Article

Front-of-package product labels: Influences of varying nutritional food labels on parental decisions

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Abstract

Purpose – This research aims to examine the effects of varying front-of-package (FOP) nutrition information type on parents' food product choices for children. Design/methodology/approach – A 3(FOP nutrition information: nutrient specific system vs food group information system vs summary indicator system) × 3(Perceived healthiness of the product: high vs moderate vs low) mixed-design experiment and content analysis were conducted to test the hypotheses. Findings – Findings suggest that summary indicator systems were effective in positively impacting parents' choices for healthier food options, however not as effective as food group information systems – which includes specific nutrient content claims complementing less familiar health nutrient symbols. Originality/value – Implications for marketers, consumer welfare advocates and product brand managers are provided.

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... The presence of papers in which the authors did not propose any definition of labeling was also found: About 45% of the sample did not explain the label meaning, but conducted an analysis of it (see Section 1 of Table 1). [110] Process [20,78] Section 3: Focus of the Studies Label Design Theory Studies that propose a theory to better design a label [6,7,46,49,90,99,115,117,121,122,134,135,142] Consumer perception of food according to the label Studies that analyze consumer perception about food after the consumer has consulted the food label [43,48,70,85,88,89,98,112,119,135,137,139,140,144,150,151] Consumer behavior about food according to the label Studies that analyze consumer behavior about food after the consumer has consulted the food label [8,70,[72][73][74]76,78,82,85,88,91,96,103,105,106,110,112,116,119,124,125,132,133,137,141,144,146,147] Analysis about nutritional level of food Studies that analyze the perception of food nutritional level after label consultation [26,71,75,91,92,94,95,115,123,140,143,[148][149][150][151]153] Consumer preference about label styles Studies that analyze consumer preference about several styles of labels [47,84,87,91,92,98,110,118,134,135,142,143] Label understandability Studies that analyze the level of understandability of several labels perceived by the final consumer [81,94,96,105,131,136,150] Other Studies that treat issues of label design not considered relevant for our analysis [5,20,[29][30][31]37,38,67,68,77,79,81,[99][100][101][102]107,113,122,126,128,129,152] Analyzing each definition, they were characterized according to several points of view: Content, position, product, process, or with any specific connotation (generic point of view), as shown in Section 2 of Table 1. Some of the results deserve to be highlighted. ...
... Only 49% of the studies considered the labels from a specific point of view, despite labels or the labeling process being the main subject of 72% of the studies. Some authors [76,86,[103][104][105][106][107][108] reported a specific definition coming from the regulation field, treating the label from a content point of view: [103] writes about shelf-life labeling that is regulated by the EU Commission in order to protect consumers' interests in a product's shelf-life, considered a guarantee of good quality and safety; [105] reports that a geographical indication label is certified and regulated, as foreseen by the EU Regulation 1151/2012 that establishes the means to report a "product specification"; [86] considers "nutrition labeling as a policy tool (mandatory information) or as a voluntary marketing communication" and refers to a specific definition coming from regulation, as foreseen by the Codex Alimentarius (CAC/GL 2-1985, Rev. . ...
... It is interesting to note that other information was reported as impactful for consumers. The usage of claims, better if short [130], could increase the perception of food quality, healthiness, trust, and influence the food choice [43,70,102,107,139,144]. In the case of certified food products (i.e., organic food, GMO, Protected Geographical Indication, Protected Designation of Origin), adding details on the authentication source or food quality can enhance consumers' awareness of food and the related authentication mechanisms [39,74,89,106]. ...
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Traceability is an important tool used by food companies and regulators in assuring food safety and quality, especially when consumers’ needs for food information transparency are the driver. Consumers consult the label to find out more details about a food product and, although many factors influence their perceptions and purchasing acts, the label remains the primary means of communicating food information affecting consumer choice. Therefore, it represents the final step in a consumer-oriented traceability path. It follows that a suitable label design can improve the food traceability process and reduce the information asymmetry between producer and consumer. According to this view, this paper aimed to identify suggestions about food label design, in order to create a support framework for food companies in food information communication increasing label readability, customer satisfaction, and the effectiveness of traceability. A systematic literature review method with content analysis was chosen to conduct the study. Eleven specific suggestions from food labeling design theories were recognized. The novelty of the present study consisted in mapping the food label design field, synthesizing the current knowledge, and providing a support framework for food companies that would increase the readability of food labeling and enhance customer satisfaction through a well-proposed food information communication in line with the “farm to fork” strategy.
... Additionally, receiving messages related to nutritional issues can facilitate the recognition of such fare as a healthy option . Research shows that consumers often limit their search for information to that contained on the front panel of the packaging, as it is more easily accessed (Kaltcheva, Patino & Leventhal, 2013). Front panel nutritional information is regarded as strong evidence for the reliability of a food product, whether due to the credibility of the company and the product, or the confirmation of the data contained in the nutritional table (Cannoosamy, Pugo-Gunsam & Jeewon, 2014). ...
... • Nutrition claims: highlight specific characteristics of a foodstuff, in the form of textual information, usually indicating the presence or level of a nutrient, such as "rich in fibre", "reduced fat content", "zero sugar" (Kaltcheva et al., 2013). ...
... • Nutrient-specific systems: shows a symbol highlighting the presence or absence of a specific nutrient in the product (Kaltcheva et al., 2013). • Food group information systems: textual information via a symbol showing the presence or absence of a certain nutrient (Kaltcheva et al., 2013). ...
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Objetivo: Investigar se diferentes formas de apresentação da informação nutricional no painel frontal das embalagens de alimentos interferem na percepção de saudabilidade e na intenção de compra no varejo brasileiro.Método: Survey online com 399 respondentes. Cada um analisou sete embalagens distintas e dois produtos – cereal matinal e biscoito recheado. Utilizaram-se embalagens reais com a aplicação de diferentes formas de apresentação da informação nutricional (GDA, nutrition claims, sistema de informação por grupo de alimento e cenário completo, incluindo todas as formas em conjunto).Originalidade/Relevância: Impacta os estudos sobre tomada de decisão do consumidor de alimentos ancorados em estratégias de “marketing nutricional” (Colby et al., 2010), em um contexto com preocupação crescente com o consumo de alimentos mais saudáveis. Informações nutricionais no painel frontal podem melhorar a precisão de julgamentos sobre a qualidade nutricional dos alimentos e bebidas (Roberto, 2012), reforçando a saudabilidade dos produtos.Resultados: A presença de uma combinação de diferentes formas de apresentação (cenário completo) impactou positivamente e de forma mais consistente a percepção de saudabilidade do produto, quando comparada com o uso de uma única forma de apresentação, considerando-se o produto mais saudável e igualmente levando a uma maior probabilidade de compra.Contribuições teóricas/metodológicas: É indicado utilizar os nutrition claims, melhor avaliado pelos consumidores, corroborando Williams (2005) e Feunekes, Gortemaker, Willems, Lion e Kommer (2008). Contribui-se, assim, tanto para estudos sobre rotulagem e embalagens como na compreensão do processo de decisão de compra sobre alimentos.Contribuições sociais/para a gestão: O estudo ratifica práticas de rotulagem nutricional que atraem a atenção do consumidor e aumentam a percepção de saudabilidade e a intenção de compra, contribuindo para a promoção de uma imagem de produto saudável e o aumento das vendas, com impactos para a gestão de produtos e marcas e políticas sociais sobre alimentação.
