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Relationship between pungency and food components – A comparison of chemical and sensory evaluations
Abstract
The influence of food ingredients (water, starch, fat, and sugar), individually and in combination, on the sensory perception of the pungency of capsaicin was studied in model food systems using the time-intensity method. Furthermore, the transferability of the results obtained using model food matrices to complex matrices, such as convenience salsas, was investigated. Significant differences between the samples (p < 0.05) were examined by analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by the Tukey-HSD post hoc test. A highly complex matrix and a high starch content reduced the perception of pungency in both the model food matrices and the convenience salsa products. Therefore, the time-related maximum intensity of pungency (Imax) was affected by other factors in addition to the capsaicin concentration.
The total capsaicinoid content in the salsas was quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS) and correlated to the results of the sensory evaluation. The best correlation (R2 = 0.8029) was observed for the total capsaicinoid content and the maximum intensity of pungency (Imax) in comparison to the duration of the total pungency perception TDur (R2 = 0.5176) and the area under the curve (R2 = 0.6898). The calculated regression models serve as an example of how empirical calculations can be generated and used in a specific context.
... Capsaicin when ingested creates levels of irritation in the mouth such as tingling, warm, hot, or even burning or numbing sensations. The perceived hotness intensity is also influenced by other stimuli such as fat, salt, acid, and sugar in the food compositions (Kosmidou et al., 2013;Schneider et al., 2014;Zhang et al., 2018;Ramıŕez-Rivera et al., 2021) as well as pungent aromas (Toontom et al., 2016;Korkmaz et al., 2020). Other compounds such as sanshools predominantly found in Szechuan pepper also create tingling and numbness via tactile vibration (Hagura et al., 2013) which is deemed to be a popular characteristic among Chinese food lovers (Zhang et al., 2021). ...
... They were instructed to, firstly, hold a sample in the mouth for 15 s; secondly, spit the solution out; thirdly, wait for 30 s, and finally carry out the evaluation. After testing each sample, the participants were also required to rinse their mouths with sucrose solution (10% sucrose w/w in water) (Nasrawi & Pangborn, 1990;Lee & Kim, 2013) as the use of sugar contributes to reduction of oral irritations from capsaicin (Schneider et al., 2014;Ramıŕez-Rivera et al., 2021). Milk was Different superscripts ( a-c ) within a row show significant difference (P ≤ 0.05). ...
... It is worth highlighting that recognition thresholds of the experimental stimulus Capsaicin were found to be higher when compared with reported thresholds in other studies. For example, the hotness threshold of Thai Light user group is 0.96 AE 0.38 mg -L À1 capsaicin whereas European consumers were reported at 0.08 mg L À1 capsaicin (Schneider et al., 2014) and Japanese consumers at 0.70 mg L À1 capsaicin (Fukunaga et al., 2005). Yet, those in the moderate group shared similar range of capsaicin threshold level (2.36 mg L À1 ) with Turkish consumers (1.53 mg L À1 capsaicin) (Mavi et al., 2000). ...
Sensory thresholds of hotness and pungent odour were determined from 120 chilli users. Three groups of Light (L), Moderate (M), and Heavy (H) chilli users were categorised based on their chilli consumption habits and sensitivity to hotness standard solutions. After the screening test, the users participated in 12 Alternative Forced Choice (AFC)‐sets, for each of three stimuli (capsaicin and 1‐Penten‐3‐One (1P3O) odour and dried chilli powder). The dried chilli 3‐AFC sample's concentration range was calculated to equate the same range of standard capsaicin stimuli for hotness sensation measurements. Concentrations of the three stimuli tested were in a range of (0.08–16.80 dry basis g L⁻¹) for standardised dried chilli powder, (0.10–20.16 mg L⁻¹) for capsaicin, and (0.01–2.04 μL L⁻¹) for 1P3O. Heavy chilli users group threshold, as anticipated, indicated the highest average recognition level of stimuli in terms of pungency odour perceived from dried chilli (5.88 g L⁻¹) and 1P3O (1.34 μL L⁻¹), as well as for hotness sensation from dried chilli (7.19 g L⁻¹) and capsaicin (12.79 mg L⁻¹) samples. The magnitudes of heavy user's thresholds were exponentially higher than that of light users. At the recognition thresholds of oral hotness perception, the level of capsaicin presented in dried chilli sample was found to be much lower than the concentration of standard capsaicin sample. It was concluded that pungent odours and other flavours in dried chilli, increase hotness perception as compared with capsaicin stimulus. We also confirmed that 1P3O contributes to chilli pungent odour.
... Several studies showed that the perception of capsaicin pungency can be adequately described using the time-intensity (TI) method (Cliff & Heymann, 1993;Kostyra, Baryłko-Pikielna, & Dabrowska, 2010;Schneider, Seuß-Baum, & Schlich, 2014). However, reducing the amount of necessary sensory assessments would be advantageous in industrial quality assurance processes and may be realized by establishing a correlation between sensory and chemical product evaluations, as demonstrated by numerous studies (Crowther et al., 2005;Rodrigues, Condino, Pinheiro, & Nunes, 2016;Schneider et al., 2014;Zhao, Tang, & Ding, 2007). ...
... Several studies showed that the perception of capsaicin pungency can be adequately described using the time-intensity (TI) method (Cliff & Heymann, 1993;Kostyra, Baryłko-Pikielna, & Dabrowska, 2010;Schneider, Seuß-Baum, & Schlich, 2014). However, reducing the amount of necessary sensory assessments would be advantageous in industrial quality assurance processes and may be realized by establishing a correlation between sensory and chemical product evaluations, as demonstrated by numerous studies (Crowther et al., 2005;Rodrigues, Condino, Pinheiro, & Nunes, 2016;Schneider et al., 2014;Zhao, Tang, & Ding, 2007). Crowther et al. (2005) compared pyruvate levels in onions, which were determined chemically using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), while the sensory assessment was performed by a taste-panel in two steps. ...
... Second, a new improved flavor classification based on pyruvate content was implemented, which was subsequently validated by the taste-panel. Schneider et al. (2014) used a similar approach to compare the sensory and chemical characteristics of capsaicin-containing salsas. Moreover, Perkins et al. (2002) demonstrated that the pungency level labeled on commercially available salsa products did not correspond to the chemically determined capsaicin content. ...
The correlation of sensory and chemically evaluated pungency of mustard products was investigated via a time‐intensity (TI) study and quantification of allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) contents using high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Sweet, medium hot, hot, and extra hot commercial mustard products from different brands were examined. Notably, we found significant differences (p < 0.05) between the maximum perceived pungency intensity of various mustard products. The maximum perceived intensity (Imax), the duration of the decreasing phase (DURDec), and the area under the curve (AUC) values increased proportionally to the increase in the sample AITC content and were also higher in products classified as hot than in sweet mustards. The AITC concentration varied greatly between products from different brands and also between different sensory evaluated pungency levels. Furthermore, sensory evaluations and analytical results were correlated using regression analysis. The best correlation (correlation coefficient 0.891) was observed between the AITC concentration and AUC, when compared to that between the AITC concentration and DURDec (correlation coefficient 0.856) or the Imax value (correlation coefficient 0.803). The calculated regression model indicates that a higher AITC content induces an intensified trigeminal pungency sensation and that the sensory and chemical evaluations of mustard products were positively correlated. Therefore, by using this regression model, the sensory rating of mustard products may be predicted by chemical analysis of the AITC contents.
