 stroke,10
autoimmune disorders,11, 12 and total mortality.13,14 Unfortunately,
the costs associated with workplace stress go well beyond higher
health care utilization, to include inflated expenses due to increased
absenteeism and presenteeism, reduced productivity, greater com-
pensation claims, and rising health insurance expenses.15 In addition,
other mental health disorders, including anxiety and depression, add
to this burden. According to Health and Safety Executive16 statistics
done in Great Britain, mental ill health, including stress, anxiety,
and depression, gave rise to more working days lost than any other
illness complaint, including musculoskeletal disorders, accounting
for 9.3 million days lost in 2010. This difficult financial problem is
further illustrated by a recent sample of 92,486 employees at seven
organizations over an average of 3 years. In this sample, workers
with depression cost $2184 more (48%) than those not at risk while
workers reporting high stress were $413 more costly. This combined
From the The Aikens Approach, LLC (Dr Aikens), Petoskey, Michigan; Califor-
nia Pacific Medical Center (Dr Astin), San Francisco; University of Arizona
School of Medicine and University of California School of Medicine (Dr
Pelletier), San Francisco; The Dow Chemical Company (Dr Baase), Midland,
[AQ2]
Michigan; Department of Internal Medicine, Cardiology (Dr Park), Univer-
sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor; and The Dow Chemical Company (Dr Bodnar),
Midland, Michigan.
[AQ3]
All funding was provided by the American Health Association.
Dr Kimberly Aikens is the founder of The Aikens Approach LLC and the program
developer. Nevertheless, she received no remuneration of any type for this
research project or the work done at The Dow Chemical Company. Other
authors declare no conflicts of interest.
[AQ4]
Address correspondence to: Kimberly A. Aikens, MD, MBA, The
Aikens Approach, LLC, 7336 Preserve Court, Petoskey, MI 49770
(kim@aikensapproach.com).
[AQ5]
Copyright C2014 by American College of Occupational and Environmental
Medicine
DOI: 10.1097/JOM.0000000000000209
at-risk mental health group represented 4.2% of medical expendi-
tures with a total cost of $15,396,934 annually. This compares, for
example, with an annual cost of $7,472,894 for high blood pressure
and a cost of $9,823,445 for tobacco use.17 Because of the prevalence
and cost of this problem, an intervention with the capacity to help
mitigate employee stress, while simultaneously leading to the devel-
opment of emotional well-being, could be beneficial to employers
from both cost and performance perspectives.
The primary purpose of this study was to determine whether a
shortened, workplace-specific mindfulness program could replicate
the effectiveness of a traditional Mindfulness Based Stress Reduc-
tion (MBSR) program in reducing employee stress while enhancing
measures of mindfulness and employee well-being. Mindfulness,
the concept central to this intervention, has been conceptualized as
a two-component model. The first component consists in focusing
full attention on immediate experience.18, 19 The second component
involves adopting a stance of acceptance, curiosity, and openness
toward one’s experience. In theory, this process of nonevaluative,
nonjudgmental awareness of present moment experience allows for
a detachment from ruminative and elaborate thought patterns regard-
ing those experiences. With practice, this results in a learned skill or
trait, which allows insight into the nature of one’s mind and thoughts.
This form of mental training, with its concomitant growth in aware-
ness and insight, can lead to stress hardiness and an increased ability
to skillfully cope with potentially harmful and maladaptive mental
processes.20
Traditionally delivered MBSR programs, which teach core
mindfulness concepts, have been well researched with beneficial
therapeutic effects found in psoriasis,21 fibromyalgia,22 type 2
diabetes,23 rheumatoid arthritis,24, 25 chronic pain,26–29 chronic
low back pain,30 attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder,31, 32 and
insomnia.33 Research also indicates that mindfulness-based ther-
apies are beneficial in the treatment of depression,34–36 anxiety
disorders,37, 38 and bipolar disorder.37–41 In addition, studies in the
realm of business have found mindfulness to be beneficial in im-
proving service quality in small to medium employers,42 relationship
quality in service employers,43 marketing strategy,44 quality and reli-
ability in small and large employers,45 quality management,46 prod-
uct failure management,47 task performance,48 employee turnover
intentions,49 and resonant leadership.50
A potential deterrent, however, to the utilization of a tradition-
ally delivered MBSR program in a workplace setting is the expected
participant time commitment. A typical MBSR program requires ap-
proximately 30 hours of teacher-led training, in addition to 30 to 45
minutes of home-based practice daily. To address the more time ur-
gent needs of the workplace environment, we created a mindfulness
intervention delivered via an on-line platform. This program was
significantly modified in content from traditional MBSR to reflect
workplace needs. In addition, this program was shortened, requiring
approximately 25% of the time commitment typical to MBSR cur-
riculum (Table 1). Important aims of this study were to determine [T1]
whether such a modified program would (1) be practical in today’s
workplace, (2) provide the potential for scalability; and (3) remain
efficacious in decreasing perceived stress and enhancing employee
mindfulness.
Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
JOEM rVolume 00, Number 00, 2014 1
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
Aikens et al JOEM rVolume 00, Number 00, 2014
TABLE 1. MBSR vs Dow Mindful Resilience Program Components*
MBSR Dow Mindful Resilience Program
Class 1
Class time 3 hr 1 hr (Theme—Overriding Autopilot)
Home practice Body Scan (45 min) ×6 The Raisin (12 min) ×1
Breath Focus l (12 min) ×2
Body Scan l (22 min) ×2
Class 2
Class time 2.5 hr 1 hr (Theme—Body Awareness)
Home practice Body Scan (45 min) ×6 Coffee Break (11 min) ×1
Walking Focus l (17 min) ×2
Body Scan ll (25 min) ×2
Class 3
Class time 2.5 hr 1 hr (Theme—Breath as an Anchor)
Home practice Body Scan (45 min) ×3
Lying Yoga (45 min) ×3
Breath Focus ll (20 min) ×2
Lying Yoga (35 min) ×2
Three-Minute Breathing Pause
Class 4
Class time 2.5 hr 1 hr (Theme—The Watcher and the Talker)
Home practice Body Scan (45 min) ×3
Standing Yoga (45 min) ×3
Breath Meditation daily (20 min)
Focus on Physical Sensation (23 min) ×2
Walking Focus ll (22 min) ×2
Class 5
Class time 2.5 hr 1 hr (Theme—Acceptance)
Home practice Sitting Meditation (30 min) ×3
Body Scan or Yoga (45 min) ×3
Focus on Sound and Thought (23 min) ×2
Standing Yoga (37 min) ×1
Class 6
Class time 2.5 hr 1 hr (Theme—Thought Is Not Reality)
Home practice Sitting Meditation (30 min) ×3
Body Scan or Yoga (45 min) ×3
Choiceless Awareness Meditation (25 min) ×1
Focus on Bells and Poetry (20 min) ×1
Class 7
Class time 2.5 hr 1 hr (Theme—Difficult Situations)
Home practice Practice as desired (30–45 min) daily Mindful Communication (15 min) ×1
Stress-free Driving (20 min) ×1
Stressful Situations (17 min) ×1
Class 8
Class time 3.5 hr No Class (Theme—Building Your Haven)
Home practice Practice as desired (30–45 min) daily The Window (23 min) ×1
The Oak (27 min) ×1
Progressive Muscle Relaxation (25 min) ×1
Day retreat 7.5 hr None
Time commitment
Classroom 29 hr 7 hr
Home practice 42–48 hr 10.8 hr
Individual interview 1.5 hr None
Total 72.5–75.5 hr 17.8 hr
*All Dow mindfulness exercises were accessed by participants through Web-based audio recordings Home practice time (ie, 45 minutes) denotes time per exercise.
MBSR, Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction.
AIMS AND HYPOTHESIS
The program utilized in this study was tested in a population
of general employees at The Dow Chemical Company (Dow). The
primary hypotheses of the study were that a shortened, Web-based
workplace mindfulness program would (1) increase measures of
mindfulness, (2) decrease stress, (3) enhance resiliency, and (4) im-
prove employee vigor and work engagement, thereby resulting in an
increase in positive organizational behavior and enhanced employee
well-being. We also hypothesized that the on-line applied training
portion of the program, which included personalized progress track-
ing and lifestyle coaching, could affect employee lifestyle choices
such as (1) diet, (2) exercise time, and (3) hours slept per night, over
the course of the program.