... This is particularly relevant when considering current long-term trends in child overweight, obesity and associated health outcomes (16)(17)(18) . Nutritional analyses indicate that foods which feature more child-targeted marketing cues on the package are less healthy than foods with fewer of these cues (19)(20)(21)(22) . ...
... With previous research demonstrating that foods targeting children, particularly cereals, are less healthy than foods without these cues (19)(20)(21)(22)35,36) and that foods which highlight their nutritional content are just as likely to have poor nutritional content as foods that do not (22) , the current study extends previous research, most importantly, by exploring the combined use of these marketing tactics and their links to nutritional content and by providing additional evidence that such foods are not uniformly more healthy for children (7) . As we discuss in further depth below, when looking across products and specifically products in the cereal aisle, packages that featured more nutrition-based marketing cues (e.g. ...
... The current study provides evidence that the marketing cues parents and children are likely to encounter on product packaging at the store say quite a bit about the actual nutritional content of these foods. Specifically, while the study supports previous research showing that food packages with more child-friendly marketing cues are more likely to be unhealthy for children (19)(20)(21)35,36) , the more important takeaway message is that those food packages which feature more child-friendly cues and cues that tout nutritional value are significantly more likely to be higher in sugar, lower in protein (for all products) and lower in fibre (for products in the cereal aisle). As such, our research suggests that policy makers, public health specialists and food producers should look more closely at what is happening on store shelves and these attempts made to compete for consumer dollars, particularly for those foods that simultaneously target both child and parent sensibilities. ...
Article
Objective: We tested whether the presence of both child-targeted and nutrition-focused (i.e. parent-targeted) marketing cues on food packaging was associated with the nutritional content of these products. Design: We conducted a quantitative content analysis of 403 food packages chosen randomly from the supermarket's online portal along with all products (n 312) from the cereal aisle in a supermarket from the Southeastern USA. We examined main and interaction effects for cues on nutritional content (e.g. energy density, sugar, sodium, fibre). Setting: A regional supermarket chain in the Southeastern USA. Results: Tests of main effects indicated that increased presence of nutritional cues was linked to more nutritious content (e.g. less sugar, less saturated fat, more fibre) while the increased presence of child-targeted cues was uniformly associated with less nutritious content (e.g. more sugar, less protein, less fibre). Among the interaction effects, results revealed that products with increased nutrition-focused and child-targeted cues were likely to contain significantly more sugar and less protein than other products. Conclusions: Products that seek to engage children with their packaging in the supermarket are significantly less nutritious than foods that do not, while product packages that suggest nutritional benefits have more nutritious content. More importantly, the study provides evidence that those products which try to engage both child and parent consumers are significantly less healthy in crucial ways (e.g. more sugar, less fibre) than products that do not.
... 1). The three semantic differential scale of Bui et al. (2013) was used to assess perceived healthiness. The perceived product quality was measured through the four-items of Dodds et al. (1991) scale and the attitude toward the product through a set of three bipolar adjectives of Muehling et al. (1991). ...
... Perceived healthiness (Bui et al., 2013) Poor source of nutrients -Rich source of nutrients 0.914 Not very nutritious -very nutritious Not healthy -very healthy Perceived quality The probability that the product is reliable is (very high -very low) 0.956 The quality of the composition of the product is: (very low -very high) The quality of the product is (very low -very high) The probability that the product is safe is: (very high vs very low) Attitude toward the product (Muehling et al. (1991) Bad -Good 0.901 Unfavorable -Favorable Negative -Positive Purchase intention (Kaushal et al., 2016) I intend to try the product. ...
... 12,23 Reductive FOP labels improve perceived healthiness, 5,10,16,[24][25][26] positively influence purchase intentions, 13,16 improve label comprehension, 13 and assist consumers in comparing nutritional quality between products. 13,[26][27][28][29] The majority of FOP labeling in the United States is the reductivetype Facts Up Front label, 30 which is a voluntary labeling system developed by the Grocery Manufacturers Association and the Food Marketing Institute. 31 Label use is portrayed in the literature as consumers reading and using nutrition label information on food products, most often to make food choices. ...
... Due to the limited amount of research in the United States specifically focusing on the Facts Up Front label and/or evaluative-type labels, 5,16,27 and their increasing popularity, 30 further examination of FOP labels is important. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to identify relationships between reductive and evaluative FOP label use, as well as to determine whether there are relationships between FOP label use and factors such as attitude toward healthy eating, diet self-assessment, self-reported health and nutrition knowledge, and label and shopping behaviors. ...
Article
Background: Front-of-package (FOP) labels are increasing in popularity on retail products. Reductive FOP labels provide nutrient-specific information, whereas evaluative FOP labels summarize nutrient information through icons. Better understanding of consumer behavior regarding FOP labels is beneficial to increasing consumer use of nutrition labeling when making grocery purchasing decisions. Objective: We aimed to determine FOP label format effectiveness in aiding consumers at assessing nutrient density of food products. In addition, we sought to determine relationships between FOP label use and attitude toward healthy eating, diet self-assessment, self-reported health and nutrition knowledge, and label and shopping behaviors. Design: A between-subjects experimental design was employed. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four label conditions: Facts Up Front, Facts Up Front Extended, a binary symbol, and no-label control. Participants/setting: One hundred sixty-one US primary grocery shoppers, aged 18 to 69 years. Participants were randomly invited to the online study. Intervention: Participants in one of four label condition groups viewed three product categories (cereal, dairy, and snacks) with corresponding questions. Main outcome measures: Adults' nutrition assessment of food products based on different FOP label formats, along with label use and attitude toward healthy eating, diet self-assessment, self-reported health and nutrition knowledge, and label and shopping behaviors. Statistical analyses performed: Data analyses included descriptive statistics, χ2 tests, and logistical regression. Significant outcomes were set to α=.05. Results: Participants selected the more nutrient-dense product in the snack food category when it contained an FOP label. Subjective health and nutrition knowledge and frequency of selecting food for healthful reasons were associated with FOP label use (P<0.01 and P<0.05, respectively). Conclusions: Both Facts Up Front (reductive) and binary (evaluative) FOP labels appear effective for nutrition assessment of snack products compared with no label. Specific attitude and behavior factors were associated with label use.
... The FDA was investigating the feasibility of standardizing a "healthy" label for voluntary use on the front of packages and found that consumers not only can identify and select healthy foods but also prefer simple labels and may purchase more products with an FOPL (FDA, 2021b). The results of another study show that US consumers do indeed prefer positive summary indicators but with nutrient-specific information (Bui et al., 2013), which differs from FDA proposals (a "healthy" claim) (FDA, 2021a). The FDA review (2021b) identified two gaps in the literature: (1) which type of summary FOPL system is more effective and (2) whether summary systems lead to healthier food choices and diets and suggests additional studies to gather more evidence (FDA, 2021a). ...
Article
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This work aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the use of front‐of‐package nutritional labeling (FOPL), identify and characterize the major existing FOPL systems, examine the impact of FOPL systems on consumer behavior, and discuss future perspectives. The searched databases were PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, and papers in English, Portuguese, Spanish, and French were considered. The integrative review method was used, comprising 68 papers. The FOPL system from more than 47 countries from North America, South America, Africa, Europe, Australia, and Asia was included in this study. The two main ways to characterize FOPL are the level of interpretation and the type of information provided. Interpretive schemes (such as warning labels, multiple traffic lights, and Nutri‐Score) appear to lead to better consumer understanding and support healthier food purchases. However, due to the differences among the results and the specificity of the contexts in which they are used, it is impossible to define one FOPL interpretation scheme superior to the others. Some potential factors that influence the effectiveness of FOPL on consumer attitudes have been identified, such as food taste, as a major intrinsic factor. Extrinsic factors, such as price, food category, cultural diversity, politics, and economics, were also relevant. The lack of availability of similar alternatives, lack of understanding of the importance of FOPL, and lower levels of income and education were also some cognitive and social aspects impairing FOPL effectiveness. Prospects for the United States, Europe, Brazil, Colombia, and Argentina were discussed.