Practical Application
This research paper provides a method to quantify the pungency inducing irritant allyl isothiocyanate in commercial mustard products and demonstrates a correlation between sensory and chemical data. Therefore, the amounts of sensory tests in product quality assurance can be reduced and replaced or at least supported by chemical quantification of pungent substances (especially AITC) in mustard products.
... Since 1984, several studies have used the TI method to evaluate pungency perception. Schneider, Seuß-Baum, and Schlich (2014) tested the effect of food ingredients such as starch, fat, and sugar on pungency perception of capsaicin in model food matrices possessing increasing complexity. In 2010, Kostyra, Baryłko-Pikielna, & Dabrowska evaluated the effect of capsaicin concentration and carrier matrix complexity on TI parameters, flavor, and taste attributes such as bitterness, saltiness, and acidity. ...
... The panelists were trained in the computer-aided TI methodology using a procedure adapted from Peyvieux and Dijksterhuis (2001) and Schneider et al. (2014). To accomplish this, three training sessions using FIZZ (FIZZ software by Biosystèmes, Version 2.60, France) software were conducted. ...
... The influence of the matrix (water/oil/mustard) on pungency perception may be explained by two effects. First, a suppression effect on pungency perception may be caused by the higher viscosities of oil-and mustard-based carrier matrices (Kostyra, Baryłko-Pikielna, & Dabrowska, 2010;Schneider et al., 2014). Second, fat has the ability to form a barrier that inhibits the interaction of the chemical stimulus with the trigeminal receptor (Lynch, Liu, Mela, & Macfie, 1993). ...
Allyl isothiocyanate, the primary pungent substance within mustard, horseradish, and wasabi, causes a burning sensation and a lachrymatory effect during consumption. In this time intensity study, the sensory perception of the chemical stimulus allyl isothiocyanate was evaluated in water-based, oil-based, and mustard recipe-based carrier matrices. The results indicate that perceived pungency intensity and time course of perception were both strongly dependent upon allyl isothiocyanate concentration and the composition of the carrier matrices. Increasing allyl isothiocyanate concentrations led to a significant (p < 0.05) increase in maximum intensity of pungency (Imax) in all tested carrier matrices. The intensity of pungency perception for allyl isothiocyanate decreased depending upon the specific matrix used. Specifically, this decrease occurred in the order oil-based carrier < mustard-based carrier < water-based carrier at similar allyl isothiocyanate concentrations. The values for end time of pungency perception (TEnd) and duration of decreasing phase (DURDec) indicate that increasing allyl isothiocyanate concentrations prolong the duration of pungency perception. Allyl isothiocyanate was perceived longer in water than in oil- and mustard-based carrier matrices.
... Conversely, negative aftertaste of many artificial sweeteners may cause people to avoid diet beverages (Gao et al., 2017). Since capsaicin produces a burning sensation that is not static, rather dynamic, lasting for an extended period of time, an increased understanding of the aftertaste that results from capsaicin consumption, and its relation to consumer liking, is of interest (Carstens et al., 2002;Schneider et al., 2014b). ...
... The consumers were separated into groups of 23 non-users and 56 users. Prior to arriving, consumers answered an online questionnaire about frequency of spicy food consumption, general liking of spicy foods and true/false questions concerning how they experience spicy foods (Lawless et al., 1985;Schneider et al., 2014b a;Schlossareck & Ross, 2019). ...
... Only the 30 ppm capsaicin paneer experienced a further reduction in aftertaste intensity between the middle and end. Previous work has shown the most indicative factor in the perception of the spiciness of a product comes from the concentration of capsaicin in the sample (Schneider et al., 2014b). This confirms the sample with a higher capsaicin concentration leaves a more persistent, more intense aftertaste (Baron & Penfield, 1996;Reinbach, Toft, & Møller, 2009;Schneider et al., 2014b). ...
Capsaicin creates a spicy, burning, sensation that lingers. Thus, an increased understanding of spicy aftertaste and its relationship to consumer liking is of interest. We aimed to evaluate aftertaste intensity and liking of spicy paneer cheese (0, 3.75, 7.5 and 30 ppm capsaicin) by consumers (n = 79) every minute for 15 min. Influences of consumer consumption patterns on spicy aftertaste were also explored. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed among samples, across aftertaste time periods (beginning, middle and end), and within consumer consumption categories. In general, the more capsaicin in a sample, the longer the sensation lasted, with a more intense spicy and overall aftertaste. Results showed consumers in different categorisation groups rated intensity of the samples differently, and reported liking the 30 ppm capsaicin paneer sample differently. Additionally, a consumer’s spice level preference was shown to not affect the time to abatement of the spicy aftertaste intensity perceived by consumers.
... However, evaluating the sensory properties of spicy foods can be challenging due to how quickly panelists experience fatigue and can no longer accurately evaluate the spicy samples JFDS-2019-0123 Submitted 1/25/2019, Accepted 3/21/2019. (Dowell, Chambers, Milliken, & Chambers, 2005;Lawless, Rozin, & Shenker, 1985;Schneider, Seuß-Baum, & Schlich, 2014b). Currently, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is the standard method for capsaicin analysis (AOAC International, 1998;Hoffman, Lego, & Galetto, 1983;Parrish, 1996). ...
... Currently, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is the standard method for capsaicin analysis (AOAC International, 1998;Hoffman, Lego, & Galetto, 1983;Parrish, 1996). Although analytical methods are accurate and give consistent results, they may not always be interchangeable with sensory perception of spiciness by consumers (Guzmán & Bosland, 2017, Schneider et al., 2014b. As such, consumer evaluation along with analytical analysis is critical for reaching a full understanding of spicy foods. ...
... After responding to the difference from control question, panelists were given the option to make comments on their evaluation decision. Between each set of evaluations, panelists were required to wait 5 min before starting the next evaluation (Schneider et al., 2014b). Panelists were also informed that one of the treatment samples may be the same as the control sample. ...