METHODS
Design
This study utilized a randomized controlled study design,
which implemented a 2 (intervention vs wait-list control group) ×
3 (baseline, postintervention, 6-month follow-up) format, thereby
allowing between-groups comparisons. Participants were randomly
assigned by computer algorithm to the 7-week workplace-specific
mindfulness program or a wait-list control group. The wait-list con-
trol group received the identical mindfulness treatment immediately
after the intervention group completed the program. Although exact
data are not available, both groups were predominately meditation
naive, with only one participant known to have had prior MBSR
Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
2C2014 American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
JOEM rVolume 00, Number 00, 2014 Mindfulness at Work: Impact of an On-Line Intervention
experience. With regard to outcomes, baseline and postintervention
measures were taken on both the intervention and wait-list control
groups. In addition, wait-list control participants completed a third
set of measures immediately after they received the mindfulness
intervention (postintervention wait-list group [PIWL]). Follow-up
measures for the intervention group were also obtained 6 months
after treatment.
Participants
Participants were drawn from a sample of 600 Dow employ-
ees, located in Midland, Michigan, who had completed a health risk
assessment (comprehensive questionnaire and biometrics) in the pre-
ceding 6 months. All employees are invited for health risk assessment
with employees in given departments being scheduled throughout the
year. This recruitment allowed for study access to a good cross sec-
tion of employees because the standard process of invitations would
include all elements of the employee base. Study participant recruit-
ment occurred from March to April 2012 and consisted of one e-mail
notification, which described the free mindfulness-based stress man-
agement program. The e-mail notification explained that the purpose
of the program was to help employees reduce and manage workplace
stress. In response to the e-mail notification, 135 employees signed
up for the program and 90 were randomly selected to participate. In-
clusion criteria included (1) having taken a health risk assessment in
the last 6 months, (2) being a salaried employee of The Dow Chem-
ical Company, and (3) having an age greater than 18 years. There
were no exclusion criteria for this study, although the program was
not offered to hourly workers. In addition, an open invitation was
sent via e-mail to the 90 participants describing a Mindful Leaders
program, which we had developed. This notification explained that
the intent of the Mindful Leaders was to act as champions for the
program within Dow. Of the 90 selected, 89 employees, aged 18 to 65
years, gave informed consent, enrolled in the program, and were sub-
sequently randomly assigned to the mindfulness intervention group
(n=44) or wait-list control (n=45). In addition, six participants in
the intervention group chose to be Mindful Leaders or champions,
as did five participants in the wait-list control group.
Measures
Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire
Because researchers consider mindfulness to be a multidi-
mensional construct with facets that include the ability to observe,
describe, act with awareness, refrain from judgment, and nonreact,51
we utilized the well-validated Five Facets of Mindfulness Question-
naire (FFMQ) to assess potential improvements in all five mindful-
ness domains. The FFMQ is a self-report instrument consisting of
39 items, which measures a trait-like, general tendency to be mindful
on a daily basis.
The Perceived Stress Scale
The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-14) was used to assess partic-
ipants’ levels of psychological stress. The PSS-14 is a well-validated
stress measurement tool whose items are designed to tap into how
unpredictable, uncontrollable, and overloaded individuals find their
lives.52,53
Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale
We evaluated resiliency with the Connor-Davidson Resilience
Scale (CD-RISC) scale. The CD-RISC consists of 25 items, which
measure an individual’s sense of personal competence, tolerance of
negative emotion, positive acceptance of change, trust in one’s in-
stincts, sense of social support, spiritual faith, and an action-oriented
approach to problem solving.54 Research has shown resiliency to
positively impact job performance, organizational commitment, and
organizational citizenship behavior.55 ,56
Shirom Vigor Scale
We analyzed vigor and work engagement with the 12-item
Shirom Vigor Scale. Shirom57 conceptualized vigor as consisting
of three facets, physical strength, emotional energy, and cognitive
liveliness. The first facet, physical strength, references one’s sense
of high energy when carrying out daily tasks at work. The second
facet, emotional energy, refers to one’s capacity to emotionally in-
vest in relationships with clients and coworkers, as well as the ability
to express sympathy and empathy. The last facet, cognitive liveli-
ness, refers to one’s feelings of mental agility and flow of thought
processes.57–59 In addition, the Shirom Vigor measure is a common
approach to work engagement developed by researchers. The Shi-
rom Scale measures the three components of vigor, which reflects
Kahn’s (1990) original concept of engagement. This concept includes
the use of physical, emotional, and cognitive energetic capacities at
work. Some researchers believe that the Shirom Vigor approach to
engagement may be the better measure in determining the effect of
engagement on organizational outcomes.60
Lifestyle Survey Questions
In addition to the aforementioned outcome measures, we also
analyzed self-reported lifestyle behaviors. Participants were asked
the following questions via weekly on-line surveys over the course
of 7 weeks: (1) average number of servings of fruits and vegetables
daily; (2) average number of fast food meals per week; (3) days per
week with at least 30 minutes of exercise; (4) average hours slept
per night; (5) the number of high stress episodes per week; and (6)
the number of days per week a participant felt too burned out to
work .
Intervention
Mindfulness Program
The mindfulness intervention utilized in this study consisted
of a 7-week program combining live, weekly hour-long virtual class
meetings with accompanying on-line applied training. Once par-
ticipants had been selected for the intervention and had submitted
their completed baseline assessment scales, they were given access
to their unique training dashboard through the program Web site.
Participants also received a workbook, which corresponded to each
weekly lesson and contained a practice guide. The intervention be-
gan with an introductory in-person class meeting, after which par-
ticipants were instructed to read the corresponding section of the
workbook and complete the assigned on-line applied training before
the next class meeting. Subsequent class meetings (with the excep-
tion of the fifth class meeting, which was on site) were conducted
via webinar and followed the same format. Participants could join
these meetings together in a prescheduled conference room at Dow
(which held a webinar broadcast screen) or, if they were traveling,
remotely via the Internet or cell phone. In addition, meetings were
recorded and sent out to participants in the event that they could not
attend.
The program’s weekly on-line applied training material con-
sisted of three parts. The first part consisted of completion of the
assigned experiential audio exercises, which became longer and
more complex as the course progressed. Exercises were framed to
participants as containing mental fitness and focusing techniques
and included training in the following mindfulness practices: (1)
seated focus exercises on the breath, physical sensation, sound, and
thought; (2) a short body scan with progressive focus on physical
sensation throughout the body; (3) walking meditation with focus on
physical sensation and sight; (4) movement exercise with focus on
various stretching postures and awareness of sensation inherent to
body movement; and (5) 3-minute breathing pause with focus on the
breath, physical sensation, and thought, designed to allow intentional
connection with the present moment.61 Additional exercises included
Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
C2014 American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 3
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
Aikens et al JOEM rVolume 00, Number 00, 2014
FIGURE 1. Participant flowchart. FU, follow-up; PI, postintervention.
[AQ6]
performance-oriented skills such as successful handling of stressful
situations, recognition of autopilot and automatic mind scripts, mind-
ful communication, presentation preparedness, and mindful problem
solving.
The second part of the program’s on-line applied training con-
sisted of a weekly progress tracking survey. The intended purpose of
this survey was twofold: (1) to assess participants’ understanding of
the concepts inherent in each week’s mindfulness material and (2) to
track healthy lifestyle habits and program usage. Each participant re-
ceived pre-programmed e-mail coaching and feedback specific to his
or her individual responses to survey questions. This feedback was
programmed to provide educational material and coaching in areas
where the participant needed improvement as well as encouragement
in areas where the participant excelled.
The last piece of the on-line applied training program was a
customized text messaging system. Participants who decided to “opt
in” received a daily text that corresponded to his or her progress
through the program. These texts provided daily practice reminders
and encouragement specific to the participant’s place in the program.
Wait-List Control
Participants randomized to this group received no active treat-
ment but were offered the intervention at the conclusion of the postin-
tervention period.
Instructor
A board-certified internal medicine physician, with training
in integrative medicine and MBSR, led the intervention. The same
instructor who led the intervention group also led the wait-list con-
trol group sessions. Following the completion of the intervention
group training, participants in the wait-list control group received
the equivalent mindfulness program.
Statistical Analysis
Primary results are based upon intention-to-treat (ITT) analy-
sis. The treatment effect was assessed through (1) comparison of all
scores between intervention and wait-list control in the ITT sample at
postintervention, adjusting for baseline scores, and (2) within-group
comparisons of pre- and postintervention scores using baseline to
postintervention for the intervention group, and from postinterven-
tion to program completion (PIWL) for the wait-list control group.
In addition, a secondary analysis with study completers (participants
who participated in at least 50% of the allocated intervention) is also
reported.
Analysis of covariance was used for the first comparison.