... Using FOPL allows consumers to check the nutritional value of pre-packaged foods and is becoming a strategically important managerial and marketing topic. FOPLs are a widely deployed tool in marketing (Hamlin and McNeill, 2018), and it can influence parental decision-making (Bui et al., 2013), impact consumer purchase intentions (Newman et al., 2016) as well as consumption intentions (Payne et al., 2014), attract shoppers' attention (Dubois et al., 2021), be an effective alternative to marketing communication (Nikolova and Inman, 2015) build a non-price competitive advantage (Newman et al., 2016;Lim et al., 2020), compare and evaluate products (Newman et al., 2016), simplify information processing (Hauff, J., 2022;Maesen et al., 2022) and increase sales (Maesen et al., 2022), and enhance willingness to pay extra for a health food (Marozzo et al., 2020). FOPL might also force producers to improve the nutritional quality of products (Hersey et al., 2013). ...
Article
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Undoubtedly, the proportion of the obese population has increased significantly in recent decades. Using FOPL (front-of-pack labelling) with clear nutritional information could also be helpful in eliminating this problem. The main aim of this contribution is to analyse the effects of using nutritional FOPL on consumers’ choices. The analysis was based on the research, while 1000 respondents were asked to choose the desired product variant in three categories – cereals, yoghurts and protein bars without FOPL and with FOPL on their package. Two of the most discussed FOPL systems in the EU (Nutri-Score and Nutrinform) were analysed. Changes in consumer choice were analysed using non-parametric statistics, multiple correspondences, and correlation analysis. The results showed that both FOPLs affect the consumer in all products. The effects of FOPL resulted in choosing the best product (for cereals from 47% to 49%; for yoghurts from 28% to 31%; for bars from 28% to 42%) and improved consumers´ choice. There are differences in effects between Nutri-Score (NS) and Nutrinform (NI). NS seems to be a more effective system because it has a stronger positive impact on consumers´ choices. For cereals, the selection improved by 18% (NS) vs. 15% (NI), for yoghurts by 17% (NS) vs. 13% (NI), and for bars 28% (NS) vs. 20% (NI). The results among different product categories were not consistent. Consumers' attitudes toward a healthier diet can be improved using nutritional FOPL.
... behaviour about food through food label inspection (Hajdú et al., 2018;Legendre and Coderre, 2018;Leufkens, 2018;Brierley and Elliott, 2017;Kumar and Kapoor, 2017;Abdul Latiff et al., 2016;Chan et al., 2016;de-Magistris and Gracia, 2016;Dixon et al., 2016;Liang, 2016;Lwin, 2015;Samotyja, 2015;Spaulding et al., 2015;Teng and Wang, 2015;Tonkin et al., 2015;Huang and Lee, 2014;Mohamed et al., 2014;Bui et al., 2013;Kimura et al., 2011) ...
Article
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify the main research fields concerning food label designs and build a topic overview. To this end, the literature review method was chosen. Design/methodology/approach A sample of 121 papers was identified and analyzed using bibliometric analysis. Journals, articles, authors of the sample and the term co-occurrence map, which represents the recurring themes and organizes them in clusters, were defined. To recognize the main research fields, starting from analyzing the terms that compose each cluster, the results were discussed in a focus group composed of five experts. Findings Food labelling theories are distinctly related to eight research fields: consumer behaviour analysis, consumer willingness evaluation, consumer product evaluation, nutrition and health, daily foodstuff and meal effects, food industry and related products, impacts on market and society and child nutrition. Research limitations/implications Several stakeholders could be interested in the results of this paper. Food companies could identify the best practices in food labelling theories to improve their products and labels. Governments could understand how social policies are acknowledged by consumers and how to create new policies. Researchers could identify new issues to investigate. The results could also facilitate bibliographical referencing for those who approach this topic for the first time. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, studies on food label theories explore the themes from the consumer’s perspective. The authors’ study, in contrast, focused on recognizing the research fields where food label designs are addressed.
... This measure served to operationalize the participants' attention level to the food choice evaluation. Participants also provided responses to the Attitude Toward Nutrition Information on Food Packaging Scale, taken from Bui, Kaltcheva, Patino, and Leventhal (2013). The three items included: "What is your overall attitude toward the health symbols used on consumer food packages?" ...
Article
Public policy makers from around the world (e.g., United Kingdom, Ecuador, and Chile) have launched different initiatives to emphasize the importance of displaying easy-to-interpret nutritional information on food packages. This effort has resulted in new regulations requiring food manufacturers to display traffic light nutritional labels. Previous studies provide mixed results about the effectiveness of traffic light labels on influencing consumers to choose healthy products. This research explores the role of consumers’ brand familiarity and attention level as factors that explain the limited efficacy of traffic light nutritional labels. Moreover, we test whether brand trust is the underlying mechanism that decreases consumers’ alertness to traffic light nutritional labels. Our results suggest that brand familiarity and brand trust together create a shield that protects the product from being evaluated as unhealthy, even in the presence of warnings from traffic light nutritional labels. Data from four experiments support our findings using different label formats, food product types, and participants from countries that have implemented traffic light nutritional labels.
... When making a purchase decision, consumers encode, process and compare product information. Numeric information such as weight/volume, width/length, thinness/thickness and quantity are frequently considered for evaluating product value across brands and products (Bui et al., 2013;Chandon and Ordabayeva, 2009;Tangari et al., 2014;Xia, 2003). For breakfast cereal brands and product types, for example, consumers compare the amount of fiber, calories per serving, transfat, and sugars and choose a cereal that delivers more value and fits their purchase goal. ...
Article
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Purpose This study aims to investigate the following three issues: whether consumers process numeric information with locational cues, which locations (horizontal vs vertical) are more influential in processing numbers and whether a number-location association is weakened or strengthened when a visual reference frame moves up or down. Design/methodology/approach A field study and a series of three lab experiments were conducted to examine the location effect of numeric information on the package façade on the perceived magnitude of a number. Findings The authors found that a number at the right was perceived as larger than one at the left only when the number is located at the bottom. Also, placing numeric information at the bottom rather than the top of a product package façade was more powerful in processing the numeric information, but this is true only when the visual frame is set lower. Practical implications This study provides practical insights for product managers in placing core numeric information on product packaging to effectively communicate product value to consumers. Optimal locations can be deliberately considered along with types of numeric information and product categories. For healthy products that promote fewer calories, the top area of the package façade may be a better position for placing information on calories per serving to make the product more appealing to those who follow a healthy diet. Heavier, more voluminous products (e.g., refrigerator) better position their volume/weight information at the bottom than at the top or at the right of the bottom than at the left of the bottom on the product facade. Either the left side or right side of the top position may be beneficial for thinner, lightweight products (e.g., television). Originality/value The present work adds valuable empirical findings; inconsistent with past research, left-right location-number associations are not always true. People tend to associate smaller numbers with left-side locations and larger numbers with right-side locations only when the number is located at the bottom. Also, the study reported that top-small, bottom-large associations are not always true. The difference in perceived magnitude of the number between a number at the top and one at the bottom within the visual frame is significant only when the visual frame is set close to the ground.