Evaluating sensory properties of spicy foods can be challenging due to how quickly individuals experience fatigue. Analytical methods, such as HPLC quantification of capsaicin, are accurate. However, they may not always be interchangeable with perception of spiciness by consumers. The electronic tongue (e‐tongue) offers a unique opportunity to simulate human perception of capsaicin pungency with an analytical method. This study evaluated consumer's and the e‐tongue ability to discriminate among paneer cheese samples containing different levels of capsaicin (1.875, 3.75, 7.5, 15, and 30 ppm). Over 2 days, using a blocked design to minimize fatigue, consumers (n = 110) evaluated samples using a difference from control sensory test. Consumers distinguished the spicy paneer sample from the control (0 ppm) at 3.75, 7.5, 15, and 30 ppm (P < 0.05). Differences were found among sample 3.75, 7.5, and 15 ppm (P < 0.05). However, no significant differences were found between control and 1.875 ppm or between samples 15 and 30 ppm. Although these high and low concentrations were challenging for consumers, the e‐tongue resulted in a high degree of discrimination of 93% among all samples. On the principal component analysis plot created by the e‐tongue, PC1 explained 85.6% of the variability and was associated with spicy, sweet, salty, sour, and umami sensors. PC2 explained 7.96% and was associated with the bitter and metallic sensors. The 3.75 and 15 ppm samples were defined by PC1, while PC2 defined samples 1.875 and 30 ppm. These results conclude that the e‐tongue may be useful in qualitative discrimination among spicy paneer along with sensory evaluation.
Practical Application
As the market for spicy foods continues to grow, methods for rapid, accurate analysis of the sensory qualities of the food products is needed. As the electronic tongue discriminated effectively among spicy paneer cheese samples, the method could be used alongside sensory testing to evaluate spicy food samples without encountering the typical issues of fatigue common with evaluating spicy foods.
... At first the panel rated the magnitude of pungency using FIZZ and afterwards the results were discussed among the group. These concentrations were fixed according to our earlier established method [30] as the following ratings on a 10-point scale: slight (0.5 ppm, designated a 2 on a 10-point scale), moderate (1.0 ppm, designated a 4 on a 10-point scale), strong (1.5 ppm, designated a 6 on a 10-point scale) and very strong (more pungent than the 2.0 ppm solution, designated a rating higher than 6 on a 10-point scale). ...
... For each sample the panelists had a maximum time of 10 minutes for rating the burning sensation. After that they had one minute left for a short break and neutralization by using mascarpone toast [30] and decalcified water before continuing with the next sample. ...
... A possible reason for this could be the complexity of the matrix of both formulations. We previously investigated the influence of the food matrix to the perception of pungency [30]. It was stated that the more complex the matrix was the less pungency of capsaicin was perceived. ...
Capsaicin has known health beneficial and therapeutic properties. It is also able to enhance the permeability of drugs across epithelial tissues. Unfortunately, due to its pungency the oral administration of capsaicin is limited. To this end, we assessed the effect of nanoencap-sulation of capsaicin, under the hypothesis that this would reduce its pungency. Core-shell nanocapsules with an oily core and stabilized with phospholipids were used. This system was used with or without chitosan coating. In this work, we investigated the in vitro release behavior of capsaicin-loaded formulations in different physiological media (including simulated saliva fluid). We also evaluated the influence of encapsulation of capsaicin on the cell viability of buccal cells (TR146). To study the changes in pungency after encapsulation we carried out a sensory analysis with a trained panel of 24 students. The in vitro release study showed that the systems discharged capsaicin slowly in a monotonic manner and that the chitosan coating had an effect on the release profile. The cytotoxic response of TR146 cells to capsaicin at a concentration of 500 μM, which was evident for the free compound, was reduced following its encapsulation. The sensory study revealed that a chitosan coating results in a lower threshold of perception of the formulation. The nanoencapsulation of cap-saicin resulted in attenuation of the sensation of pungency significantly. However, the presence of a chitosan shell around the nanoformulations did not mask the pungency, when compared with uncoated systems.
... Capsaicin has been widely researched in many contexts, including food formulation, where interactions with other ingredients have been explored. For example, when fat content of a capsaicin-containing food is increased, perceived oral burn typically decreases (Baron & Penfield, 1996;Carden et al., 1999;Schneider et al., 2014). Work in simple model systems confirms this: Lawless et al. (2000) found that capsaicin in oil has an elevated recognition threshold relative to capsaicin in water. ...
... Reports investigating the effects of various ingredients and food manipulations on perceived oral burn from capsaicin span back at least four decades. Among these, researchers have investigated the effects of temperature (Fibrianto et al., 2019;Sizer & Harris, 1985), sweetness (Schneider et al., 2014;Smutzer et al., 2018;Stevens & Lawless, 1986), fat content (Baron & Penfield, 1996;Nolden et al., 2019), and, more recently, protein content (Farah et al., 2022;Gaiser & Hayes, 2023;Gøkhan et al., 2023). Given the products tested here, we have confirmed and extended these findings by quantifying the effectiveness of each in reducing capsaicin-induced oral burn. ...
It is widely accepted that milk provides the greatest relief from capsaicin burn, an effect typically attributed to its fat content and temperature. Previously, Lawless et al. reported partitioning lipophilic capsaicin in fat reduces burn, whereas Green showed lower temperature reduces burn. Recent research shows that dairy and nondairy proteins also reduce capsaicin burn, suggesting that multiple factors reduce oral burn from chilies. Here, we investigated the effectiveness of palate cleansers with varied viscosities, temperatures, and sugar, fat, and protein content. Specifically, we tested ice cream, Italian ice, yogurt, lassi, cold water (4°C), and warm water (37°C). Participants rinsed with a 5 ppm capsaicin solution, followed by a palate cleanser, before rating burn intensity continuously for 2 min on a general Labeled Magnitude Scale. Inspection of the time–intensity (TI) curves revealed all palate cleansers performed better than warm water. Italian ice performed on par with cold water, which did better than yogurt. Pairwise comparisons showed that ice cream and lassi had significantly lower burn ratings at some time points relative to warm or cold water. We extracted scaffolding parameters for each TI curve, finding that ice cream and lassi had the lowest areas‐under‐the‐curve and the greatest percent decrease from their maxima, with ice cream performing slightly better in both parameters. These data support the view that it is not just one characteristic of a product, but rather a combination of product factors that reduce oral burn, including fat content, protein content, and temperature. More research is required to determine the relative weight of these factors in combination, given the multiple mechanisms underlying burn reduction.
... Most studies on pungent substances in previous literature have demonstrated that pungency sensation is strongly time dependent (Eib, Schneider, Hensel, & Seuß-Baum, 2021;Schneider, Seuss-Baum, & Schlich, 2014) and relates to several sensations, or sub-qualities that are simultaneously perceived, such as " burning", "tingling", "prickle", and "numbing" (Cliff & Heymann, 1992;Ramírez-Rivera et al., 2020;Sugai et al., 2005;Zhang, Shi, Wang, Zhao, & Chen, 2017). In the 'mouth-feel wheel' of wine, pungency was precisely described as "spritz", "prickle", "tingle", "warm", "hot", and "numbing" (Gawel, Van Sluyter, & Waters, 2007). ...
... Besides, PCA results from the present work suggest a relationship between pungency intensity and pungency subqualities. Results from the previous studies also confirmed that pungency sub-qualities are depended on the concentration of pungency substances (Schneider et al., 2014;Zhang et al., 2018). That is, the intensity of stimulation will determine to a large extent the sub-qualities perceived, the extent to which one or more sub-qualities dominate, and the dominant duration of the sub-qualities. ...
