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Reefs at Risk Revisited
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... According to Burke et al., [25] and Kroon et al., [26], agricultural pollution threatens at least 25% of the world's coral reefs. Intensive agriculture is a highly erosive process for coral reefs because they expose silt, inorganic and organic nutrients (especially nitrogen), and other toxic substances to streams, aquifers, and sensitive reefs. ...
... A recent investigation by Wilkinson, [32] and Saroj et al., [33] found that human involvement has threatened about 60% of coral populations in Southeast Asia, and about 80% of the population is classified as endangered. Studies estimate that if the ratio of climate change and human influence remains the same, 90% of the world's coral reefs could be destroyed by 2030 and could be extinct by 2050 [34,25]. The world's coral reef populations are rapidly disappearing as a result of multiple human pressures on marine resources, such as over-exploitation, tourism growth, trade in coral reef products, coastal expansion, etc. ...
Coral reefs are home to a rich biodiversity and one of the most diverse ecosystems on the planet. It provides home to 35,000-60,000 species of plants and animals (over 25% of all marine life), many of which have not been described by science. It provides food, employment, and tourism to people, protecting coastal areas from storm surges; and acts as nesting grounds for many species of fish that are important for commerce. In recent years, several natural and anthropogenic disturbances have damaged the coral reefs of the world a number of events, including pollution, overfishing, destructive fishing methods, boat anchor falls, tourism, mining coral for building materials, and a warming climate, are destroying coral reefs. To reduce the destruction of coral reefs, mitigation measures, encourage sustainable fishing, following all safety precautions when visiting coral reef areas, provide alternative management plans such as coral restoration, artificial reef management, and coral nurseries to improve the coral cover in degraded areas and also increase public awareness and stewardship program related to coral reef and its associated biota, reduce plastic pollution in the ocean.
... The Caribbean is no outlier to this. In particular, Caribbean small island developing states such as the VI are cited to be acutely vulnerable to the implications arising from climate change, such as sea level rise, ocean warming and intensification of extreme weather (Burke, 2011). Fish stocks, their habitats and associated fisheries face major challenges associated with climate change, ranging from habitat change and degradation, to changes in species distribution (Cochrane et al., 2009;Brander, 2010). ...
... The Caribbean Marine Climate Change Report Card (Townhill et al., 2020) points to ocean warming, sea level rise and ocean acidification as key threats facing the Caribbean marine environment. This is particularly the case for Caribbean coral reefs, with Burke et al., (2011) classifying reefs in the Lesser Antilles as being either "High" or "Very High" risk, further noting that such reefs coincide with high socio-economic dependence such as subsistence fishing and other ecosystem services. Other important fishery habitats include mangrove forests and seagrass beds, which, similar to coral reefs, are considered by the literature to be at acute risk from climate change, though there is generally much less evidence for these habitats when compared to coral reefs (Lewsey et al., 2004;Townhill et al., 2020). ...
The UK Overseas Territory of the Virgin Islands (VI) has a total Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 81,000 km2 but only 151 km2 is on land. The large marine component of the EEZ presents challenges in protecting biodiversity, achieving sustainable fisheries, and wider marine management. Collection and review of evidence for the marine area has, in the past, been fragmented. For example, it is generally acknowledged that many islanders fish for subsistence, sport or commerce, however the extent of illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing is unknown. Where recent surveys have been undertaken and survey data is available, the relevant government departments do not currently have the capacity to collate the available data and fully interrogate, analyse, and interpret these data.
This project was commissioned to collate, review and consolidate the evidence base for the marine area. The report is designed to support the Government of the VI to progress with its marine environmental objectives and commitments, in order to move towards integrated fisheries and marine management for the VI marine area, balancing multiple uses and stakeholder interests.
This report provides a comprehensive review of the state of marine fisheries in the VI, as well as providing extensive evidence relating to natural fisheries resources, associated human activities, and social and economic dimensions of the fisheries sector. This is followed by an analysis of key evidence gaps around each of these themes.