We report effect size (ES) for paired differences for the second
comparison. In addition, the same analysis was performed for the
participants who completed more than 75% of the material. Further-
more, to assess whether there was a linear trend of change in each
lifestyle survey question score as the program progressed, we fit a
Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
4C2014 American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
JOEM rVolume 00, Number 00, 2014 Mindfulness at Work: Impact of an On-Line Intervention
TABLE 2. ITT Sample Means and Standard Deviations for All Variables per Group for All 3 Timepoints: Baseline (BL), Postintervention (PI), and
6-Month Follow-Up (FU)*
[AQ7]
Mindfulness Intervention (N=44) Wait List Control (N=45)
BL PI FU PFU ESPIESFU%PI§ %FUBL PI PIWL PPI PPIWL ESPI ESPIWL%PIWL#
FFMQ
Observe 23.25 ±5.54 28.81 ±5.44 29.26 ±5.05 <.001 1.00 1.08 23.9% 25.8% 24.22 ±5.46 23.91 ±5.90 29.91 ±5.60 0.90 <.001 0.06 1.02 25.1%
Describe 26.43 ±4.73 28.72 ±6.15 31.19 ±5.57 <.001 0.48 1.01 8.7% 18.0% 25.29 ±5.72 25.48 ±4.79 27.16 ±5.23 0.32 0.001 0.03 0.35 6.6%
Act aware 24.11 ±5.01 27.67 ±5.33 28.74 ±5.01 <.001 0.71 0.92 14.8% 19.2% 23.96 ±6.14 24.29 ±6.35 26.50 ±4.93 0.81 0.001 0.16 0.35 9.1%
Nonreact 21.14 ±4.14 24.17 ±4.51 25.26 ±3.88 <.001 0.73 1.00 14.3% 19.5% 21.31 ±4.52 21.43 ±4.10 23.88 ±3.77 0.57 <.001 0.03 0.60 11.4%
Nonjudge 28.50 ±6.14 30.33 ±5.89 31.68 ±5.97 <.001 0.30 0.52 6.4% 11.2% 27.13 ±5.40 27.98 ±5.86 31.06 ±6.26 0.12 <.001 0.16 0.53 11.0%
PSS-14 24.46 ±6.29 18.00 ±7.01 18.81 ±6.72 <.001 1.03 0.90 26.4% 23.1% 24.76 ±8.16 23.32 ±8.45 19.81 ±7.36 0.04 <.001 0.18 0.42 15.1%
CD-RISC 68.50 ±12.09 76.11 ±12.14 76.71 ±11.39 <.001 0.63 0.68 11.1% 12.0% 71.02 ±14.29 67.71 ±14.70 76.59 ±13.60 0.90 <.001 0.23 0.60 13.1%
Vigor
PS 4.08 ±0.96 4.77 ±0.99 4.88 ±0.76 <.001 0.72 0.83 16.8% 19.6% 4.17 ±1.15 4.46 ±1.07 4.81 ±1.12 0.01 <.001 0.25 0.56 7.8%
CL 4.53 ±0.96 5.11 ±0.99 5.08 ±0.86 0.003 0.60 0.57 12.9% 12.1% 4.75 ±0.99 4.69 ±1.03 5.06 ±1.07 0.45 0.002 0.06 0.31 7.9%
EE 5.07 ±0.89 5.47 ±0.68 5.63 ±0.60 0.001 0.45 0.63 7.7% 11.0% 5.12 ±1.06 5.12 ±.094 5.34 ±1.09 0.89 0.01 0.00 0.21 4.3%
*P Values represent within-group changes from baseline (BL) to postintervention (PI) except for PPIWL, which represents differences between PI and PIWL for wait-list control.
ESPI represents within-group effect sizes that reflect differences between (BL) and (PI).
ESFU represents within-group effect sizes that reflect differences between (BL) and (FU).
§% PI represents % change at postintervention between BL and PI.
% FU represents % change at 6-month follow-up between BL and FU.
ESPIWL represents within-group effect sizes that reflect differences between (PI) and (PIWL).
#% PIWL represents % change for wait-list group between PI and PIWL.
BL, baseline; CD-RISC, Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale; CL, cognitive liveliness; EE, emotional energy; FFMQ, Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire; FU, 6-month follow-up; PI, postintervention; PIWL,
postintervention wait-list group; PS, physical strength; PSS-14, Perceived Stress Scale.
Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
C2014 American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 5
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
Aikens et al JOEM rVolume 00, Number 00, 2014
TABLE 3. Comparison Between Groups Mindfulness
Intervention vs Wait List Control @ PI
ITT vs Wait-List
FFMQ
Observe <0.001
Describe 0.008
Act aware 0.001
Nonreact 0.001
Nonjudge 0.227
PSS-14 <.001
CD-RISC <.001
Shirom Vigor Scale
Physical strength 0.021
Cog liveliness <.001
Emotional energy 0.027
CD-RISC, Connor-Davidson Resiliency Scale; FFMQ -Five Facets of
Mindfulness Questionnaire; ITT, intention-to-treat; PI, postintervention; PSS-14,
Perceived Stress Scale.
linear mixed-effects model between the survey question score and
progressing time (week) using a pooled sample (intervention and
wait-list control). This pooled sample contained 69 participants, who
showed varying levels of completion of the 8-week survey. We report
estimated mean scores at weeks 1 and 8. A significance level of 0.05
was used for this analysis.
RESULTS
Attrition and Adherence to Treatment
The ITT intervention group sample consisted of 44 partici-
pants. The criterion for inclusion in the ITT sample was random-
ization. Of these 44 participants, 6 did not start the program, citing
work obligations and busy schedules as the cause. Of the remaining
38, 2 (5.3%) terminated prematurely because of either scheduling
problems or work commitments within the first 2 weeks of the inter-
vention (Fig. 1). [F1]
The total, completed program sample comprised all partici-
pants who had participated in at least 50% of the allocated inter-
vention and provided data at baseline and postintervention (n=34;
dropout rate =10.5%). Of the 34 program completers in the inter-
vention group, six participants (17.6%) reported completing approx-
TABLE 4. Complete Sample and % Material Means and Standard Deviations for All Variables Per Group for All 3 Timepoints:
Baseline (BL), Postintervention (PI and PIWL), and 6-Month Follow-Up (FU)*
[AQ8]
Mindfulness Intervention (N=34)
FFMQ BL PI FU PFU ESPIESFU%PI§ %FU
Complete sample: 50%–100% material completed
Observe 23.15 ±4.79 29.15 ±5.41 29.26 ±5.05 <.001 1.252609603 1.28 25.9 26.4
Describe 26.24 ±4.57 29.15 ±5.85 31.19 ±5.57 <.001 0.636761488 1.08 11.1 18.9
Act Aware 24.38 ±5.19 28.27 ±4.73 28.74 ±5.01 <.001 0.749518304 0.84 16.0 17.9
Nonreact 20.71 ±4.30 24.44 ±4.45 25.26 ±3.88 <.001 0.86744186 1.06 18.0 22.0
Nonjudge 27.94 ±6.42 30.24 ±6.03 31.68 ±5.97 <.001 0.358255452 0.58 8.2 13.3
PSS-14 24.79 ±6.71 17.26 ±6.46 18.81 ±6.72 <.001 1.122205663 0.89 30.4 24.1
CD-RISC 68.24 ±12.77 76.82 ±12.89 76.71 ±11.39 <.001 0.671887236 0.66 12.6 12.4
Vigor
PS 4.11 ±1.05 4.83 ±0.97 4.88 ±0.61 <.001 0.685714286 0.73 17.5 18.8
CL 4.47 ±1.01 5.16 ±0.99 5.09 ±0.86 0.003 0.683168317 0.61 15.5 13.8
EE 5.13 ±0.79 5.53 ±0.65 5.63 ±0.60 0.001 0.51 0.63 7.7 9.7
Mindfulness Intervention (N=28)
BL PII FU ESPI ESFU % PI % FU
Complete sample: 75%–100% material completed
Observe 23.32 ±4.56 30.00 ±4.51 29.63 ±5.09 1.46 1.38377193 28.6 27.1
Describe 26.89 ±4.19 30.39 ±4.79 32.07 ±5.10 0.84 1.23627685 13.0 19.3
Act Aware 23.93 ±5.15 28.79 ±4.66 29.04 ±5.12 0.94 0.99223301 20.3 21.4
Nonreact 20.79 ±4.00 24.96 ±4.57 25.67 ±3.88 1.04 1.22 20.1 23.5
Nonjudge 28.75 ±6.45 31.39 ±5.60 32.60 ±5.48 0.41 0.60 9.2 13.4
PSS-14 24.50 ±6.16 16.39 ±5.65 18.81 ±6.62 1.32 0.923701299 33.1 23.2
CD-RISC 69.21 ±12.39 79.61 ±10.61 78.30 ±10.67 0.84 0.733656174 15.0 13.1
Vigor
PS 4.19 ±1.00 4.86 ±0.66 4.95 ±0.68 0.67 0.76 16.0 18.0
CL 4.52 ±1.05 5.21 ±1.02 5.15 ±0.81 0.66 0.60 15.3 13.8
EE 5.25 ±0.8 5.65 ±0.61 5.74 ±0.53 0.50 0.6125 7.7 9.3
*P values represent within-group changes from baseline (BL) to postintervention (PI) except for PPIWL, which represents differences between PI andPIWL for wait-list control.