Pungency is increasingly being recognized as an important factor of overall sensory quality, palatability, and consumer preference of distilled spirits. The characterization of pungency is necessary to evaluate the potential sensory quality of distilled spirits. In this study, the temporal profiles of pungency of Baijiu with different aging times were evaluated using time-intensity (TI) and temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) methods, considering both pungency intensity and pungency sub-qualities. TI results indicated significant differences in release rate of pungency during Baijiu consumption. Compared to young Baijiu, old Baijiu tend to show higher release rate of pungency, the areas under the curve and duration of pungency were significantly decreased in old Baijiu. The TDS results showed significant differences in the combination of dominant sub-qualities, as well as in the maximum dominance rates and the dominant duration of sub-qualities among Baijiu. The young Baijiu were mainly characterized by the dominant sub-qualities of “burning” and “numbing”, whereas for old Baijiu, “burning”, “prickle”, and “drying” were dominant. The application of TI and TDS provided dynamic and temporal profiles of pungency to fully characterize pungency differences of distilled beverages.
... Prescott et al. (1984) found that the mixture of chilli and sugar increases the perception threshold for the evaluation and allows differentiating the sensory attributes of taste compared with other compounds such as salt (NaCl) (Stevens & Lawless, 1986;Zhang et al., 2017). The intensity values obtained from the attributes evaluated to the sugar-chilli-water mixtures are consistent with the values (7.4 on a scale of 0-10) obtained by Schneider et al. (2014), who evaluated the spicy effect using capsaicin in a 10% sugar and 90% water mixture. In the case of texture attributes, no significant differences (P = 0.05) were found in the sensory attributes of sample. ...
... Evaluating chilli samples on a butter layer can be easy to implement for the evaluation of texture parameters in mouth given the butter price and availability in the market. Additionally, this food matrix contributes to the reduction of mouth irritation when texture evaluation has to be carried out using butter as a vehicle (Reinbach et al., 2009;Kostyra et al., 2010;Schneider et al., 2014). Different literals in a row indicate significant difference; values represent means AE standard deviation; WSCH 1, 7 g of sugar + 1.7 g of habanero pepper in 150 mL of water; WSCH 2, 6 g of sugar + 1.7 g of habanero pepper in 150 mL of water; WSCH 3, 5 g of sugar + 1.7 g of habanero pepper in 150 mL of water; WSCH 4, 4 g of sugar + 1.7 g of habanero pepper in 150 mL of water. ...
The objective was to develop and validate sample testing conditions for the sensometric evaluation of habanero pepper. Stage I consisted of evaluating and selecting the most adequate conditions for the evaluation of habanero pepper. Stage II consisted of the validation of the conditions selected in Stage I. Green light, direct cut to the fresh chilli, and different mixtures of 6 g of sugar + 1.7 g of habanero pepper and 7 g of sugar + 1.7 g of habanero chilli in 150 mL of water and butter were suitable conditions for habanero pepper evaluation. TDS (temporal dominance of sensations) technique indicated that dominant attributes of habanero chilli were chilli flavour and spicy flavour. Descriptive analysis technique indicated that habanero chilli had the highest intensities in chilli aroma, fresh leaf, mouth numbness, mouth heat, chilli flavour and burn feeling sensory attributes. Sensory panel showed an adequate performance with a correct classification of chilli samples of 96.30%.
... The efficacy of milk in reducing burn, both immediately and over time, is generally consistent with prior reports [24]. It is widely assumed whole milk will be most effective, given capsaicin's well-known hydrophobicity, as burn presumably drops with partitioning of capsaicin into the lipid phase (e.g., [22,29]). Critically however, we failed to find evidence that whole milk (>3.25% fat) was more effective than skim milk (<0.5% fat). ...
... Strictly speaking however, their data do not actually support this claim, as they failed to observe significant differences in the ability of skim milk and whole milk to reduce burn. Thus, it seems critical to distinguish between fat content of a capsaicin containing food (e.g., [22,29]) versus the fat content of a rinse agent after exposure (present data, and [14]). Regarding mechanism, present data suggest either i) the limited fat in skim milk is sufficient to partition capsaicin away from the receptor, or ii) the high efficacy of milk in reducing burn is due instead to another constituent in milk (e.g., casein or lactose). ...
Capsaicin is classically considered an irritant, due to the warming and burning sensations it elicits. Widespread consumption of chilis suggests many individuals enjoy this burn, but these sensations can be overwhelming if the burn is too intense. While substantial folklore exists on the ability of specific beverages to mitigate capsaicin burn, quantitative data to support these claims are generally lacking. Here, we systematically tested various beverages for their ability to reduce oral burn following consumption of capsaicin in tomato juice. Participants (n = 72, 42 women, 30 men) rated the burn of 30 mL of spicy tomato juice on a general Labeled Magnitude Scale (gLMS) immediately after swallowing, and again every 10 s for 2 min. On 7 of 8 trials, a test beverage (40 mL) was consumed after tomato juice was swallowed, including: skim milk, whole milk, seltzer water, Cherry Kool-Aid, non-alcoholic beer, cola, and water. Participants also answered questions regarding intake frequency and liking of spicy food. Initial burn of tomato juice alone was rated below "strong" but above "moderate" on a gLMS and continued to decay over the 2 min to a mean just above "weak". All beverages significantly reduced the burn of the tomato juice. To quantify efficacy over time, area under the curve (AUC) values were calculated, and the largest reductions in burn were observed for whole milk, skim milk, and Kool-Aid. More work is needed to determine the mechanism(s) by which these beverages reduce burn (i.e., partitioning due to fat, binding by protein, or sucrose analgesia). Present data suggest milk is the best choice to mitigate burn, regardless of fat context, suggesting the presence of protein may be more relevant than lipid content.
... So, while replacing some specific compound with other substances the food matrix has also to be modified to have same flavour perception and we can also modify or mask particular taste by making changes in the matrix. Pungent flavour caused bycapsaicinoidcompounds was more in salsas containing extra starch and oil than in normal ones (Schneider et al., 2014) [28] . Different kind of foods have varied level of satiating properties. ...
... So, while replacing some specific compound with other substances the food matrix has also to be modified to have same flavour perception and we can also modify or mask particular taste by making changes in the matrix. Pungent flavour caused bycapsaicinoidcompounds was more in salsas containing extra starch and oil than in normal ones (Schneider et al., 2014) [28] . Different kind of foods have varied level of satiating properties. ...