... Ekosistem ini memiliki peranan yang besar sebagai tempat bertelur, mencari makan, dan pemijahan bagi berbagai biota laut (Puspitasari et al. 2016). Namun, kondisi terumbu karang di kawasan segitiga terumbu karang sedang terancam oleh aktifitas manusia melalui polusi dan perubahan habitat (Burke et al. 2011). Menurut data survei Hadi et al. (2018), status terumbu karang Indonesia pada tahun 2018 adalah kategori sangat baik 6.56%, baik 22.96%, cukup 34.3% dan buruk 36.18%, ...
... Teknik pengamatan terumbu karang kedepannya akan terus berkembang, melihat kondisi terumbu karang di dunia saat ini terancam oleh aktifitas manusia (Burke et al. 2011). Kegiatan rehabilitasi terus di upayakan oleh berbagai kalangan (Subhan et al. 2014) untuk menjaga dan memperbaiki ekosistem terumbu karang, seperti yang dilakukan di perairan Pulau Sangiang, Banten. ...
Kondisi terumbu karang di Indonesia sedang terancam oleh aktifitas manusia
sehingga diperlukan peningkatan skala pemantauan ekosistem terumbu karang.
Semakin berkembangnya teknologi dan sains juga berpengaruh terhadap
perkembangan metode survei visual konvensional terumbu karang dengan
menggunakan DNA. Penelitian ini bertujuan mengamati genus karang keras dan
karang lunak di perairan Pulau Sangiang, Banten secara visual dan menggunakan
teknik eDNA metabarcoding. Penelitian dilakukan pada stasiun pengamatan Legon
Bajo dan Legon Waru di perairan Pulau Sangiang, Banten pada tanggal 7–12 Maret
2021. Pengamatan visual menggunakan metode Line Intercept Transect dan deteksi
DNA menggunakan eDNA Metabarcoding. Hasil pengamatan menunjukkan 24
genus karang keras dan 6 genus karang lunak untuk visual dan 48 genus karang
keras dan 13 genus karang lunak untuk eDNA Metabarcoding. Hasil deteksi genus
karang dengan kedua metode menunjukkan nilai perbedaan signifikan. Genus
Echinopora, Montipora, Fungia dan Stylophora merupakan genus karang keras
dengan persentase tutupan tertinggi. Genus Rhumpella, Sarcophyton, dan Nephthea
merupakan genus karang lunak dengan persentase tutupan tertinggi. Secara
keseluruhan, eDNA Metabarcoding mampu mendeteksi lebih banyak genus karang
dibandingkan pada pengamatan visual, mampu mendeteksi tutupan jenis karang
dan dapat menjadi komplementeri bagi pengamatan visual.
... Coral reefs provide complex habitats, refuge, nursery grounds and feeding resources to approximately 32% of marine species (Fisher et al., 2015) and livelihood to millions of people around the globe (Burke et al., 2011;Grafeld et al., 2017). They are natural physical barriers sheltering coastal zones and attenuating up to 97% of wave energy (Ferrario et al., 2014), apart from supplying 35,800 million dollars in annual revenue from tourism (Spalding et al., 2017). ...
Temporal free access: https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1hiyBW5UJNpxD
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The Mexican Caribbean coral reef ecosystem has endured the effects of global and regional stressors and, recently, the massive arrivals of the free-living, floating brown algae Sargassum spp. This study aimed to evaluate spatiotemporal changes in the stony coral community structure in the southern Mexican Caribbean by a temporal comparison of live coral cover and colony density using a data set collected in 2008–2009 and a recent survey in 2021 within a Protected Natural Area. A multivariate analysis approach was used to reveal spatiotemporal changes in coral cover and colony densities. Coral cover ranged from 6.9 to 8.9% in 2008–2009 to 6.5% in 2021, the lowest values recorded for the area. Coral colony density ranged from 0.68 to 0.78 colonies m−1 in 2008–2009 to 0.68 colonies m−1 in 2021. The present results appear to represent subtle changes during the last decade.