... 15. Bui's (2013) experimental study in the USA examined how varying front-of-package (FOP) nutrition information type on products altered the hypothetical choices of parents' of children 15 years or younger for healthier food options and concluded that 'summary indicator systems' were less effective than 'food group information systems' (which have specific nutrient content claims complementing less familiar health nutrient symbols). 17. ...
... Perceptions of the healthfulness of a snack influenced whether some parents placed any restrictions on a snack portion size as well as the degree of restriction. Providing better guidance on snack healthiness using existing food rating systems such as "Go, Slow, Whoa" classification (Cluss et al., 2013) or improved front of package nutrition labeling (Bui, Kaltcheva, Patino, & Leventhal, 2013) may improve dietary quality among preschool aged children whose parents consider the healthiness of a food when making portion size decisions. However, consistent with other studies reporting on parental decision-making around child feeding, we found that for most parents, perceived healthfulness may not be a primary consideration in portion size decisions (Beltran et al., 2011;Blake & Bisogni, 2003). ...
Article
Objective: Increases in childhood obesity correspond with shifts in children's snacking behaviors and food portion sizes. This study examined parents' conceptualizations of portion size and the strategies they use to portion snacks in the context of preschool-aged children's snacking. Methods: Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with non-Hispanic white (W), African American (AA), and Hispanic (H) low-income parents (n = 60) of preschool-aged children living in Philadelphia and Boston. The interview examined parents' child snacking definitions, purposes, contexts, and frequency. Verbatim transcripts were analyzed using a grounded theory approach. Coding matrices compared responses by race/ethnicity, parent education, and household food security status. Results: Parents' commonly referenced portion sizes when describing children's snacks with phrases like "something small." Snack portion sizes were guided by considerations including healthfulness, location, hunger, and timing. Six strategies for portioning snacks were presented including use of small containers, subdividing large portions, buying prepackaged snacks, use of hand measurement, measuring cups, scales, and letting children determine portion size. Differences in considerations and strategies were seen between race/ethnic groups and by household food security status. Conclusions: Low-income parents of preschool-aged children described a diverse set of considerations and strategies related to portion sizes of snack foods offered to their children. Future studies should examine how these considerations and strategies influence child dietary quality. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Purpose The Health Star Rating (HSR) is a front-of-pack labeling system that helps consumers understand the nutritional values of foods. In this study, we examined the effects of the presence (vs. absence) of an HSR label on consumer choice behavior and perception of healthiness. Design/methodology/approach In an experimental study, we tested if the presence (vs. absence) of an HSR label provides a competitive advantage over a rival product that lacks the label, influencing purchase intentions. Participants were asked to choose among two competing products, with and without the labels, in a full factorial design. Findings Results showed that products with an HSR label had a competitive advantage over the rival products that did not have the label. Moreover, this effect emerged more strongly for some products than others. Thus, while front-of-pack (FOP) labels can enhance sales, their impact may vary based on the specific product or brand. Originality/value This paper offers novel insights into the implications of HSR labels for consumer behavior and marketing strategies, particularly in the context of their potential use as a marketing tool by companies to boost sales in the food industry.
Article
Purpose Front-of-packaging (FOP) is a critical branding tool that uses “cues” to communicate product attributes and establish distinct brand images. This paper aims to understand how food brands utilize cues and their relative proportions to hierarchically communicate brand image and belonging to particular subcategories. Design/methodology/approach A content analysis is used for analysing 543 food FOPs sold in Australia (breakfast cereals, chips, snack bars). Samples are collected and classified into product sub-categories defined by ingredients, consumer-audience and retail placement. A novel 10 × 10 coding grid is applied to each FOP to objectively analyse cue proportion, with statistical comparison undertaken between sub-categories. Findings Results reveal intrinsic cues are favoured over extrinsic cues, except for those in the eatertainment sub-category. Hierarchies are evidenced that treat product and branding cues as primary, with health cues secondary. Statistically significant differences in cue proportions are consistently evident across breakfast cereals, chips and snack-bar FOPs. Clear differentiation is evidenced through cue proportions on FOP for health/nutrition focused sub-categories and eatertainment foods. Originality/value “Cue utilization theory” research is extended to an evaluation of brand encoding (not consumer decoding). Design conventions reveal how cue proportions establish a dialogue of communicating brand/product image hierarchically, the trade-offs that occur, a “meso-level” to Gestalt theory, and achieving categorization through FOP cue proportions. Deeper understanding of packaging design techniques provides inter-disciplinary insights that extend consumer behaviour, retailing and design scholarship.
Article
Nutrition labeling on the front of food packages can support more healthful purchase decisions and encourage favorable reformulation. This systematic literature review applied Cochrane methods to synthesize and appraise the evidence on the effectiveness of front-of-pack labeling (FOPL) on diet-related outcomes and food reformulation to inform policy recommendations. The search was conducted on 11 academic and gray literature databases, from inception to July 2022. Evidence was synthesized using GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation), vote counting, and meta-analyses, where appropriate. Overall, 221 articles were included in the review. The randomized controlled trial evidence suggested that, compared with when no FOPL was present, FOPL likely improved consumer understanding of the nutritional quality/content of foods (moderate certainty of evidence), and the healthfulness of food choices (moderate certainty) and purchases (moderate certainty). Interpretive FOPL had a greater effect on these outcomes compared with noninterpretive systems (moderate certainty). There was inconsistency in the best-performing interpretive FOPL system.
Article
Purpose Capturing consumers’ notice by differentiating a product from competing brands in attaching an affixed label featuring product claims, as an alternative front-of-package (FOP) cue, has been widely used in fast-moving consumer goods retailing. This paper aims to apply perceived product newness as the basis for examining how affixed labeling, manipulated in terms of design features and message claims, can impact consumer evaluation. Design/methodology/approach Four between-subjects experiments examined the persuasive impact of the use of affixed labels. In particular, how product evaluation, in response to affixed labeling, varied as a function of its shape (Study 1a), location (Study 1b), the combination of shape and location cues (Study 1c) and the strength of message claims conveyed by such labels (Study 2). Perceived product newness is assessed as a mediator for all studies. Findings The results show the power of affixed labels in persuasion. Specifically, consumers tend to perceive the item as newer, achieving persuasion, when the affixed label has a distinctive shape or location. Yet, incorporating several unusual design components fails to trigger an elevated result if a singular visual stimulus serves as a cue for an item’s newness. Further, the strength of claims highlighted in an affixed label correlates to positive impact on evaluations. Research limitations/implications This study offers an empirically based examination of consumers’ responses to affixed labeling and identifies perceived product newness as a mediator of the observed effect. Practical implications A salient, affixed label enables a credible cue for product newness, therefore, driving evaluation. Originality/value This paper contributes to understanding the influence on the persuasion of FOP labeling, with salience to retail promotional and sales messaging tactics.
Article
Purpose To heighten shopper interest, fast moving consumer goods marketers often attach supplementary labels to the package front to promote product benefits. This study aims to use claim credibility as the foundation for investigating how an extra affixed label that addresses product benefits impacts consumer evaluation, as well as identifying important factors that might moderate the resulting responses. Design/methodology/approach Three between-subjects experiments examine how claim credibility mediates the influence of extra affixed labels on product evaluation (Study 1). They also test whether the impact on consumer responses of extra affixed labels, with emphasis on the same vs different benefits as those printed on the front of a package (Study 2.1) or with a high or low relevance between their claimed benefits and the front-of-package stated ingredients (Study 2.2), is dependent upon individuals’ need for cognition. Findings Results show the power of extra affixed labels in improving product evaluation. Claim credibility mediated the observed effects of extra affixed labeling. Yet, the favorable effects of extra affixed labels for individuals high in need for cognition is diminished when expressed in a different (vs same) claim from those printed on the package front or the claim about product benefits is low (vs high) relevance to the declared ingredients. The reverse holds true for those low in need for cognition. Originality/value This study advances knowledge on the effects of extra affixed label claims on product evaluation.