Food matrix can be described as a complex assembly of various physical and chemical interactions that take place between the compounds present in the food. The physiological response and the health benefits of a particular compound are resultant on these interactions. The sensorial attributes of a particular brand and the level of satiety also depend upon on the food matrix. Enhancement of functional and sensorial attributes of food can be achieved by modifying the food matrix. Food matrices are designed to improve various attributes of food. Excipient foods are designed to improve the bioavailiabity of bioactive compounds in food. Introduction Nutrients and bioactive components are present in various foods that are normally consumed but the physiological response and the health benefits of different foods containing the same nutrients and bioactive components are different. The reason behind this discrepancy is that the amount of nutrients actually digested and the amount actually absorbed are different for different foods. The compounds present in the food interact with the different matrix in different ways. The food matrix is described as an assembly where complex physical and chemical interaction of nutrients and non-nutrients take place. The release, stability, accessibility, mass transfer and digestibility of many food compounds are influenced by this complex physical and chemical interaction (Crowe and Francis, 2013) [8]. It has also been observed that compounds in whole foods behave in a different manner than when it is in isolated form. This is also due to the differences in the food matrix in which the bioactive compounds are present. Food matrix can be modified using various processing techniques and fermentation. Special food matrix can also be designed for increasing the bioavailability and bioaccessibility of the nutrients. This paper reviews about the basic concept of food matrix and its implications along with that the impact of food matrix on nutrition and sensorial aspects of foods is also depicted. The concept of "Excipient foods" is included.
... AITC in an oil versus water carrier results in a suppression of the perceived pungency of AITC. This may be because of two mechanisms: 1) the higher viscosity of the oil (Kostyra et al., 2010;Schneider et al., 2014) and 2) the ability of fat to form a barrier inhibiting the interaction of the chemical stimulant with the trigeminal receptors within the oral cavity (Lynch et al., 1993). Thus, to minimise the pungency effect of AITC, future studies should focus on fat-based food carriers, as both the model solutions and soup were water-based solutions. ...
Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), a chemical irritant, through cross‐modal interactions, may impact the human perception of tastes and odours. Currently, new strategies are being explored to reduce the salt content present in foods, without impacting their sensory appeal. AITC may be able to increase the saltiness perception of salt‐reduced foods. As such, the objective was to first determine the detection threshold of AITC, and then evaluate its cross‐modal interaction with saltiness in model solutions and soup. The study included ninty participants. The basic tastes and burning sensation of model solutions were evaluated using general labelled magnitude scales. The soups were evaluated using hedonic and intensity scales, as well as temporal check‐all‐that‐apply (TCATA). The group mean of the individual threshold was 0.123 mg/100 mL. The AITC increased the saltiness perception of the model solutions but also suppressed the sweetness. The AITC also increased the saltiness perception of the soup during both the static and dynamic evaluation, but it also added other flavours to the soup including metallic, bitter and sour. The AITC decreased the overall liking and liking of the soup's flavour.
... Together, this implies that while there may be a proteindependent effect on oral burn reduction within similar types of samples, other factors beyond protein and fat content play a role. Complexity of the beverages may be one factor (Schneider et al., 2014). ...
... This method is used for analyzing the dynamic perspective of dominance changes, such as in the case of habanero pepper [14] or baijiu [15]. The time-intensity (TI) approach of the oral burn sensation has been analyzed with chili-spiced pork patties [5,16], trigeminal pungency perception [17] or pungency perception of capsaicin in different food matrices [18]. When it comes to food oral processing, studies mainly analyzed the influence of pungency on aroma release and saliva flow as in the studies of Nasrawi and Pangborn [19] or one of the latest performed by Yang et al. [20]. ...
Pungency is an interesting sensory stimulus analyzed from different perspectives, in particular the underpinning mechanisms of its sensation and perception. In this study, grilled pork meat coated with three types of hot sauces were investigated regarding its main food oral processing characteristics and evaluated using time-intensity and temporal dominance of pungency sensations methods analyzing the pungency descriptors and intensities. Besides these methods, facial expressions obtained from video capturing were subject to emotion detection. Mastication parameters showed a slight, but not statistically significant, trend of an increased number of chews and consumption time associated with pungency intensity, while saliva incorporation indicated an increasing trend depending on the pungency intensity, especially after 25 strokes and before swallowing. Both time intensity and temporal dominance of pungency sensations showed that the complexity of understanding these sensations is in relation to intensity and type. Finally, the use of emotion detection software in analyzing the faces of panelists during mastication confirmed the increase in non-neutral emotions associated with the increase in pungency intensity.
... For example, Dierkes et al. reported that the bitterness and pungency of olive oil correlated with the content of six taste compounds, including oleuropein aglycon, which is a TRPV1 agonist [41,42]. In contrast, Schneider et al. showed that the pungency intensity of salsa does not necessarily correlate with the content of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, which are TRPV1 agonists [43], even though these compounds are reported as the main pungent components of salsa [44]. These reports suggested that quantifying individual pungent substances does not necessarily predict the pungency intensity of foods. ...
The quantitation of pungency is difficult to achieve using sensory tests because of persistence, accumulation, and desensitization to the perception of pungency. Transient receptor vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), which is a chemosensory receptor, plays a pivotal role in the perception of many pungent compounds, suggesting that the activity of this receptor might be useful as an index for pungency evaluation. Although Ca2+-sensitive fluorescence dyes are commonly used for measuring human TRPV1 (hTRPV1) activity, their application is limited, as foods often contain fluorescent substances that interfere with the fluorescent signals. This study aims to design a new pungency evaluation system using hTRPV1. Instead of employing a fluorescent probe as the Ca2+ indicator, this assay system uses the luminescent protein aequorin. The luminescence assay successfully evaluated the hTRPV1 activity in foods without purification, even for those containing fluorescent substances. The hTRPV1 activity in food samples correlated strongly with the pungency intensity obtained by the human sensory test. This luminescence-based hTRPV1 assay system will be a powerful tool for objectively quantifying the pungency of spicy foods in both laboratory and industrial settings.
... Moreover, increasing the fat level was known to reduce the perceived spiciness (Baron & Penfield, 1996). Blending specific ingredients like fat, starch and sugar in the food products also showed a significant impact on sensory rating and the total capsaicinoids concentration (Schneider, Seuß-Baum, & Schlich, 2014). Hence, other ingredients in the food should also be taken into account, because they were known to interact with capsaicin and flavour compounds. ...
Capsaicin is the main component in chilli pepper, which contributes to the spiciness of the food. However, the role of capsaicin on aroma perception has been controversial in the literature. This is the first study exploring the impact of capsaicin on aroma release and perception simultaneously. Flavoured solutions with 3-methylbutanal (nutty note) were made with or without 5 mg/L capsaicin. Real-time APCI-MS analysis was applied to investigate in-nose aroma release during and after consumption of the solutions, and sensory tests were simultaneously conducted to reveal any temporal perception changes over 60 s. The results from 15 participants with triplicates indicated that capsaicin had no significant impact on aroma concentration from aqueous solutions, but the aroma perception rating was significantly higher (p < 0.0001), increasing by 45%. Capsaicin also enhanced average saliva flow by 92% (p < 0.0001), and lower saliva flow participants were found to have lower spiciness and aroma ratings.