... At present, more than 30 unique coral diseases and syndromes have been described globally (see cdhc.noaa.gov). At least one disease has been reported from each of the major coral reef regions: Atlantic, Australia, Indian Ocean, Middle East, Pacific, and Southeast Asia (Burke et al. 2011), many of which affect the non-reef building octocorals; also referred to as sea-feathers, sea-plumes, sea-fans, horny corals, and soft corals. Weil et al. (2016) reports that globally, 19 infectious diseases and syndromes have been observed affecting 42 octocoral species. ...
The results of this study show that positive relationships between aspergillosis prevalence and runoff are
not strait forward. Subtle trends in watershed acreage, bare soil acreage, slope severity, precipitation
events, and terrigenous sediment fractions suggest that further investigation is warranted to determine if
runoff is associated with aspergillosis prevalence. The pathogen-host-environment disease triad makes it
hard to determine pathogen sources and vectors. Ultimately, it’s the environment’s effects on both the
pathogen and host that causes changes in disease prevalence and lesion abundance (Guo et. al. 2018).
Fortuitously, the environment is a manageable variable, and land use practices can change. By performing
education and outreach activities, generating incentives for environmental stewardship, and through
adequate enforcement of already established laws our sea fan communities may survive. However, if
development continues to occur like in the past, it is likely that poor water quality will ultimately
compromise the beauty and apparent survivorship of St. Thomas’s near-shore gorgonian communities.
... Coral reef ecosystems are highly valuable with diverse marine flora and fauna underneath the sea, providing biological and ecological benefits to their surroundings. Unfortunately, coral reefs in many parts of the world are declining rapidly (Bruno and Selig, 2007;Burke et al. 2011). This degradation resulted from a combination of both natural and anthropogenic causes, such as climate change (Munday et al., 2008;Ateweberhan et al., 2013), pollution (Feary et al., 2012;Riegl and Purkis, 2012), sedimentation (Fabricius et al., 2005;Wooldridge, 2009), destructive fishing (Hughes et al., 2007;Caras andPasternak, 2009), coral mining (Caras andPasternak, 2009), and exploitation for aquarium trade (Wabnitz et al., 2003;Knittweis et al., 2009). ...
The growing interest in coral culture for restoration and biotechnological applications has prompted researchers to improve their understanding of coral culture, with a focus on ex-situ production. This study aimed to understand the performance of common hard coral, Acropora digitifera by examining their survival and growth at Pulau Bidong (in-situ) and in a mesocosm system (ex-situ). First, three branches were tagged from each of eight A. digitifera colonies (n = 24). Mortality and linear extension rate were recorded monthly, from July - November 2018. Meanwhile, five branches from each tagged colony were brought back to a mesocosm set up at the hatchery in the Institute of Tropical Aquaculture (AKUATROP), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT) for the ex-situ experiment. All coral nubbins (n=40) were then divided into two coral size groups: small (<5cm) and large (>5cm). After four months, small nubbins showed 100% survivorship, while large nubbins survived for only two months. In contrast, 67% of wild colonies remained alive. However, nubbins in mesocosm extent with almost 2-folds slower (0.091 + 0.027 mm day-1) than those in the wild (0.166 + 0.033 mm day-1). Coral nubbins in mesocosm form a basal self-attachment “disc” at the bottom. This suggests that fragmented corals invest more energy in self-stabilization, especially in the early stage of transplantation, which affects their linear growth. This study demonstrates the different demographic traits for corals in both the environments.