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Objective: To explore whole-grain food definitions in labeling and relevance to consumers and the food industry. Design: Semistructured focus groups and interviews. Setting: Online. Participants: Consumers (n = 43) aged ≥ 18 years currently purchasing/consuming grain foods. Food industry participants (n = 17) currently/recently employed within grain food companies. Phenomenon of interest: Impact of using whole-grain food definitions in labeling. Analysis: Inductive thematic analysis. Results: Six major themes included: consumer knowledge and understanding of whole-grain foods; factors affecting consumer grain food choices; consumer skepticism of labeling; consumer preferences toward whole-grain labeling; acceptability and feasibility of whole-grain food definitions in the food industry; and food innovation/reformulation. For the food industry, definitions impact feasibility, food innovation, and reformulation. Skepticism affected consumer knowledge and understanding, impacting grain food choice and their preference regarding whole-grain labeling. Consumers preferred whole grain in the name of a food and placing the percent of whole grain on the front-of-pack. Conclusions and implications: Our findings suggest that definitions and regulations, consumer education, and strategies addressing factors influencing consumer choice are needed to improve population whole-grain intakes. Future research may consider formal regulation and implementation of standardized whole-grain food definitions in labeling and explore the subsequent impact on consumer choice and whole-grain intake.
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Purpose Individuals concerned about safety comprise a significant share of the consumer market today. This paper aims to provide the results of a study on when a front-of-package (FOP) claim about “no added negatives” can serve as a quality cue. Design/methodology/approach Four between-subjects experiments examine consumers’ quality perceptions in responses to the absence-focused claims and also identifies brand parity (Studies 1a and 1b) and the associated launch of inconsistent alternatives as moderators (Study 2) and investigate the extent to which the quality signaling value of absence-focused claims varies as a function of message regulatory focus (Study 3). Findings Research shows that a unique absence-focused claim indicates product quality (Studies 1a and 1b). However, there could be a cost in terms of reduced perceived quality when adding an inconsistent alternative to a brand (Study 2). Furthermore, consumers associate greater product quality with absence-focused FOP claims if an appeal is framed as prevention-focused rather than promotion-focused benefits (Study 3). Originality/value This study advances knowledge on the effects of front-of-package claims on consumer behavior and benefits marketers in determining effective front-of-package messages for product promotion.
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Purpose: To understand the conceptual link to consumer food choice behavior and learn on how to add to customer value through branding is proposed. Methodology: Through a literature review the paper distinguishes the concepts relevant to consumer behavior and branding. The effects of these concepts while analyzing: consumer behavior in general and their food consumption behavior are discussed drawn from studying various research implications. Findings/Practical value: A number of research studies signifying the influence of the interplay of diverse fields on the consumer behavior in the choice of food and in adding to customer value through branding were identified. The outcomes of these research studies should be of interest to behavioral researchers trying to analyze food consumption behavior among individuals.
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Purpose The purpose of this research is to examine the nature of consumers' relationships with branded spokescharacters by drawing upon brand personality theory and reader‐response theory, focusing specifically on food trade characters. We aim to show that the persuasive power of these characters resides not only in their appearance, but also in the complex narratives consumers project (sometimes unwittingly) onto the spokescharacter. Design/methodology/approach The paper reports the results of a survey – blending quantitative and qualitative methodologies – designed to document consumer perceptions, affective responses and spontaneous associations to different characters (i.e. Aunt Jemima, Robin Hood, Betty Crocker, Uncle Ben, Poppin' Fresh the Pillsbury's Doughboy, and M. Felix and Mr Norton, characters created by a Montreal‐based cookie company). Findings The results revealed that consumers associate spokescharacters with distinct personality profiles. Also, a connection was found between spokescharacters and narrative: a relationship where the characters become part of a larger narrative paradigm and more importantly, a relationship where the consumer is cast in a specific role vis‐à‐vis the spokescharacter. Practical implications These results should invite brand managers to stay current with the variety of associations that consumers form and how these associations influence the perception of their brand's personality. The results further underscore the need to understand the role into which consumers are cast vis‐à‐vis a branded character. Future research should examine cross cultural differences in the perception and narratives of branded characters, especially since many multinational companies use branded characters across cultural divides. Originality/value The paper shows how consumers play an active role in rendering a spokescharacter likeable, credible, and even memorable and documents the narratives that engage consumers and are both constructed collaboratively with them and propagated by them.
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Marketers of food products have recently introduced a variety of "functional foods" that promise consumers improvements in targeted physiological functions. However, despite the proliferation of functional food health claims promising more than basic nutrition, little is known about consumer responses to these claims, particularly in information environments in which inconsistent information may be available about the efficacy of a particular functional ingredient. Across two studies, the authors demonstrate that consumers with lower health consciousness are particularly sensitive to conflicting information about the validity of a functional food health claim; specifically, the presentation of conflicting (versus complementary) in formation significantly lowers their likelihood of choosing a functional over a nonfunctional food. In contrast, consumers with higher health consciousness do not reduce their likelihood of choosing a functional food when confronted with conflicting in formation. The authors demonstrate that this effect is driven by a confirmatory bias to believe the functional food health claim on the part of more health conscious consumers. The authors discuss implications for the successful marketing of functional foods and for public policy makers and consumers.
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Purpose – Aims to conduct research on consumer willingness to buy genetically modified (GM) foods with a price advantage and other benefits, compared with organic and ordinary types of foods, employing a robust experimental method. The importance of this increases as the volume and range of GM foods grown and distributed globally increase, as consumer fears surrounding perceived risk decrease and consumer benefits are communicated. Design/methodology/approach – In contrast with survey-based experiments, which lack credibility with some practitioners and academics, customers chose amongst three categories of fruit (organic, GM, and ordinary) with experimentally designed levels of price in a roadside stall in a fruit-growing region of New Zealand. Buyers were advised, after choosing, that all the fruit was standard produce, and the experiment was revealed. Data were analysed with multi-nomial logit models. Findings – Increasing produce type and price sensitivity coefficient estimates were found in order from organic through ordinary to spray-free GM produce, requiring market-pricing scenario simulations to further investigate the pricing implications. Practical implications – The real market experimental methodology produced robust, useful findings. Originality/value – It is concluded that, when the GM label is combined with a typical functional food benefit, GM fruit can indeed achieve significant market share amongst organic and ordinary fruit, even in a country where the GM issue has been highly controversial; GM fruit can gain a sustainable competitive advantage from any price reduction associated with production cost savings; and market shares of organic fruit are least sensitive to pricing and the introduction of GM fruit.