ESPI represents within-group effect sizes that reflect differences between (BL) and (PI).
ESFU represents within-group effect sizes that reflect differences between (BL) and (FU).
§% PI represents % change at postintervention between BL and PI.
% FU represents % change at 6-month follow-up between BL and FU.
BL, baseline; CL, cognitive liveliness; EE, emotional energy; FU, 6-month follow-up; PI, postintervention; PIWL, postintervention wait-list group; PS, physical strength.
Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
6C2014 American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
JOEM rVolume 00, Number 00, 2014 Mindfulness at Work: Impact of an On-Line Intervention
imately 50% of course material and attending an average of 6.33 of
eight class meetings. The remaining 28 participants (82.4%) reported
completing 75% to 100% of the program material and attended an
average of 7.4 class meetings. Participants reported practicing mind-
fulness exercises 4.5 days per week in week 1. By week 7, the average
days practiced was 3.8. Overall, practice time averaged 13 minutes
per day or 1.5 hours per week.
Treatment Effect—Intention to Treat
Outcomes obtained through analysis of covariance comparing
postintervention scores for the treatment group versus wait-list con-
trols are shown in Table 2. With regard to the FFMQ, the mindfulness[T2]
intervention group rated themselves significantly higher postinter-
vention on all facets of mindfulness, with the exception of nonjudg-
mental awareness, than control participants (Table 3). In addition, the[T3]
intervention group rated themselves lower on perceived stress (PSS-
14) and higher in resiliency (CD-RISC) than the control group at the
postintervention time point (P<0.001, P<0.001, respectively).
Furthermore, significant postintervention increases were found in
the mindfulness treatment group on all components of vigor (Shi-
rom Vigor Scale) including physical strength (P=0.021), cognitive
liveliness (P<0.001), and emotional energy (P=0.027).
Analysis of within-group pre- to post– ESs showed improve-
ments over the course of the trial in all measures examined. In the
ITT sample, average within-group ES from baseline to postinterven-
tion ranged from d=0.30 to 1.03 (mean =0.67) for the intervention
group and d=−0.23 to 0.25 (mean =0.03) for wait-list controls.
Six-month follow-up showed that the intervention group ES contin-
ued to increase over time, ranging from d=0.52 to 1.08 (mean =
0.81).
Treatment Effect—Completed Program Sample and
% Material
Ten participants in the intervention group did not complete the
treatment protocol at postintervention. After eliminating these par-
ticipants, the effect of the percentage of program material completed
was analyzed (Table 4). Within this sample, those who finished 75%[T4]
to 100% of the course material had a 30% greater ES at postinter-
vention (mean d=0.87) than the ITT group (mean d=0.67) and
a 16% greater ES than the 50% group (mean d=0.75). Neverthe-
less, at 6-month follow-up, this differential had decreased, with the
75% to 100% group showing an ES only 12.3% greater than the
ITT group and 8.8% greater than the 50% group. This change was
predominantly attributed to ongoing improvements in the latter two
groups over the follow-up time period (Table 5).[T5]
Follow-Up
Thirty-one of 44 mindfulness participants completed assess-
ment at 6 months. Because the wait-list group had received the
intervention by the time of follow-up, they could no longer serve
as a control group for this assessment. Therefore, between-group
comparisons were not completed at this time. Nevertheless, base-
line values were compared with 6-month follow-up values for the
intervention group. At the time of follow-up, Pvalues representing
within-group changes from baseline for the intervention group were
all significant. These values ranged from 0.003 to less than 0.001,
indicating that treatment gains were either maintained or further im-
proved over time. The only exception to this was a nonsignificant,
slight increase in perceived stress. By follow-up, measures of mind-
fulness in the ITT sample had improved substantially. Improvements
taken from the FFMQ ranged from an 11.2% increase in the “non-
judgmental awareness” facet from baseline, to a 25.8% increase in
the “observe” facet. In addition, improvements in vigor ranged from
11% for emotional energy to 19.6% for physical strength, while re-
siliency increased 12% and perceived stress declined by 23.1% from
baseline values. Figure 2 shows outcome trends for the intervention[F2]
TABLE 5. Effect Size of ITT vs Complete Groups Based on
% Material Completed @ PI and FU
ITT Group Material 50% Material 75%–100%
FFMQ ES ES ES
Observe
PI 1.00 1.25 1.46
FU 1.08 1.28 1.38
Describe
PI 0.48 0.64 0.84
FU 1.01 1.08 1.24
Act Aware
PI 0.71 0.75 0.94
FU 0.92 0.84 0.99
Nonreact
PI 0.73 0.87 1.04
FU 1.00 1.06 1.22
Nonjudge
PI 0.30 0.36 0.41
FU 0.52 0.58 0.60
PSS-14
PI 1.03 1.12 1.32
FU 0.90 0.89 0.92
CD-RISC
PI 0.63 0.67 0.84
FU 0.68 0.66 0.73
Vigor
Physical strength
PI 0.72 0.69 0.67
FU 0.83 0.73 0.76
Cog liveliness
PI 0.60 0.68 0.66
FU 0.57 0.61 0.60
Emotional energy
PI 0.45 0.50 0.50
FU 0.63 0.63 0.61
Overall mean
PI 0.67 0.75 0.87
FU 0.81 0.84 0.91
CD-RISC, Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale; ES, effect size; FU, follow-up;
ITT, intention-to-treat; PI, postintervention; PSS-14, Perceived Stress Scale.
group through 6-month follow-up in comparison to waitlist controls
as assessed at the post–wait-list intervention period (PIWL).
Mediation Analysis
To determine mediation, we followed the four-step regression
procedure recommended by Baron and Kenny.62 Using this model,
we examined to what extent changes in mindfulness mediated the
observed improvements in perceived stress and resilience postin-
tervention. Analysis indicates that the observed increases in mind-
fulness partially mediated changes in resilience while mindfulness
fully mediated the changes observed in perceived stress. In terms of
vigor, results indicate that mindfulness partially mediated changes in
cognitive liveliness and fully mediated changes in physical strength.
Lifestyle Survey Questions
Table 6 shows the results of mixed regression analysis for [T6]
each lifestyle survey question and stage. The lifestyle survey ques-
tions that demonstrated significant decreasing trends included (1) the
Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
C2014 American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 7
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
Aikens et al JOEM rVolume 00, Number 00, 2014
FIGURE 2. Outcome measures over time for ITT intervention vs waitlist control groups. Pvalues for IIT intervention vs wait-list
control group at PI. BL, baseline; FU, 6-month follow-up; PI, postmindfulness group intervention; PIWL, postintervention wait-
list control group.
TABLE 6. Mixed Effect Regression Result for Lifestyle
Survey Questions
95% Confidence Interval
Survey Stage
Question Estimate SE Lower Bound Upper Bound
Fruits/vegetables 0.09** 0.02 0.05 0.12
Fast food meals 0.05* 0.02 0.08 0.02
Burn out days 0.15** 0.02 0.19 0.10
Stress episodes 0.18** 0.03 0.24 0.13
Exercise days 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.08
Sleep hours 0.003 0.01 0.02 0.02
*P=0.01; **P<0.001.
number of fast food meals eaten weekly (P=0.01), (2) the number
of high stress episodes weekly (P<0.001), and (3) the number of
days too burned out to work weekly (P<0.001). Similarly, the sur-
vey question for daily fruit and vegetable intake showed a significant
increasing trend (P<0.001). No significant trends were found for
either exercise or sleep.
DISCUSSION
We conducted a randomized, wait-list control study with ade-
quate statistical power, to investigate the effects of a 7-week mindful-
ness intervention tailored for the workplace and delivered through an
on-line platform. We investigated this program’s impact on measures
of mindfulness, perceived stress, and other parameters indicative of
positive organizational behavior and employee well-being, such as
resiliency, vigor, and work engagement. Comparisons were made
among the mindfulness intervention group and the control group.
Multivariate analysis, adjusting for baseline differences, of the ITT
sample showed significant postintervention reductions in perceived
stress as well as improvements in resiliency, vigor, and mindfulness
as compared with controls. These results were either maintained or
further improved at the 6-month follow-up mark. As we did not
assess the degree of home practice at 6 months, we could not deter-
mine whether this continued response was due to an ongoing active
meditation practice as opposed to a honeymoon effect or ongoing
personal integration of critical cognitive behavioral course concepts.
Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
8C2014 American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
JOEM rVolume 00, Number 00, 2014 Mindfulness at Work: Impact of an On-Line Intervention
Nevertheless, membership in the higher category for percentage of
material completed did tend to predict ES, although this differential
decreased over time.