... The ratio for all aroma compounds was close to 1, so the release between the two systems was similar, and statistical tests showed no significant difference between capsaicin and the control samples for each compound (p > 0.05). Capsaicin is a very hydrophobic compound that might chemically interact with other aroma compounds or physically bind with other ingredients, such as starch (Schneider, Seuß-Baum, & Schlich, 2014) and fat (Nolden, Lenart, & Hayes, 2019). Our headspace results indicate that no measurable chemical or physical interactions occurred between the aroma compounds and capsaicin in the ice cube system. ...
Capsaicin is the main bioactive compound in chili pepper that leads to the perception of “spiciness”. However, the effect of capsaicin on aroma release in the nose remains unexplained. This is the first study designed to measure capsaicin’s impact on aroma release during consumption. In-vitro studies, using static headspace analysis by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-mass spectrometry (APCI-MS), showed no impact of capsaicin (5ppm) on the gas-liquid partitioning equilibria of a range of aroma compounds. However, a significant reduction in aroma release was observed in-vivo, during oral melting of a model ice cube system (p<0.05) included 5ppm capsaicin. The total release of aroma into the nasal cavity was decreased, such that only 49% of 3-methylbutanal, 60% of 1-octen-3-ol and 83% of linalool was released. This is the first evidence of capsaicin’s reduction effect on aroma release during consumption. It was also found that 5ppm capsaicin increased saliva secretion by 75%, which may have led to the dilution of aroma compounds in the mouth and directly impacted the aroma release into the nasal cavity. The most hydrophilic compound (3-methylbutanal) was affected by capsaicin to a greater extent than the hydrophobic compound (linalool), the solvent effect of the additional saliva may explain this.
... Vanillin is a relatively weak agonist for TRPV1, but also modulates TRPV3 and TRPA1 receptors [10], both of which are involved in oral chemesthesis [11]. Recent data suggests vanillin can decrease the perceived burn of capsaicin under some conditions [16,17]. However, vanillin has also been shown to moderate the taste perception of sweet solutions via more topdown, cognitive routes, in which perceptual experiences are driven by cognitive processes such as expectations and context, rather than by sensory input alone. ...
Vanillin may modulate perception of noxious oral stimuli via TRP receptor interactions; separately, vanillin has also been shown to have top-down influences on flavor perception. Here, we ask whether added vanillin decreases the perceived burn of ethanol either via peripheral or cognitive mechanisms. Participants rated the burn of ethanol with 0, 16, and 160 ppm vanillin. In studies 1 (n = 102) and 2 (n = 82), participants wore nose clips and rated the burn of 8% and 16% ethanol (study 1) or 32% and 48% ethanol (study 2). In study 3 (n = 65), participants were able to breathe freely and rated liking and perceptual qualities of 8% and 32% ethanol at each vanillin level. Vanillin showed no significant effect on ratings of burn or smoothness, but did increase perceived sweetness (p < .001) and liking (p = .004) in study 3. These data suggest vanillin does not modulate ethanol burn via TRP receptor mediated interactions, but may shift hedonic responses to ethanol via top-down processes.
... among others. Together, these are called capsaicinoids [13,14] and are responsible for the pungency of chilli pepper (the capsicum fruits) and their products [15,16]. Pungency is often expressed in Scoville Heat Units (SHUs) [17]. ...
The aim of this study was to make a sensory scientific and chemical characterization of flavor profiles of Zhenjiang aromatic vinegar (ZAV) from different grades, and to investigate their potential correlation for evaluating the effects of chemical components on sensory perception. The quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) was combined with temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) to assess the sensory properties of different grades of ZAV. The grades of ZAV were best differentiated by pungent ( p < .001), almond ( p < .001), burnt ( p < .001), sour ( p < .001), bitter ( p < .001), and salty perception ( p < .001). TDS showed ZAV of five grades differed in the combination of dominant sensory attributes. Both QDA and TDS differentiated the ZAV samples of different grades. Multiple factor analysis (MFA) of QDA, aroma, and physicochemical data showed these data set were well correlated, which contributed to the identification the chemical drivers of sensory attributes.
Practical Applications
Zhenjiang aromatic vinegar (ZAV) is a highly appreciated product all over the world due to its unique and pleasant flavor sensory properties. The combined use of QDA and TDS permitted the identification and quantitative description of flavor profiles for ZAV from different grades while providing additional information during the consumption of ZAV, which has proved to be more beneficial than each just on its own. In addition, the key flavor substances that influence the sensory attributes were found out by analyzing the variables correlations and product spaces though MFA, thus it is help to strengthen the flavor quality control in the ZAV products. Taken overall, this work provides a reference for the measurement of flavor profiles of ZAV related products and evaluation the internal chemical components affecting sensory attributes.
Hydroxy-α-sanshool (α-SOH) is the principal ingredient responsible for the numbing sensation in spicy hotpot. However, utilizing surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) to analyze the α-SOH in hotpot seasoning is challenging due to the significant interference of capsaicin (CAP). Therefore, two schemes were proposed to address CAP interference in hotpot seasoning, namely laccase-catalyzed conversion and metal-organic framework (MOF) interaction. Among them, Fe-BTC MOF exhibited significant anti-interference effect and the underlying mechanism is elucidated. The motion of CAP aromatic ring was constrained by steric hindrance and electrostatic interactions of Fe-BTC. Additionally, the interaction between CAP aromatic ring and conjugated triene group in α-SOH was quenched, enhancing the α-SOH SERS signal. The proposed method had a significant anti-interference effect on α-SOH quantification in the presence of CAP, significantly enhancing the α-SOH SERS signal in a range of 0.85 to 4.00 × 107. The linearity and reproducibility of the proposed hotpot seasoning testing method were also validated.
The pungency and flavor experience of peppers determines their economic benefits and consumption; thus, a systematic sensory evaluation of peppers is essential to monitor their production. Here the Scoville heat units (SHUs) of powders and oils of seven commercial peppers in China (i.e., Indian, Erjintiao, Shizhuhong, Zidantou, Xinyidai, Mantianxing and Denglong) were derived based on concentrations of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin. Then, the pungency and sensory profiles of pepper products were investigated by 11 trained panelists. The potential indicators for predicting perceived pungency in peppers were found based on correlation analysis. The Indian pepper stood out for its highest SHU (85909), bright redness, peppery, and bitterness, but lacked herb/woody flavor. But other species had more varied flavor profiles and gentler mouth-feelings. SHU and capsaicin were more recommended in predicting the perceived pungency in pepper powder and pepper oil. This study offers a framework for evaluating the sensory characteristics of pepper products.
Beef tallow (BT) is the common hotpot oil used in Sichuan hotpot, increasing its characteristic flavors and making it taste better. However, the cholesterol content in BT is high, which may induce cardiovascular diseases. In this study, the effect of palm stearin (PS) on Sichuan hotpot oil was evaluated. The PS: BT blends showed similar physicochemical properties to BT from the results of sensory evaluation, pulsed NMR, DSC, and polar light micrograph (PLM). Furthermore, since spiciness is the essential characteristic of Sichuan hotpot, the digestive properties of capsaicinoids in hotpot oil were used as an evaluation index. The results showed that the digestive properties of capsaicinoids in hotpot oil containing PS were consistent with those without PS. In conclusion, PS can be partially used to replace BT, which can broaden the types of oil used for hotpot and help develop a new hotpot oil.