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Purpose Each own‐label product enjoys different levels of customer acceptance and perceived risk and requires different attention with respect to the different elements of the marketing mix. This paper explores the factors affecting consumers' intentions to buy an own‐label premium food product. More specifically, this study focuses on the case of own‐label olive oil. Design/methodology/approach The research involved a review of the available literature on factors affecting consumer attitudes towards own‐label products. For the collection of data, a survey was designed and conducted in the greater area of Athens, Greece. The research questionnaire was administered by means of personal interviews to 799 consumers. Findings Data analysis results, using structural equation modelling, showed that consumers' purchase intention is directly affected by consumers' attitudes towards own‐label olive oil, which in turn are influenced by consumers' perceived benefits, economic situation, brand loyalty and trust. Moreover, the level of income has a direct negative impact on both consumer attitudes and purchase intention. Research limitations/implications Limitations relate to the use of non‐probability sample and the restricted geographical area of the field research. Originality/value Considering that own‐label products' quality is questionable, this study contributes to the academic body of knowledge, by examining consumers' perceptions about a premium own‐label food product. By testing existing knowledge in a new context, the paper makes incremental contribution to the knowledge on own‐label products, and provides insights for practitioners.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine attitudinal and behavioral shopping patterns related to hypermarket shopping in an Asian market, which has undergone a revolutionary transition from traditional to modern trade food retailing in the past decade. The first class includes shopping enjoyment, risk aversion, price signaling, innovativeness, trust and future purchase intentions. The second group of behavioral shopping patterns includes advocacy, time, and money spent shopping. Design/methodology/approach A sample of 244 shoppers was interviewed across Bangkok using a structured questionnaire through face‐to‐face personal interviews. Findings The study finds that grocery shoppers tend to be more risk averse when time pressured, but less risk averse if they are innovative. Bangkok Thais score high on innovativeness and shopping enjoyment and are more frequent patrons of hypermarkets than other grocery store formats. While a particular aspect of hypermarket grocery shopping behavior is found to relate to advocacy and future loyalty intentions, it does not contribute to enhanced store trust. Research limitations/implications While Thailand is part of Southeast Asia, not all countries share the same cultures or consumer behavior. Similarly, as Bangkok is a mega city, it cannot be said to represent rural parts of the country. Practical implications As the majority of modern retailers are owned and managed by western countries, the format is relatively new in most Asian markets. Their growth has not evolved naturally and may result in cross‐cultural consumer behavior conflicts, thus findings help extant or new retailers better understand consumer behavior. Because of high risk aversion, private label brands may require that stores develop greater trust among consumers, perhaps through sampling or building awareness of the concept behind private label. Thai hypermarket shoppers appear driven more by convenience than by time pressure. Because they tend to shop in groups and enjoy this experience, retailers may want to consider more of the experiential or social aspects involved in shopping, rather than purely functional offerings. Originality/value By applying predominantly western theories to a developing Asian market, their generalizability can be tested.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to empirically test the consumer‐centered approach to brand management theorized by Rust, Zeithaml and Lemon in 2004 to assist companies in reducing the depreciation of brand equity. Design/methodology/approach Brand equity was operationalized in the context of conjoint measurement. In total, 5,364 respondents participated in interviews testing drivers of brand equity for six brands each in 28 food categories. Findings Data from the large‐scale study revealed that across categories brand value may not hold much beyond the name in the minds of consumers. It was found that mindset segmentation may be a basis for brand management. Messages that focused on product functionality were found to be stronger drivers of preference of one brand over another. Product features instead of brand names emerged as the primary source of value across segments. Research limitations/implications The study focused on brands in the food industry requiring the replication to additional industries. Practical implications It was found that brands did not hold much beyond their name. Companies holding strong brands will need to define product features in terms of their perceived functionality across consumer segments. Companies are to build and position brands around customer segments. Originality/value A cutting edge methodology to test mindset segmentation by combinations of product features as a new basis for brand management was used. In contrast to traditional brand management which is based on products, the paper bases brand management on consumer needs highlighting consumer equity rather than brand equity.
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Purpose This paper seeks to develop a framework for understanding what drives customer‐based brand equity and price premium for grocery products. Design/methodology/approach The paper reviews empirical studies made within the area of brand equity and studies of grocery products. It compares and analyses the results from an explorative and qualitative field study with previous research on brand equity and food quality. Findings The study finds that brand equity and price premium focusing on the grocery sector specifically highlights the role of uniqueness, together with the four traditionally basic dimensions of brand equity proposed: awareness, qualities, associations and loyalty. Relevant brand associations (origin, health, environment/animal friendliness, organisational associations and social image), and quality attributes (taste, odour, consistency/texture, appearance, function, packaging and ingredients) specific to groceries are identified and proposed for future measurement scales and model validating research. Practical implications The development of a customer‐based brand equity model, that adds awareness, associations and loyalty to previous discussions on price and quality, brings to the table a more nuanced and multi‐faced tool for marketing of consumer packaged food. Originality/value The paper provides a framework for understanding, evaluating, measuring and managing brand equity for grocery products. As this paper presents the first conceptual brand equity framework for groceries, there is a contribution to research on food branding. Also, there is a contribution to the general field of brand equity as previous models have been very general.
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Consumers of packaged goods products in the United States recently have faced an onslaught of frontof- package (FOP) nutrition symbols and icons, including the controversial "Smart Choices" single summary indicator. In a between-subjects experiment with 520 adult consumers, the authors compare effects of the Smart Choices (SO icon, the more complex Traffic Light-Guideline Daily Amounts (TLGDAs) icon, and a no-FOP icon control for a nutritionally moderate food that qualifies for the SC icon. Drawing from principles of heuristic processing and halo effects, the authors predict and find that the SC icon can lead to positive (and potentially misleading) nutrient evaluations and product healthfulness when compared with the TL-GDA icon or no-FOP icon control. When the Nutrition Facts Panel is not available, the TL-GDA icon results in substantially greater nutrition accuracy scores than with the SC icon or control. The authors also find that nutrition consciousness is more likely to moderate effects related to the Nutrition Facts Panel than the FOP nutrition icon information. Implications are offered for public health officials, nutrition researchers, and food manufacturers, as the Food and Drug Administration considers FOP nutrition alternatives for use in the United States.
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Emotional eating affects many individuals and can lead to food overconsumption. The present research provides a theoretical foundation for examining the influence of food advertising, social norms, and related mediating influences on emotional eating. Insight offered through interviews with emotional eaters and an emotional eating conceptual model demonstrate that emotional eating is heavily influenced by food advertising, which can incite desire and ruminative thoughts about food. Additionally, emotional eaters may enlist prefactuals in the form of hedonic rationalizations to justify unhealthy eating behavior. Evidence from this research also suggests that individuals who emotionally eat may be doing so because such behavior has been learned. Finally, despite regulatory and policy efforts to create more informed consumers by providing nutrient content information on labels and packaging, emotional eaters possess little motivation to process this information. Implications for public policy and social marketing initiatives are discussed. KeywordsEmotional eating–Overconsumption–Obesity–Social marketing
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The aim of this study was to review research conducted in 2003–2006 in the EU-15 countries on how consumers perceive, understand, like and use nutrition information on food labels. Based on a search of databases on academic publications, Google-based search, and enquiries directed to a range of food retailers, food companies, consumer associations and government agencies, a total of 58 studies were identified. These studies were summarised using a standard format guided by a model of consumer information processing, and these summaries were subsequently processed using the MAXqda software in order to identify key findings and common themes across the studies. The studies show widespread consumer interest in nutrition information on food packages, though this interest varies across situations and products. Consumers like the idea of simplified front of pack information but differ in their liking for the various formats. Differences can be related to conflicting preferences for ease of use, being fully informed and not being pressurised into behaving in a particular way. Most consumers understand the most common signposting formats in the sense that they themselves believe that they understand them and they can replay key information presented to them in an experimental situation. There is, however, virtually no insight into how labelling information is, or will be, used in a real-world shopping situation, and how it will affect consumers’ dietary patterns. Results are largely in line with an earlier review by Cowburn and Stockley (Public Health Nutr 8:21–28, 2005), covering research up to 2002, but provide new insights into consumer liking and understanding of simplified front of pack signposting formats. There is an urgent need for more research studying consumer use of nutritional information on food labels in a real-world setting.