In addition to the aforementioned findings, we analyzed pro-
gram ratings and dropout rates. Intervention and wait-list control
participants gave the program an average satisfaction rating of
87% of 100%. Furthermore, the intervention group dropout rate
of 5.3% compares favorably with typically reported MBSR inter-
vention dropout rates of less than 20%.26, 27
With regard to lifestyle surveys, analysis of survey responses
revealed significant trends in four of the six variables studied
(Fig. 3). The combined intervention and wait-list groups showed[F3]
a 31% reduction in the number of fast food meals eaten at 8 weeks,
which was a significant decrease (P=0.005). In addition, this com-
bined group showed a 17% increase in fruit and vegetable intake,
which was a significant increase (P<0.001). These trends indi-
cate that the on-line applied training segment of the program, with
programmed educational responses based on weekly survey an-
swers, could have a significant impact on healthy dietary choices.
In addition, participants also reported a significant decrease in
days too burned-out to work by one full day per week or 66%
(P<0.001). Participants also reported a decline in weekly high
FIGURE 3. Mixed regression analysis of lifestyle survey trends over time.
Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
C2014 American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 9
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
Aikens et al JOEM rVolume 00, Number 00, 2014
stress episodes by 33%, which is a significant downward trend
(P<0.001).
An interesting point to these results is the timing of Dow’s lay-
off announcements in 2012. These layoffs marked one of the largest
in the company’s history and occurred at the same location as the
study. The first layoffs were announced in early April 2012, approx-
imately 2 weeks before the baseline assessment scales were admin-
istered. A subsequent, more substantial, announcement occurred in
late October 2012, which included the closing of a local plant. This
second announcement coincided closely with the administration of
follow-up outcome measures. It is possible that such events could
have significantly impacted the perceived stress and resiliency mea-
sures of employees participating in the study. Our follow-up analy-
sis showed only a very slight, nonsignificant increase in perceived
stress from postintervention assessment. Furthermore, the follow-up
analysis showed continued improvements in mindfulness, resiliency,
and vigor. These results, which occurred despite widespread lay-
offs, may indicate that this intervention can have significant protec-
tive effects on employees, regardless of difficult corporate economic
circumstances.
Another interesting element to this study is reflected in a cost–
benefit analysis based on the program’s survey question regarding
self-reported burnout. This analysis showed a significant decline in
self-reported burnout in both the intervention and wait-list groups,
which decreased by one full day per week at postintervention (P<
0.001). This decrease in self-reported burnout represents a signif-
icant (20%) potential increase in worker productivity. Because the
current average yearly wage for Dow reported in December 2012
was $112,900, a 20% increase in worker productivity could repre-
sent an employer savings of up to $22,580 per employee year, if the
improvements in burnout are sustained over time. This savings is
due to potential declines in absenteeism and presenteeism, perhaps
associated with a decreased employee burnout rate.
LIMITATIONS AND CAVEATS
Some limitations and caveats to this study should be men-
tioned. First, this study had results from a relatively small number
of participants (n=79), creating the need for a larger randomized
control trial to confirm the results. In addition, 12-month follow-up
was not completed to avoid overburdening busy employees. This
study limitation precludes us from making a more definitive as-
sessment regarding the long-term effectiveness of the mindfulness
intervention.
A further limitation is suggested by our mediation analy-
sis, which showed that improvements in resiliency, as well as the
emotional liveliness element of the Shirom Vigor Scale, were only
partially mediated by mindfulness. On the basis of this finding, it
is possible that nonspecific factors, such as receiving increased at-
tention, being part of a credible treatment program, or social and
group-related factors may have partially contributed to some of the
study outcomes.
Reliance on self-report measures is yet another limitation that
needs to be acknowledged. We used only self-report measures during
the study, which makes it possible that there was some degree of
response bias or social desirability affecting participant reporting on
the study outcome measures.
A final study caveat is whether the study findings can be gen-
eralized to other employers. Employees vary in terms of education,
compensation, motivation, and employer support. This holds even
within the same sector, such as the petrochemical sector for Dow.
Because we focused on Dow, we are not certain that these results can
be generalized to other petrochemical employers or for employers in
other sectors. Nevertheless, nothing in our results indicates that this
impact would not hold true for comparable employers.
CONCLUSION
The present findings have significant potential implications
for corporate health and human performance. The program studied
was a mindfulness intervention, which was modified in length, con-
tent, and messaging to fit workplace needs and delivered through an
on-line platform that included personal coaching. Overall, the ESs
obtained in this study were in the moderate to large range and were
either maintained, or further improved, overtime. This indicates that a
shortened, Web-based mindfulness program can replicate the results
of traditionally delivered MBSR. In addition, program compliance
was significant, suggesting that a workplace specific mindfulness in-
tervention is practical within an employer setting. Furthermore, we
looked at, not only levels of stress, but at outcome measures, which
have been shown to impact human performance and are indicative of
employee well-being. Our results suggest that mindfulness training
is more than just an effective stress management solution but an effi-
cacious intervention for the development of positive organizational
behavior, which can be used throughout the employee base. Although
ROI is difficult to measure because of the many ways mindfulness [AQ9]
can impact the organization, widespread application has the poten-
tial to result in significant employer competitive advantage through
a combination of improved employee well-being, enhanced human
performance, and decreased health care costs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The University of Arizona Corporate Health Improvement
Program (no monetary support).
[AQ10]
REFERENCES
1. Siegrist J, Rodel A. Work stress and health risk behavior. Scand J Work
Environ Health. 2006;32:473–481.
2. Umberson DL. Stress and health behaviour over the life course. Adv Life
Course Res. 2008;13:19–44.
3. Hammen C. Stress and depression. Ann Rev Clin Psychol. 2005;1:293–319.
4. Kessler RC. The effects of stressful life eventson depression. Ann Rev Psychol.
1997;48:191–214.
5. Mazure CM. Life stressors as risk factors in depression. Clin Psychol.
1998;5:291–313.
6. Miller GE, Cohen S. Infectious Disease and Psychoneuroimmunology.New
York: Oxford University Press; 2005:219–242.
7. Byrne DG, Espnes GA. Occupational stress and cardiovascular disease. Stress
Health. 2008;24:231–238.
8. Dimsdale JE. Psychological stress and cardiovascular disease. JAmColl
Cardiol. 2008;51:1237–1246.
9. Sharkey SW, Lesser JR, Zenovich AG, et al. Acute and reversible cardiomy-
opathy provoked by stress in women from the United States. Circulation.
2005;111:472–479.
10. O’Donnell MJ, Xavier D, Liu L, et al. Risk factors for ischaemic and intrac-
erebral haemorrhagic stroke in 22 countries (the INTERSTROKE study): a
case–control study. Lancet. 2010;376:112–123.
11. Harbuz MS, Richards LJ, Chover-Gonzalez AJ, Marti-Sistac O, Jessop DS.
Stress in autoimmune disease models. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006;1069:51–61.
12. Kemeny ME, Schedlowski M. Understanding the interaction between psy-
chosocial stress and immune-related diseases: a stepwise progression. Brain
Behav Immun. 2007;21:1009–1018.
13. Nielsen NR, Kristensen TS, Schnohr P, Gronbaek M. Perceived stress and
cause-specific mortality among men and women: results from a prospective
cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;168:481–496.
14. Ohlin B, Nilsson PM, Nilsson JA, Berglund G. Chronic psychosocial stress
predicts long-term cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in middle-aged
men. Eur Heart J. 2004;25:867–873.
15. Siegrist J. Stress at work. In: International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. New York: Elsevier Ltd; 2001:15175–15179.
16. Health and Safety Executive. The Health and Safety Executive statis-
tics. 2009;2010:22–23. Available at: http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/overall/
hssh0910.pdf. [AQ11]
17. Goetzel RZ, Pei X, Tabrizi MJ, et al. Ten modifiable health risk factors are
linked to more than one-fifth of employer–employee health care spending.
Health Aff (Project Hope). 2012;31:2474–2484.
Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
10 C2014 American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
JOEM rVolume 00, Number 00, 2014 Mindfulness at Work: Impact of an On-Line Intervention
18. Brown KW, Ryan RM, Creswell JD. Mindfulness: theoretical foundations
and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychol Inq. 2007;18:211–237.
19. Baer RA. Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: a conceptual and
empirical review. Clin Psychol. 2003;10:125–143.
20. Bishop SL. Mindfulness: a proposed operational definition. Clin Psychol.
2004;11:230–241.
21. Kabat-Zinn J, Wheeler E, Light T, et al. Influence of a mindfulness meditation-
based stress reduction intervention on rates of skin clearing in patients
with moderate to severe psoriasis undergoing phototherapy (UVB) and pho-
tochemotherapy (PUVA). Psychosom Med. 1998;60:625–632.
22. Schmidt S, Grossman P, Schwarzer B, Jena S, Naumann J, Walach H. Treating
fibromyalgia with mindfulness-based stress reduction: results from a 3-armed
randomized controlled trial. Pai n . 2011;152:361–369.