The object of this study was to determine the perceived spiciness of cabbage kimchi according to different preparation methods (leaves, stem, pureed and chopped mixtures of both leaves and stems). Four types of kimchi were selected with different levels of spiciness and capsaicin contents were conducted using HPLC. The degree of perceived spiciness was evaluated on a 15-point universal scale using the Spectrum method. Time to reach maximum intensity (Tmax) was evaluated based on the time at which the maximum perceived spiciness was achieved for a period up to 30 s after the kimchi had been spat out. The spiciness and time intensity evaluations of kimchi were conducted separately. Measuring the capsaicinoid content of each part of cabbage revealed that the leaves had a higher capsaicinoid content than the stems. The participants recognized different degrees of spiciness depending on the part of the cabbage they tasted: Spiciness intensity of leaves was higher than intensity of stem in all Kimchi samples (p < .05). It was also found that the time to reach maximum intensity of spiciness lengthened as the capsaicinoid content of the kimchi increased, indicating that different part of the cabbage affected the participants' perception of its spiciness.
Practical Applications
Capsaicin is known for the spicy perception in kimchi. Analysis of spicy perception of kimchi, to this date, was solely dependent on instrumental analysis of capsaicin content in kimchi. This study found the difference in spiciness intensities according to the different presentation method of cabbage kimchi. Differences in perceived spiciness intensities were observed in different part of cabbage, and even between pureed and simple mix, in which composed with same ratio of leaves and stem. Finding from this study may provide the justification of using human sensory panel for rating spiciness intensity of kimchi instead of dependent on instrumental analysis of capsaicin for spiciness evaluation.
A cross-modal interaction may exist between the perception of saltiness and the pungency elicited by Sichuan pepper oleoresin (Spo). Thirty-one hypersensitive panelists were selected to participate in this study. Spo solutions dissolved in different NaCl concentrations, ranging from 1.25 g/L to 167.9 g/L, were used as the test samples. The rated difference from control, the generalized labeled magnitude scale (gLMS), and the time-intensity (TI) method were used to determine the detection threshold (DT), the recognition threshold (RT), the intensity, and the dynamic perception of pungent sensation. The results revealed that the pungency thresholds increased significantly (p < 0.01) in the solution with a high NaCl (167.9 g/L) concentration. Furthermore, high NaCl solutions suppressed the pungency intensity at all Spo concentrations except for 0.02 g Spo/L in water (p < 0.05). The TI and principal component analysis (PCA) results showed that an increase in the Spo concentration prolonged the duration of the pungency sensation. However, the maximum intensity, the time to reach maximum intensity, the decay time of perception, and the end time of perception of the Spo solutions ranging from 2.13 g/L to 4.69 g/L were significantly reduced at medium (42.95 g/L) and high NaCl concentrations. Since the salty and pungency sensations exhibited by NaCl and Spo are common flavor combinations in food products and dishes, studying the influence of saltiness on the dynamic perception of pungent sensation not only aids the development of oral cleaners during pungency evaluation but also presents significant theoretical and practical value in creating pungent food and cuisine based on consumer preferences.
The concept of food matrix has received much attention lately in reference to its effects on food processing, nutrition and health. However, the term matrix is used vaguely by food and nutrition scientists, often as synonymous of the food itself or its microstructure. This review analyses the concept of food matrix and proposes a classification for the major types of matrices found in foods. The food matrix may be viewed as a physical domain that contains and/or interacts with specific constituents of a food (e.g., a nutrient) providing functionalities and behaviors which are different from those exhibited by the components in isolation or a free state. The effect of the food matrix (FM-effect) is discussed in reference to food processing, oral processing and flavor perception, satiation and satiety, and digestion in the gastrointestinal tract. The FM-effect has also implications in nutrition, food allergies and food intolerances, and in the quality and relevance of results of analytical techniques. The role of the food matrix in the design of healthy foods is also discussed.
Time-dependent measures have made an important contribution to understand taste and flavour perception. This chapter reviews the way in which time-dependent approaches have been applied to investigate the more fundamental aspects of taste, trigeminal, aroma and texture perception, and the interactions between them. By comparison, the use of time-dependent measures to consider the volatile components of flavour perception has become very widespread and, although in many instances this is product specific, such studies, have increased understanding of flavour perception. The use of time-dependent methods has often been applied to products where the texture has been systematically changed but the techniques are used to follow the subsequent effects on taste or aroma perception. When time-dependent techniques were originally developed, sensory attributes tended to be considered in isolation, at best within a sense. However, it is now accepted that perception is multimodal.
In the present study, the pungency detection thresholds for capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin in aqueous solutions containing an emulsifier (polysorbate 80) were determined and compared. Thresholds were measured for 21 students (12 chili "users" and 9 "non users") using a 3-Alternative Forced Choice sensory test with ascending concentrations of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin (0.025, 0.045, 0.090, 0.180 and 0.360 ppm, respectively). In addition, the panelists were asked where the irritation occurred (throat, tongue or both). The group Best Estimate Thresholds were 0.080 and 0.049 ppm for capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, respectively and differed significantly. Chili "users" and "non users" did not differ significantly in their perception of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, suggesting that no desensitization effects occur. In accordance with previous studies, in most cases the first irritation was experienced in the throat.
Intense oral irritation, lasting 10 min or more, was induced by rinses with I or 2 ppm capsaicin or with 100 ppm piperine.
Subjects judged the perceived irritation after these treatments while periodically rinsing their mouths with solutions of
one of four tastants (quinine, sucrose, NaC1, or citric acid), with water, or with nothing (a “no-tastant” condition). The
decay of perceived irritation over time was linear for piperine and exponential for capsaicin. The decline in irritation was
fastest during trials with citric acid and with sucrose (but more so for sucrose in the capsaicin trials), intermediate for
NaC1 and water, and slowest for quinine and the no-tastant condition. Perceived irritation was generally lower while tastant
solutions were held in the mouth (relative to irritation rated before sipping them or after expectoration), suggesting an
inhibitory effect of oral cooling.
Absolute threshold and just noticeable difference (JND) were determined for the perception of pungency using chili pepper in aqueous solutions. Absolute threshold and JND were determined using 2 alternative forced‐choice sensory tests tests. High‐performance liquid chromatography technique was used to determine capsaicinoids concentration in samples used for sensory analysis. Sensory absolute threshold was 0.050 mg capsaicinoids/kg sample. Five JND values were determined using 5 reference solutions with different capsaicinoids concentration. JND values changed proportionally as capsaicinoids concentration of the reference sample solutions changed. Weber fraction remained stable for the first 4 reference capsaicinoid solutions (0.05, 0.11, 0.13, and 0.17 mg/kg) but changed when the most concentrated reference capsaicinoids solution was used (0.23 mg/kg). Quantification limit for instrumental analysis was 1.512 mg/kg capsaicinoids. Sensory methods employed in this study proved to be more sensitive than instrumental methods.