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In this era of increasing obesity and increasing threats of legislation and regulation of food marketing practices, regulatory agencies have pointedly asked how "low-fat" nutrition claims may influence food consumption. The authors develop and test a framework that contends that low-fat nutrition labels increase food intake by (1) increasing perceptions of the appropriate serving size and (2) decreasing consumption guilt. Three studies show that low-fat labels lead all consumers--particularly those who are overweight--to overeat snack foods. Furthermore, salient objective serving-size information (e.g., "Contains 2 Servings") reduces overeating among guilt-prone, normal-weight consumers but not among overweight consumers. With consumer welfare and corporate profitability in mind, the authors suggest win-win packaging and labeling insights for public policy officials and food marketers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
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Why is America a land of low-calorie food claims yet high-calorie food intake? Four studies show that people are more likely to underestimate the caloric content of main dishes and to choose higher-calorie side dishes, drinks, or desserts when fast-food restaurants claim to be healthy ( e. g., Subway) compared to when they do not ( e. g., McDonald's). We also find that the effect of these health halos can be eliminated by simply asking people to consider whether the opposite of such health claims may be true. These studies help explain why the success of fast-food restaurants serving lower-calorie foods has not led to the expected reduction in total calorie intake and in obesity rates. They also suggest innovative strategies for consumers, marketers, and policy makers searching for ways to fight obesity.
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Nutrition logos have received a great deal of attention to stimulate people to eat a healthier diet. However, very little is known neither about actual consumption behavior related to nutrition logos nor about potential compensatory eating behaviors due to nutrition logos. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of using an existing nutrition logo on consumption and product evaluation of a chocolate mousse cake. A cross-over design was applied with two conditions: a condition with a logo and a condition without a logo. Participants were females recruited in the university community (n = 36, mean age 22.6 ± 6.3). Data on consumption, tastefulness, perceived healthiness, dietary restraint and Body Mass Index were collected. No significant differences between conditions were found on consumption and tastefulness. The cake was rated as significantly less unhealthy in the logo condition. In conclusion, results cannot be extrapolated to other products, especially not to products that are perceived as healthy. In this study, the use of a nutrition logo did not result in an increased consumption and had no effect on the rating of taste of a sweet pastry among females from the university community.
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This research investigates the effect of consumer characteristics (e.g., familiarity and enduring motivation) and stimulus characteristics (e.g., information format and content) on the utilization of nutrition information. Results indicate that both types of charcteristics influence information processing and decision quality. Moreover, stimulus characteristics, in general, were found to facilitate these activities irrespective of consumer differences. Copyright 1990 by the University of Chicago.
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Food consumers face uncertainty and demand high quality and safe food products, apparently with as much information as possible. Today's agriculture and food industry aims at reducing market failures from information asymmetry. Such information provision can be successful only if it meets the information needs of the target audience. This paper focuses first on individual characteristics that shape information needs, and then discusses information provision through mass media and labelling. It emerges that consumer needs for information cannot be taken for granted. The provision of ever more and too detailed information entails a risk of information overload, resulting in consumer indifference or loss of confidence. Instead, segmentation and targeted information provision are proposed as potential solutions to market failure from information asymmetry. Copyright 2005, Oxford University Press.
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In a laboratory experiment using a between-subjects design, the authors examine the effects on nutrition and product evaluations of nutrition claims made (e.g., “99% fat free; ” “low in calories ”) on a product package, product nutrition value levels, and enduring motivation to process nutrition information. Enduring motivation is shown to moderate the effects of product nutrition value on consumer evaluations. Also, nutrition claims interact with product nutrition value in affecting consumer perceptions of manufacturer credibility. Given the availability of nutrient levels in the Nutrition Facts panel on the back of the mock package, nutrition claims on the front of the package generally did not affect positively consumers’ overall product and purchase intention evaluations. The authors discuss some implications of these findings, suggestions for further research, and study limitations. ¹ 1. The generalizability of the findings from this laboratory study may be restricted because the mock package used as the stimulus was examined outside of an actual in-store purchase environment. Because consumers in store settings may spend less time and care examining Nutrition Facts panels and are subject to a variety of other influences (Cole and Balasubramanian 1992), findings from this study may not generalize to such settings.
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The author reports a longitudinal quasi experiment that uses the implementation of the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) to examine the consumer and information determinants of nutrition information processing activities. Over 1000 consumers from balanced demographic, geographic, and site categories and across 20 different product categories were observed and surveyed within a supermarket setting. Findings suggest that consumers acquired and comprehended more nutrition information following the introduction of the new labels. The NLEA did not, however, always influence these outcomes irrespective of individual consumer differences. Specifically, the new nutrition labels were comprehensible to consumers with varying levels of motivation and most types of nutrition knowledge. However, the new labels appeared to widen consumer differences in terms of how much nutrition information was actually acquired - more motivated consumers and less skeptical consumers acquired more information after the NLEA was passed. Finally, consistent with the NLEA's apparent ability to reduce comprehension differences, the new labels narrowed comprehension differences across healthy and unhealthy products. In contrast, the NLEA widened differences in nutrition information acquisition in favor of unhealthy product categories. These results have implications for public health gains, as well as for the degree to which nutrition may become the basis for competition in unhealthy product categories.
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The authors report results of a mall-intercept study regarding the effects of health claims on consumer information search and processing behavior. Results suggest that the presence of health and nutrient-content claims on food packages induces respondents to truncate information search to the front panel of packages. Respondents who either truncate information search or view claims provide more positive summary judgments of products and give greater weight to the information mentioned in claims than to the information available in the Nutrition Facts panel. The presence of a claim also is associated with a halo effect (rating the product higher on other health attributes not mentioned in the claim) and, for one of the three products tested, a magic-bullet effect (attributing inappropriate health benefits to the product). The authors discuss the policy implications of these results for Food and Drug Administration health claim regulations.
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Qualified health claims arising from the landmark 1999 Pearson v. Shalala ruling were predicted to be in widespread use, either filling an important consumer information void or misleading the masses. Yet the results from the current content analysis, which examines more than 1200 instances in which qualified health claims could have been made, reveal that qualified health claims are relatively uncommon on product packages. Indeed, these claims are less common than their consumer- equivalent structure-function claims and are significantly overshadowed by structure-function claims for which little scientific evidence exists.
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Excessive sodium intake is a major cause of hypertension, a significant risk factor for several forms of cardiovascular disease, including coronary heart disease, stroke, and heart failure. Despite this finding, the average intake among Americans is 150% of the maximum recommended level. The goal of this research is to obtain greater consumer insight into this important public health issue. The authors analyze data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2006 and conduct two experiments using a nationwide panel of consumers. The results indicate that hypertension status has a significant effect on consumers' attention to sodium on the Nutrition Facts panel (Study 1) and moderates the influence of sodium disclosure on perceived cardiovascular disease risk and purchase intentions for restaurant items (Study 2). In addition, the authors find that sodium level on a Nutrition Facts panel interacts with the provision of health-related sodium educational materials to influence disease risk perceptions and purchase intentions (Study 3). They offer potential implications of their findings for public policy makers, the public health community, and consumers.