23. Rosenzweig S, Reibel DK, Greeson JM, et al. Mindfulness-based stress reduc-
tion is associated with improved glycemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus:
a pilot study. Altern Ther Health Med. 2007;13:36–38.
24. Pradhan EK, Baumgarten M, Langenberg P, et al. Effect of mindfulness-
based stress reduction in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Arthritis Rheum.
2007;57:1134–1142.
25. Zautra AJ, Davis MC, Reich JW, et al. Comparison of cognitivebehavioral and
mindfulness meditation interventions on adaptation to rheumatoid arthritis
for patients with and without history of recurrent depression. J Consult Clin
Psychol. 2008;76:408–421.
26. Kabat-Zinn J. An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic
pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: theoreti-
cal considerations and preliminary results. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1982;4:
33–47.
27. Kabat-Zinn J, Lipworth L, Burney R. The clinical use of mindfulness
meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain. J Behav Med. 1985;8:
163–190.
28. Rosenzweig S, Greeson JM, Reibel DK, Green JS, Jasser SA, Beasley D.
Mindfulness-based stress reduction for chronic pain conditions: variation in
treatment outcomes and role of home meditation practice. J Psychosom Res.
2010;68:29–36.
29. Kabat-Zinn J, Lipworth L, Burney R, Sellers W. Four year follow-up of a
meditation-based program for the self-regulation of chronic pain: treatment
outcomes and compliance. Clin J Pain. 1987;2:159–173.
30. Morone NE, Greco CM, WeinerDK. Mindfulness meditation for the treatment
of chronic low back pain in older adults: a randomized controlled pilot study.
Pai n . 2008;134:310–319.
31. Zylowska L, Ackerman DL, Yang MH, et al. Mindfulness meditation training
in adults and adolescents with ADHD: a feasibility study. J Attention Disord.
2008;11:737–746.
32. van der Oord SB. The effectiveness of mindfulness training for children with
ADHD and mindful parenting for their parents. Child FamStud. 2012;21:139–
147.
33. Gross CR, Kreitzer MJ, Reilly-Spong M, et al. Mindfulness-based stress re-
duction versus pharmacotherapy for chronic primary insomnia: a randomized
controlled clinical trial. Explore. 2011;7:76–87.
34. Klainin-Yobas P, Cho MA, Creedy D. Efficacy of mindfulness-based inter-
ventions on depressive symptoms among people with mental disorders: a
meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud. 2012;49:109–121.
35. Ma SH, Teasdale JD. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression:
replication and exploration of differential relapse prevention effects. J Consult
Clin Psychol. 2004;72:31–40.
36. Teasdale JD, Segal ZV, Williams JM, Ridgeway VA, Soulsby JM, Lau MA.
Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based
cognitive therapy. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68:615–623.
37. Arch JJ, Ayers CR, Baker A, Almklov E, Dean DJ, Craske MG. Random-
ized clinical trial of adapted mindfulness-based stress reduction versus group
cognitive behavioral therapy for heterogeneous anxiety disorders. Behav Res
Ther. 2013;51:185–196.
38. Vollestad J, Sivertsen B, Nielsen GH. Mindfulness-based stress reduction for
patients with anxiety disorders: evaluation in a randomized controlled trial.
Behav Res Ther. 2011;49:281–288.
39. Ives-Deliperi VL, Howells F, Stein DJ, Meintjes EM, Horn N. The effects
of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in patients with bipolar disorder: a
controlled functional MRI investigation. J Affect Dis. 2013;150:1152–1157.
40. Perich T, Manicavasagar V, Mitchell PB, Ball JR, Hadzi-Pavlovic D. A ran-
domized controlled trial of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for bipolar
disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2013;127:333–343.
41. Stange JP, Eisner LR, Holzel BK, et al. Mindfulness-based cognitive ther-
apy for bipolar disorder: effects on cognitive functioning. JPsychiatPract.
2011;17:410–419.
42. Owusu-Frimpong N, Nwankwo S. Service quality orientation: an approach to
diffusing mindfulness in SMEs. Int J Qual Reliability Manage. 2012;29:681–
698.
43. Ndubisi NO. Relationship quality: upshot of mindfulness-based marketing
strategy in small organisations. Int J Qual Reliability Manage. 2012;29:626–
641.
44. Malhotra NK, Lee OF, Uslay C. Mind the gap: the mediating role of mindful
marketing between market and quality orientations, their interaction, and
consequences. Int J Qual Reliability Manage. 2012;29:607–625.
45. Ndubisi NO. Mindfulness, quality and reliability in small and large firms. Int
J Qual Reliability Manage. 2012;29:600–606.
46. Bjurstr¨
om E. Minding the contexts of mindfulness in quality management.
Int J Qual Reliability Manage. 2012;29:699–713.
47. Itabashi-Campbell R, Gluesing J, Perelli S. Mindfulness and product failure
management: an engineering epistemology. Int J Qual Reliability Manage.
2012;29:642–665.
48. Dane E. Paying attention to mindfulness and its effects on task performance
in the workplace. J Manage. 2010;37:997–1018.
49. Dane E, Brummel BJ. Examining workplace mindfulness and its relations to
job performance and turnover intention. Hum Relat. 2013;10:997–1018.
50. Boyatzis RM, McKee A. Resonant Leadership: Renewing Yourself and Con-
necting With Others Through Mindfulness, Hope and Compassion.Harvard:
Harvard Business School Publishing; 2005.
51. Baer RA, Smith GT, Hopkins J, Krietemeyer J, Toney L. Using self-report as-
sessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment. 2006;13:27–
45.
52. Cohen S. Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In:
Spacapan S, Oskamp S, eds. The Social Psychology of Health. The Clare-
mont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage;
1998:31–67.
53. Cohen S, Kamarck T, Mermelstein R. A global measure of perceived stress.
J Health Soc Behav. 1983;24:385–396.
54. Singh K, Yu X. Psychometric evaluation of the Connor-Davidson Resilience
Scale (CD-RISC) in a sample of Indian students. J Psychol. 2010;1:23–30.
55. Luthans F, Avolio BJ, Walumbwa FO, Li W. The psychological capital of
Chinese workers: exploring the relationship with performance. Manag Organ
Rev. 2005;1:249–271.
56. Zhong L. Effects of psychological capital on employee’s job performance,
organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior. Acta
Psychol Sin. 2007;39:328–334.
57. Shirom A. Feeling vigorous at work? The construct of vigor and the study of
positive affectin organizations. Res Occup Stress Well-Being2003;3:135–164.
58. Shirom A. Vigor as a positive affect at work: conceptualizing vigor, its rela-
tions with related constructs, and its antecedents and consequences. Rev Gen
Psychol. 2011;15:50–64.
59. Shraga O, Shirom A. The construct validity of vigor and its antecedents: a
qualitative study. Hum Relat. 2009;62:271–291.
60. Wefald AJ, Mills MJ, Smith MR, Downey RG. A comparison of three job
engagement measures: examining their factorial and criterion-related validity.
Appl Psychol. 2012;4:67–90.
61. Segal ZV. Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: A New Ap-
proach to Preventing Relapse. New York: Guilford Press; 2002.
62. Baron RM, Kenny DA. The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social
psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations.
J Pers Soc Psychol. 1986;51:1173–1182.
Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
C2014 American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 11
Article: JOEM-13-4531 Date: May 15, 2014 Time: 14:27
Title: Mindfulness Goes to Work: Impact of an On-Line Workplace Intervention
Author: Kimberly A. Aikens, John Astin, Kenneth R. Pelletier, Kristin Levanovich, Catherine M. Baase, Yeo Yung Park, Catherine M. Bodnar
Author Queries
[AQ1]: PE: Please check the category head.
[AQ2]: Please provide an affiliation for the fourth author. Is the author in private practice?
[AQ3]: Please check whether affiliations are OK.
[AQ4]: Please verify the conflict-of-interest statement.
[AQ5]: Please check whether the corresponding address is OK.
[AQ6]: Please check the following text in the Figure 1 artwork: PII n =32.
[AQ7]: Please check whether footnotes and their corresponding links are OK.
[AQ8]: Please check whether column heads in Table 4 are OK.
[AQ9]: Please provide the expansion of ROI.
[AQ10]: Please verify the Acknowledgment section.
[AQ11]: For ref. 16, please provide the access date.
12
... Positive emotional states expand individuals' thought-action repertoires, facilitating the development of lasting personal resources like resilience, adaptability, and emotional regulation (Fredrickson, 2001;Garland et al., 2015). Mindfulness, by cultivating non-judgmental awareness and encouraging positive emotions, supports this process (Aikens et al., 2014). Through mindfulness practice, individuals enhance internal resources, enabling them to manage daily stress and adapt to the challenges of fast-paced technological environments more effectively (Bartlett et al., 2019;Bostock et al., 2019). ...