... This explanation agreed with the finding of (AL-Hammady and Mahmoud 2013) that onshore reefs of the Red Sea are subjected to a larger scale of anthropogenic damage than offshore reefs. (Burke et al., 2011) reported that landfilling and dredging, port activities, sewage, pollution, and other tourism activities threaten roughly 60% of the onshore Red Sea reefs. However, information about the susceptibility of decline between onshore and offshore reefs, and the degree of impacts on the Red Sea corals is still few (Al-Hammady et al., 2015). ...
Assessment and distribution of coral reefs at three sites located at the coast of Marsa Alam city southern Egyptian Red Sea were surveyed for the biotic and abiotic components of the sea bottom in order to evaluate the impacts of the urbanization development. The survey was conducted using diving equipment in summer 2020. Line intercepted transect was used to determine corals and other benthic components. The average percentage cover of live corals was 63.27± 7.16. Site 3 has the highest percent cover of live corals (67.6 %) whereas site 1 has the lowest value of live coral reef (55%). Higher degraded reefs above the 2 m and 5 m depth zones characterize coral reefs in the studied sites, dead coral at Study sites coverage was 27.8%, 22.9% and 20.6% at sites 1, 2 and 3, respectively. However, the newly broken colonies were highest at site 1 (2.7%) than at sites 2 (1.4 %) and site 3 (0.9 %). Shannon diversity index H` ranged from 0.65 at site 1 to 0.67 at site 3; The current study revealed that the coral reef was threatened from urbanization development in studied sites, in comparison to other sites that restricted from urban activity. Our conclusion to decision maker is to do the strategic planning and manage to the integrated coastal zone management in future at the Red Sea coast.
... Second, such investment avoids the economic loss suffered through inaction. The degradation of coral reefs due to pollution and overfishing caused the Caribbean to lose $95 million to $140 million per year in net revenue from coral reef-associated fisheries, $100 million to $300 million per year in reduced tourism revenue and $140 million to $420 million per year in reduced coastal protection (Burke et al. 2011) 50 . On a more local scale are the economic losses suffered by coastal business and tourism ventures from beach closures as a result of pollution. ...
A healthy ocean is the foundation for prosperous, healthy and vibrant economies. There is an unprecedented opportunity, through global stimulus and recovery responses to the COVID-19 crisis, to reset and rebuild economic activities in ways that will ensure a more sustainable, equitable and resilient ocean economy fit for everyone’s future. This report provides a roadmap to achieve this vision.
... Coastal protection provided by coral reefs is progressively more at risk as reefs are degraded or destroyed by global and local stressors (Burke et al., 2011;Hughes et al., 2018). Declines in living coral and reef structure reduce reef elevation and hydrodynamic roughness, which reduce reef capacity to attenuate waves and wave-driven water levels. ...
Abstract The loss of functional and accreting coral reefs reduces coastal protection and resilience for tropical coastlines. Coral restoration has potential for recovering healthy reefs that can mitigate risks from coastal hazards and increase sustainability. However, scaling up restoration to the large extent needed for coastal protection requires integrated application of principles from coastal engineering, hydrodynamics, and ecology across multiple spatial scales, as well as filling missing knowledge gaps across disciplines. This synthesis aims to identify how scientific understanding of multidisciplinary processes at interconnected scales can advance coral reef restoration. The work is placed within the context of a decision support framework to evaluate the design and effectiveness of coral restoration for coastal resilience. Successfully linking multidisciplinary science with restoration practice will ensure that future large‐scale coral reef restorations maximize protection for at‐risk coastal communities.