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In a between-subjects experiment, the authors examine her; differences in Nutrition Facts information on fat and fiber, coupled with differing claims for these nutrients (including multiple nutrient claims and a health claim), influence consumers' product evaluations, perceptions and awareness of disease risk, and trust of the claims and Nutrition Facts information. Results show that the Nutrition Facts information regarding fat affects consumers evaluations and perceptions of disease risk but that information on fiber does not. Claims do not affect product evaluations or purchase intentions, and there is a weak effect of inclusion of a health claim on disease risk perceptions. Consumers are less likely to recognize incongruencies in claim and Nutrition Facts information about fiber than fat. Incongruencies regarding the level of fat in the product result in lower trust in the claim information bur do not affect trust in the Nutrition Facts data. The authors discuss implications for consumer welfare and public policy.
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The alarming increase in childhood obesity has captured the attention of a broad set of citizens and institutions, with calls for action becoming increasingly powerful. Particular questions are being raised about the impacts of food marketing on children. The Internet has become an important marketing communications tool and is being used by advertisers to target children. This has prompted calls for a review of online marketing practices from public health officials, policy makers, consumer advocates, and industry groups. The objectives of this study are to inform decision makers about the nature of online marketing to children and to identify practices that may raise policy concerns. The authors report results of the first systematic content analysis of food marketers' Web sites that either target children directly or contain content of interest to them. The authors identify 11 online marketing practices of public policy relevance. They discuss the empirical findings in terms of these issues and outline research needs.
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It is particularly important for consumers with specific diseases to attend to appropriate nutrient data in the Nutrition Facts Panel (NFP). Results for participants 45 years or older show that (1) consumers diagnosed with both high blood pressure and high cholesterol are more likely to access sodium and cholesterol NFP information than consumers with only one or neither condition, and (2) there are few differences in attention to less well-publicized but relevant nutrients. The results show a greater need for at-risk consumers to attend to negative (e.g., trans fat) and positive nutrients (fiber) associated with their specific health condition.
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Explores the importance of effective labeling in marketing concerning the abilities and motivations of consumers to understand and make decisions by using the information made available to them on the labels of the products which they purchase. Reports on focus group studies where the respondents’ attitudes and evaluations suggested that, as consumers, they have difficulty in processing information on labels due to the complexity of phraseology, the coding of chemical constituents, the lack of standardization in the presentation of contents and misleading claims about products.
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Purpose The purpose of this research is to examine the nature of consumers' relationships with branded spokescharacters by drawing upon brand personality theory and reader‐response theory, focusing specifically on food trade characters. We aim to show that the persuasive power of these characters resides not only in their appearance, but also in the complex narratives consumers project (sometimes unwittingly) onto the spokescharacter. Design/methodology/approach The paper reports the results of a survey – blending quantitative and qualitative methodologies – designed to document consumer perceptions, affective responses and spontaneous associations to different characters (i.e. Aunt Jemima, Robin Hood, Betty Crocker, Uncle Ben, Poppin' Fresh the Pillsbury's Doughboy, and M. Felix and Mr Norton, characters created by a Montreal‐based cookie company). Findings The results revealed that consumers associate spokescharacters with distinct personality profiles. Also, a connection was found between spokescharacters and narrative: a relationship where the characters become part of a larger narrative paradigm and more importantly, a relationship where the consumer is cast in a specific role vis‐à‐vis the spokescharacter. Practical implications These results should invite brand managers to stay current with the variety of associations that consumers form and how these associations influence the perception of their brand's personality. The results further underscore the need to understand the role into which consumers are cast vis‐à‐vis a branded character. Future research should examine cross cultural differences in the perception and narratives of branded characters, especially since many multinational companies use branded characters across cultural divides. Originality/value The paper shows how consumers play an active role in rendering a spokescharacter likeable, credible, and even memorable and documents the narratives that engage consumers and are both constructed collaboratively with them and propagated by them.
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Excessive alcohol consumption is associated with numerous adverse health conditions and is the third leading cause of preventable death in the United States. Unlike manufacturers of most other packaged food and beverage products, alcohol beverage producers are not required to disclose product nutrition information. This situation may soon change. On July 31, 2007, the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau proposed a rule that will require a Serving Facts panel containing a statement that includes levels of calories, carbohydrates, fat, and alcohol content on all alcohol beverage containers. The primary purpose of this research was to test predictions and provide insight regarding consumers’ potential responses to the provision of Serving Facts information on alcohol beverage labels. Implications of the results for public policy makers and consumer welfare are offered.
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The U.S. food and beverage industry recently released a new front-of-package nutrition labeling system called Facts Up Front that will be used on thousands of food products. To test consumer understanding of the Facts Up Front system (Facts Up Front) compared to the Multiple Traffic Light system (Traffic Light). Facts Up Front displays grams/milligrams and percentage daily value information for various nutrients; Traffic Light uses an interpretive color-coded scheme to alert consumers to low, medium, and high levels of certain nutrients. Participants in an Internet-based study were randomized to one of five front-of-package label conditions: (1) no label; (2) Traffic Light; (3) Traffic Light plus information about protein and fiber (Traffic Light+); (4) Facts Up Front; or (5) Facts Up Front plus information about "nutrients to encourage" (Facts Up Front+). A total of 703 adults recruited through an online database in May 2011 participated in this study, and data were analyzed in June 2011. Total percentage correct quiz scores were generated reflecting participants' ability to compare two foods on nutrient levels, based on their labels, and to estimate amounts of saturated fat, sugar, sodium, fiber and protein in the foods. The front-of-package label groups outperformed the control group on nearly all of the nutrient quizzes (p<0.05). The control group did not differ from the Facts Up Front group on the saturated fat quiz, or from the Facts Up Front+ group on the sugars quiz. Those in the Traffic Light+ group had the best overall performance (>80% on all quizzes). Overall, those in the Traffic Light+ condition performed better than those in the Facts Up Front conditions on measures of nutrition knowledge and label perceptions. This study is registered at clinicaltrials.gov NCT01626729.
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Addressing inconsistent results in the literature, the conceptual framework that the authors develop proposes that the consumer's motivational orientation moderates the effect of the arousal produced by a store environment on the pleasantness of the environment. Two experiments support the framework. When consumers have a recrea-tional motivational orientation, high arousal has a positive effect on pleasantness, but when consumers have a task-oriented motivational orientation, high arousal decreases pleasantness. In addition, high arousal increases consumer intentions to visit and make purchases in the store for recreationally oriented consumers, but it has a negative impact on shopping behavior for task-oriented consumers. Pleasantness mediates the effect of arousal on shopping behavior.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to contribute to studies of family decision making during food buying. In particular a theoretical framework is proposed for structuring future studies of family decision making that include children's influence and participation at specific stages of the process. Design/methodology/approach The conceptual framework is developed on the basis of earlier theoretical work focused on family shopping as well as an ethnographic study of parents and children. The framework was refined after testing in a survey with 451 Danish families with children aged ten to 13 using questionnaires for both children and parents. Findings Family food decision making is often a joint activity, and children's active participation, among other things, determines the influence they gain. Parents and children do not always agree on how much influence children have in the various stages of the process, indicating the importance of listening to both parties in research into the family dynamics and processes involved in everyday food buying. Research limitations/implications Future research should further extend the knowledge about the areas where children have influence, about the techniques used by children to achieve influence, and more about those factors that explain when they gain influence. Practical implications Marketers can benefit from the findings when promoting food products to adults as well as to children. Specifically, the findings suggest that children have most influence on decisions regarding easily prepared meals. Originality/value This mixed‐method approach provides interesting new results, and the main findings emphasise the importance of looking at food decision making as a joint activity where children participate actively and gain influence.
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