... For instance, Lomas et al. (2019) highlighted their benefits in cognitively demanding fields like healthcare and education, where parallels can be drawn to the challenges faced by technology professionals. This is further supported by Aikens et al. (2014) and Wolever et al. (2012), who reported significant reductions in stress among employees in global IT firms, findings that closely mirror the stress and anxiety improvements observed in our study. ...
... By broadening cognitive and behavioral repertoires, mindfulness may help individuals develop personal resources, such as adaptability and problem-solving skills, which are especially valuable in high-pressure work environments. While this study focused on stress and anxiety, related findings by Aikens et al. (2014) and Jamieson et al. (2022) suggest that these benefits may also contribute to improved collaboration and innovation, particularly in technology-driven workplaces. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study investigates the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in reducing stress and anxiety among technology professionals during the implementation of significant technological changes within their organization. It is designed as a randomized controlled trial (RCT) with four assessment points (baseline, post-intervention, and follow-ups at 3 and 6 months), where 64 participants, including software developers, systems engineers, and data analysts, were randomized to either a mindfulness-based intervention group (n = 32) or a waitlist control group (n = 32). Stress levels were measured using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), and anxiety levels were assessed with the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). Significant reductions in stress and anxiety were observed post-intervention, and these improvements were maintained during the follow-up assessments, confirming the effectiveness and sustained benefits of mindfulness-based interventions in managing stress and anxiety associated with technological change.
... The study emphasizes the effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs), and solution-focused therapy (SFT) in improving employee wellbeing and addressing workplace stressors. Research by various scholars, such as Richards and Campenni (2002), Aikens et al. (2014), Goodman et al. (2017, and Grant et al. (2014), supports the positive impact of these therapies on reducing stress, anxiety, and depression symptoms while enhancing psychological resilience and job satisfaction among employees. ...
... In the workplace, CBT interventions target various mental health concerns and stressors experienced by employees, employing techniques such as cognitive restructuring and behavioral strategies to address issues like work-related stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression (Roth & Fonagy, 2005). These interventions can be delivered through individual sessions, group workshops, or online programs, often integrated into employee assistance programs and wellness initiatives to provide effective support for employees facing mental health challenges (Aikens et al., 2014). Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs) Incorporate mindfulness practices to promote present-moment awareness and emotional regulation (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). ...
... Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Studies by Richards and Campenni (2002), Aikens et al. (2014), and Bond and Bunce (2000) provide empirical evidence of the effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) in addressing workplace stressors. CBT interventions have shown to reduce perceived stress levels related to workload, improve conflict resolution skills, communication, and reduce interpersonal tension, while also alleviating symptoms of job-related burnout (Richards & Campenni, 2002;Aikens et al., 2014;Bond & Bunce, 2000). ...
Article
Full-text available
This study finds the effectiveness of three therapeutic modalities, Cognitive-Behavioral therapy (CBT), mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs), and solution-focused therapy (SFT), in enhancing employee wellbeing within organizational settings. Through a systematic review of relevant literature and empirical evidence, the research aims to understand how these interventions mitigate workplace stressors and promote positive outcomes for employees. The findings highlight the potential of CBT, MBIs, and SFT to contribute to a positive work environment and organizational success by addressing employee wellbeing. The study also emphasizes the need for further research to explore the long-term effectiveness and practical implications of implementing these therapeutic approaches in organizational settings.
... Interventions focusing on enhancing resilience can benefit from the online format to reach a larger proportion of the target population effectively. Previous research provided initial support for the efficacy of internet-delivered resilience interventions (Aikens et al., 2014;Bekki et al., 2013;Enrique Roig et al., 2020;Rose et al., 2013). However, notwithstanding potential benefits, further studies are needed to explore the effects of online resilience training in more depth (Abbott et al., 2008;Díaz-García et al., 2021;Joyce et al., 2018;Rose et al., 2013). ...
... It is important to note, that not all studies demonstrated benefits on resilience, showing limited or no impact on the variable (Díaz-García et al., 2021). Compared to studies that reported the greatest benefits, such as Aikens et al. (2014), Enrique Roig et al. (2020), and Rose et al. (2013), the CORE intervention demonstrates comparable improvements, with similar effect size. ...
Article
Full-text available
The college stage is marked by high prevalence of mental disorders, particularly anxiety, low mood, and substance abuse. Despite this, many affected students do not receive treatment, underscoring the need for preventive strategies. In respose, the CORE program, an internet-based intervention, was developed to enhance resilience and coping skills among college students. The present study, part of the ICare project (EU-634757), aims to assess the effectiveness of the CORE intervention in improving resilience and reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression in comparison to a Waiting List (WL) condition. The study was registered at ISRCTN (ISRCTN13856522). In the study the unguided internet-based intervention (CORE) was compared to a WL control group in a multicenter two-arm, single-blind, randomized controlled trial (RCT) conducted in Spain, Germany, and Switzerland. Questionnaire based evaluations occurred at baseline (BL), 8 weeks (post-intervention), 6 and 12 months after randomization. A total of 493 students with low levels of resilience participated in the study. Participants in the intervention group gained access to an internet-based program aiming to enhance resilience by learning to cope with stressors in daily life, promote self-empowerment, and improve well-being. Participants were instructed to engage in six interactive modules delivered weekly in a sequential order. The program's therapeutic content was developed following the Ryff model of well-being. The primary outcome measure used was the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC-25). Additionally, anxiety and depressive symptomatology, coping strategies, and well-being were measured. Participants in the CORE condition reported a significant increase in resilience compared to WL condition (Differences post-BL: d = 0.34, p = .0005; 6 M-BL: d = 0.24, p = .0171; 12 M-BL: d = 0.33, p = .0031). Although, a general time trend towards improvement in the resilience was observed in both groups. Participants in the CORE condition, compared to those in the WL condition, showed a significant reduction in anxiety symptoms in the short and long term (differences post-BL: d = 0.30, p = .0015; 6 M-BL: d = 0.18, p = .0857; 12 M-BL: d = 0.23, p = .0312) and depression in the short term. Furthermore, participants in CORE condition showed a significant improvement in positive functioning measurements, such as well-being and self-compassion compared to WL condition. (Dif-ferences post-BL: d = 0.25, p = .0123; 6 M-BL: d = 0.16, p = .1505; 12 M-BL: d = 0.13, p = .1835). Adherence to fully complete the intervention was approximately 59 %.
... Workplace-specific research has also shown strong evidence. A mindfulness program at The Dow Chemical Company was assessed by Aikens et al. (2014). To reduce stress and improve resilience and well-being, they want to know whether a mindfulness program designed for the workplace is realistic and practical. ...
Article
Full-text available
The increase in workplace mental health challenges stems from heightened work pressure and digital interruptions in recent years. The standard methods of mental healthcare, which include therapy and counselling, hold significant value, yet they lack the necessary capability to handle current workplace complexities. The research demonstrates that mindfulness techniques are effective as a workplace method for improving employee mental well-being. Mindfulness within Buddhist traditions enables people to maintain their presence alongside self-awareness and emotional self-control that fights stress. Research findings demonstrate that mindfulness-based programs lead to significant work benefits because they minimize stress, enhance employee robustness, and optimize satisfaction levels. The study examines how social media affects stress levels while investigating mindfulness capabilities that diminish unfavorable elements, including social judgment and excessive screen usage. This article explores practical mindfulness methods like breathing exercises and digital detoxification with mindful walking as specific tools which support healthier workplace environments. Through daily mindfulness implementation, organizations can develop employees into more focused people with strong emotions and better productivity.
... In particular, the last decade has seen significant interest in applying mindfulness in the workplace (SeeVonderlin et al. 2020 for a meta-analysis). Findings suggest that mindfulness reduces stress (Aikens et al. 2014;Pang and Ruch 2019;Rudaz et al. 2017), burnout (Anderson et al. 1999;Luken and Sammons 2016) and mental distress (Grégoire and Lachance 2015), and increases job satisfaction (Hülsheger et al. 2013;Pang and Ruch 2019), resilience, social interactions at work (Glomb et al. 2011), flow at work (i.e., the total immersion in a work activity, Bakker 2008;Hohnemann et al. 2024), and work performance (Shao and Skarlicki 2009). By being attentive to and aware of what is taking place in the present, mindfulness provides employees with a source of intrinsic motivation that lies within the person, allowing them to connect with their inner values and priorities (Schultz and Ryan 2015). ...