This study reports a series of undrained cyclic triaxial tests that were conducted on Nansha coral sand by using the dynamic triaxial apparatus of the GDS to investigate the effects of the consolidation ratio (Kc), cyclic stress ratio (CSR), and relative densities (Dr) on the characteristics of liquefaction of saturated coral sand. The results indicated the presence of two modes of generation of axial strain (εa) in saturated coral sand: cyclic mobility (without initial shear stress) and the accumulation of plastic strain (with initial shear stress). By considering liquefiable coral sand as a fluid, the coefficient of average flow (\(\overline{\kappa }\)) was introduced to determine the characteristics of flow of saturated sand under cyclic loading. Under isotropic consolidation, the value of \(\overline{\kappa }\) of saturated coral sand was not sensitive to the CSR but decreased with an increase in Dr, indicating that its fluidity had weakened. The fluidity of saturated coral sand decreased with an increase in the initial shear stress. Under anisotropic consolidation, ue2.5% (excess pore water pressure, EPWP, corresponding to εa = 2.5%) decreased with an increase in Kc and Dr, but was not sensitive to the CSR. We established an empirical formula for the value of ue2.5% of saturated coral sand based on Kc and Dr. Furthermore, a two-parameter modified stress model was formulated to represent the ratio of EPWP with different values of Dr, CSR, and Kc. The results of experiments on different types of sands reported in the literature independently verified its applicability.
In global coastal zones, the major fabric of goods and services for human welfare as well as global changes are extraordinarily visible. They are shaped by natural Earth systems processes on a planetary scale, which are reflected in a continuously adapting coastal environment. Now, in the "Anthropocene", human society is a greater catalyst for change - impacting and modifying coastal processes. This book synthesizes knowledge on coastal and riverine material fluxes, biogeochemical processes and indications of change, and the human influence, before looking at future research and management needs. It is a milestone rather than a destination on the journey which continues under the new International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP), the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP) and the LOICZ II (Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone) Project.
This article was submitted without an abstract, please refer to the full-text PDF file.
The East Indian region (Indonesia, New Guinea, and the Philippines), with perhaps as many as 2800 species of shore fishes, has the richest marine fish fauna of the world. The numbers of species of fishes decline, in general, with distance to the east of the East Indies, ending with 566 species in Hawaii and 126 at Easier Island. The richness of the marine fauna of the East Indies is explained in terms of its relatively stable sea temperature during ice ages, its large size and high diversity of habitat, in having many families of shore fishes adapted to the nutrient-rich waters of continental and large island shelves that are lacking around oceanic islands, in having many species with larvae unable to survive in plankton-poor oceanic seas or having too short a life span in the pelagic realm for long transport in ocean currents, and in being the recipient of immigrating larvae of species that evolved peripherally. It is also a place where speciation may have occurred because of a barrier to east-west dispersal of marine fishes resulting from sea-level lowering during glacial periods (of which there have been at least 3 and perhaps as many as 6 during the last 700 000 years), combined with low salinity in the area from river discharge and cooling from upwelling. There could also have been speciation in embayments or small seas isolated in the East Indian region from sea-level lowering. Sixty-five examples are given of possible geminate pairs of fishes from such a barrier, judging from their similarity in color and morphology. Undoubtedly many more remain to be elucidated, some so similar that they remain undetected today. Fifteen examples are listed of possible geminate species of the western Indian Ocean and western Pacific that are not known to overlap in the East Indies, and 8 examples of color variants in the 2 oceans that are not currently regarded as different enough to be treated as species. Five examples of species pairs are cited for the Andaman Sea and western Indonesia that may be the result of near-isolation of the Andaman Sea during the Neogene. Explanation is given for distributions of fishes occurring only to the east and west of the East Indies in terms of extinction there during sea-level lows. The causes of antitropical distributions are discussed. The level of endemism of fishes for islands in the Pacific has been diminishing as a result of endemics being found extralimitally, as well as the discovery of new records of Indo-Pacific fishes for the areas. Hawaii still has the highest, with 23.1% endemism, and Easter Island is a close second with 22.2%. The use of subspecies is encouraged for geographically isolated populations that exhibit consistent differences but at a level notably less than that of similar sympatric species of the genus. In order to ensure continuing stability in our classification of fishes, a plea is given not to rank characters obtained from molecular and biochemical analyses higher than the basic morphological characters that are fundamental to systematics.