Article
Full-text available
Knowledge workers, whose optimal performance necessitates periods of deep, uninterrupted focus, are confronted with significant challenges in today’s work environment. Their roles demand not only uninterrupted focus but also active collaboration and communication with their peers, often through the very digital tools that disrupt their focus. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory, we propose Mindful Co-Working Design (MCD) as an innovative intervention that integrates mindfulness into co-working spaces, along with a set of individual strategies (i.e., managing interruptions, taking regular breaks, and goal setting), to mitigate the negative impacts of these challenges. This study evaluated the feasibility and effectiveness of MCD using mixed methods, including quantitative online surveys and qualitative experience reports, with 91 participants (part-time students working alongside their studies) in teams of two to five, randomly assigned to either a mindful co-working condition (n = 44) or a co-working only condition (n = 47). Quantitative results indicated significant improvements in job satisfaction and positive affect, alongside reductions in negative affect and perceived stress in both conditions. Interestingly, while no significant differences emerged between conditions for positive outcomes, the MCD condition was more effective in reducing negative outcomes. Qualitative findings, based on inductive coding of 40 experience reports, further supported these results. Participants reported that MCD diminished stress, enhanced well-being, improved concentration and goal accomplishment, and promoted respectful interactions. These findings highlight the value of MCD in addressing the dual demands of deep work and collaboration, offering actionable strategies for organizations aiming to support the well-being and productivity of knowledge workers.
... Research indicates that mindfulness training could be beneficial, not only for those engaged in what Career Cast, in a 2019 survey, have termed less stressful professions, such as hairstylists, but also for those in professions deemed stressful, such as specific military roles and firefighters (CareerCast, 2019). Several organisations implement mindfulness-based training programs for their employees, including Google, Target, Aetna, Dow Chemical, Intel, and the United States Marine Corps (Aikens et al., 2014;Jha et al., 2010;Wolever et al., 2012). ...
Article
Full-text available
Objective: This paper investigates the existing scholarly literature on mindfulness-based programs implemented within organisations to address work-related stress. It seeks to offer a thorough understanding of the research landscape by analysing publication trends, citation patterns, and prominent research institutions. The paper also discusses the top 10 globally cited documents. Methods: Bibliometric analysis was conducted using the Web of Science (WOS) database. A robust search string was developed, incorporating keywords related to mindfulness practices and work-related stress. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were established. Publication data, authorship information, and keywords were extracted from the retrieved articles. Results: 1092 documents published between 01st January 2004 to 14th June 2024 were retrieved from the Web of Science (WOS) database. The results were imported to Biblioshiny, a tool to analyse and visualise bibliographic data. The result revealed that the annual growth rate of research on the topic is 19.28%. Mindfulness Journal is the most locally cited source, with 2159 local citations. Monash University of Australia tops the list of most relevant affiliations. The United States of America is the country with the highest number of scientific productions, corresponding authors, and documents with the highest citations. Conclusion: The number of publications on mindfulness in workplaces has grown. However, more research articles in Business and Management journals that combine mindfulness, stress and organisations are necessary to comprehend the diverse aspects and precursors of mindfulness practice in workplaces. Keywords: Mindfulness, Stress, Organisations, Bibliometric Analysis
... Research has demonstrated that technology can facilitate the sustained adherence to and application of mindfulness without compromising its positive implications (Ivtzan et al., 2016;Kittler et al., 2021;Winter et al., 2022). Other research has demonstrated how online delivery highlighted effects comparable to those of traditional in-person methods, significantly enhancing individuals' overall well-being, and in some instances surpassing the benefits of in-person mindfulness interventions (Aikens et al., 2014;Morledge et al., 2013;Morrison Wylde et al., 2017;Wright et al., 2024). ...
Article
Full-text available
This study explored the experiences of active individuals in a four-week mindfulness-based physical activity program using the Netflix series “Headspace: Guide to Meditation.” Ten female participants, aged between 18 and 24 years (M = 20, SD = 0.70), underwent semi-structured interviews following the mindfulness intervention. Retrospective thematic analysis was employed to identify recurring themes among participant experiences of the technology-delivered mindfulness intervention. Themes that emerged included the following: Combining mindfulness with exercise (35% of the coded data), Perceived consequences of mindfulness (31% of the coded data), Experience with video delivery (14% of the coded data), Defining mindfulness (11% of the coded data), and Challenges to practicing mindfulness (9% of the coded data). These findings suggest that technology-delivered mindfulness practices enhance exercise outcomes and equip participants with the foundational understanding and practical application of mindfulness, extending their relevance to emotional regulation and attentional focus across various life domains. Integrating mindfulness techniques into physical activity programs fosters holistic well-being and resilience within exercise, contributing to both physical and mental health outcomes.
... Anova statistics examined the long-term benefits of mindfulness-based therapies on management performance and well-being. Previous longitudinal studies like those by found sustained improvements in both (Chaskalson, 2011) and (Aikens et al., 2014),which showed that mindfulness improves leadership resilience and effectiveness. Regression research showed that mindfulness activities predict persistent performance and well-being, making them a strategic investment for enterprises. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study explores the mindfulness intervention's impact on managerial focus, emotional regulation, decision-making, and long-term performance among entrepreneurs in Punjab, Pakistan. The study has adopted a quantitative approach that makes use of a sample of 300 entrepreneurs from key business cities to explore the effects of mindfulness practice on decision-making in high-pressure environments. Structured questionnaires were employed for gathering the data, taking measurements for focus, emotional regulation, cognitive biases, and performance of the business, in relation to the pre-intervention as well as post-intervention cases. Statistical tests involved were correlation analysis, regression analysis, and ANOVA for testing hypotheses. According to the findings, the mindfulness interventions enhance significantly managers' focus, emotional regulation, and decision-making capability. In addition, it has been linked that the practices of mindfulness enhance sustainable growth in long-term managerial performance and well-being. This study explores how mindfulness may improve entrepreneurial effectiveness and contribute to better decision-making and leadership in business environments characterized by high levels of stress.
Chapter
The World Health Organization (WHO) views occupational health as related to all aspects of health and safety in the workplace. WHO’s main focus is the prevention of hazards or reduction of negative influences of environmental factors and health-related risks such as stress-related disorders, communicable diseases, and others. Occupational health and safety do not only affect working individuals but also their families and coworkers. It is imperative for policymakers and managers to promote occupational health and safety so that individuals can operate in their working environments which are free of risks and hazards. Exemplified by the outbreak of the COVID-19 virus in late 2019, occupational risk factors become more prominent and even eminent problems for policymakers, industries, and employees. The COVID-19 pandemic was seriously affecting various sectors, employees, and thus the global population. Promotion of occupational health and safety requires the consorted efforts of the policymakers, organisations, employees, healthcare professionals, as well as the community. This chapter reviews the risks brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic on occupational health and safety, governmental policies and organisational measures in mitigating such risks, as well as individual and public responses from the primary healthcare perspective. Stakeholders such as government officials, policymakers, healthcare professionals, community health practitioners, employers, and employees are recommended to take reference to the global framework for healthy workplaces advocated by the World Health Organization to protect occupational health and safety.
Chapter
This chapter offers a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of global research trends on mindfulness and organizational well-being from 2009 to 2024, using 114 articles extracted from the Scopus database. The study aims to map the growth, development, and impact of academic literature in this area, recognizing key research trends, influential publications, and future research directions. The analysis shows that research has proliferated worldwide, with the USA as a major contributor in this field followed by Australia, Germany, Spain, and India. The most trending topics include mindfulness, human factors, and occupational health in the workplace. The study emphasizes the need for future research to explore mindfulness interventions in diverse organizational contexts and investigate the long-term impacts on well-being to guide the development and implementation of organizational well-being programs.
Article
Full-text available
This study evaluated mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), a group intervention designed to train recovered recurrently depressed patients to disengage from dysphoria-activated depressogenic thinking that may mediate relapse/recurrence. Recovered recurrently depressed patients (n = 145) were randomized to continue with treatment as usual or, in addition, to receive MBCT. Relapse/recurrence to major depression was assessed over a 60-week study period. For patients with 3 or more previous episodes of depression (77% of the sample), MBCT significantly reduced risk of relapse/recurrence. For patients with only 2 previous episodes, MBCT did not reduce relapse/recurrence. MBCT offers a promising cost-efficient psychological approach to preventing relapse/recurrence in recovered recurrently depressed patients.
Article
Full-text available
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
In recent years, research on mindfulness has burgeoned across several lines of scholarship. Nevertheless, very little empirical research has investigated mindfulness from a workplace perspective. In the study reported here, we address this oversight by examining workplace mindfulness – the degree to which individuals are mindful in their work setting. We hypothesize that, in a dynamic work environment, workplace mindfulness is positively related to job performance and negatively related to turnover intention, and that these relationships account for variance beyond the effects of constructs occupying a similar conceptual space – namely, the constituent dimensions of work engagement (vigor, dedication, and absorption). Testing these claims in a dynamic service industry context, we find support for a positive relationship between workplace mindfulness and job performance that holds even when accounting for all three work engagement dimensions. We also find support for a negative relationship between workplace mindfulness and turnover intention, though this relationship becomes insignificant when accounting for the dimensions of work engagement. We consider the theoretical and practical implications of these findings and highlight a number of avenues for conducting research on mindfulness in the workplace.