Practical Application: A better understanding of the process involved in the sensory perception of pungency is currently required because “hot” foods are becoming more popular in western cuisine. Absolute thresholds and differential thresholds are useful tools in the formulation and development of new food products. These parameters may help in defining how much chili pepper is required in a formulated product to ensure a perceptible level of pungency, as well as in deciding how much more chili pepper is required in a product to produce a perceptible increase in its pungency.
The oral chemical irritant, capsaicin, at 2, 4 and 8 p.p.m., was combined in mixtures with sucrose (Experiment 1), sodium chloride (Experiment 2) and soup (Experiment 3), each evaluated at two temperatures. These mixtures were rated for their sweetness and/or saltiness, intensity of burning sensation and total mixture intensity. In both solution and soup, sweetness was suppressed, whereas saltiness showed only minor suppression in low NaCl, high capsaicin mixtures. The burning sensation produced by capsaicin was uninfluenced by sucrose, while NaCl increased the burning sensation. Total mixture intensity was entirely determined by capsaicin concentration in mixtures with sucrose, although NaCl contributed in NaCl/capsaicin mixtures. Varying temperature influenced the burning sensation and total intensity of sucrose/capsaicin mixtures, but did not modulate the effects of capsaicin on taste. Explanations of taste suppression in terms of cognitive and structural models are examined. The differential effect of capsaicin on sweetness and saltiness is also considered in terms of the irritant properties of NaCl.
Two simple and rapid methods were developed to monitor pungency of salsa in production. Capsaicin (C) and dihydrocapsaicin (DHC) were quantitated in 17 commercially available tomato-based salsas by enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and liquid chromatography (LC) with fluorescent detection. Samples were extracted with methanol and the extracts were subjected to solid-phase extraction (SPE) using polystyrene-divinylbenzene columns. Analysis of SPE eluates showed good correlation (r2 = 0.953) between LC and EIA, with a slightly high bias for EIA. Salsa fortified with C and DHC from 0.118 to 103.2 microg/g resulted in recoveries of 90-112% (C) and 76-97% (DHC). Limits of detection by LC were 0.1 microg/g for each capsaicinoid and 0.1 microg/g by EIA for total capsaicinoids. The LC on-column response was linear from 0.2 to 100 ng for both C and DHC, whereas the working range for EIA was 0.1-2.0 ppm. Pungency varied between different salsa brands labeled mild, medium, and hot.
A simple, highly selective, sensitive, and reproducible liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization/time-of-flight mass spectrometry method has been developed for the direct and simultaneous determination of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin in Capsicum fruit extracts. Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin are the two major members of the so-called capsaicinoid family, which includes other minor analogues, and usually account for at least 90% of the pungency trait in Capsicum fruits. Chromatographic separation of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin was achieved with a reversed-phase chromatography column, using a gradient of methanol and water. Quantification was done using as an internal standard (4,5-dimethoxybenzyl)-4-methyloctamide, a synthetic capsaicin analogue not found in nature. Analytes were base-peak resolved in less than 16 min, and limits of detection were 20 pmol for capsaicin and 4 pmol for dihydrocapsaicin. The intraday repeatability values were lower than 0.5 and 12% for retention time and peak area, respectively, whereas the interday repeatability values were lower than 0.6 and 14% for retention time and peak area, respectively. Analyte recoveries found were 86 and 93% for capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, respectively. The method developed has been applied to the identification and quantification of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin in fruit extracts from different Capsicum genotypes, and concentrations found ranged from 2 to 6639 mg kg(-1).
The present study using the 3-Alternative Forced Choice method showed significant different thresholds for capsaicin in aqueous and oil based solutions. The threshold for capsaicin in oil is about the factor ten higher than the threshold in water.
Temporal aspects and interaction effect of pungency evoked by capsaicin/chili and leading flavour attributes in model food matrices were studied. Two experiments were performed: in experiment I pure capsaicin at three levels (0.5, 25, 125ppm) was added to various carriers (water solution, potato starch gruel and tomato soup and sauce) and in experiment II chili powder was used as irritant (0.03%, 0.08%, 0.2%) in six different model food matrices (tomato, chicken and mushroom soups and sauces). Intensity changes of pungency and 2–3 leading flavour/taste attributes were traced using Time–Intensity procedure at pre-determined discrete time intervals. Most of T–I parameters of capsaicin pungency depended strongly on both, carrier complexity and capsaicin concentration. The three pairs of model soups and sauces suppressed pungency evoked by chili differently. Pungency intensity was consistently lower in sauces than in soups. Increasing chili level caused systematic but moderate or slight suppression of leading flavour attributes (more often in soups and less in sauces). Various taste quality (acidic, bitterness and saltiness) were differently affected by pungency. Quality changes and temporal migration of pungency sensation in the mouth contributed additionally to the complexity of interaction between pungency/leading flavour and taste attributes/carriers.
Time–intensity (TI) is an increasingly used sensory method, however, no proper guidelines for training panellists with TI seem to have been set up, hence comparison of results from different TI studies is difficult. In this paper a three steps approach is proposed: (1) introduction to the method; (2) training for the TI task through a simple product assessment: basic taste beverages; (3) running a TI pilot experiment. The loadings from a principal components analysis (PCA) on TI data have proved to be useful in assessing panel agreement and providing information about individual differences. Pilot profiling proved useful for choosing the attributes to be used in the TI study. This minimises the chance of performing a TI study with irrelevant attributes. It is concluded that, following the steps in this study, most panellists are able to learn to perform a TI task reliably.
Capsaicin burn was induced by a one percent solution of Tabasco TM sauce in spring water. Four foods, rice, water, butter, and pineapple juice, warmed to 35°C, were used to reduce the burn. A no food treatment was used as a control. Subjects recorded perceived burn intensity by placing slash marks on line scales at set time intervals throughout the tests. Burn was significantly reduced while the foods were in the mouth but increased after the foods were expectorated. The decreased burn may be due to the very presence of a food in the mouth.
In a study of pungency in food systems, three carriers (water, cheese sauce, starch paste) with varying fat levels (none, low, medium, high), synthetic capsaicin concentrations (0.0, 0.4, 0.8, 1.3 ppm), and serving temperatures (25 and 38C) were formulated. Panelists evaluated sensory heat intensity over a 3-min interval. Time-intensity parameters (maximum intensity-MAX, time to maximum intensity-TMAX, and rate of release-RATE) were evaluated. Overall, intensity scores increased as capsaicin concentration increased. The increase was related to carrier and fat level. Water samples (0.4, 0.8, and 1.3 ppm) were perceived as more intense than cheese or starch samples at the same capsaicin level. Generally, increasing the fat level resulted in lower intensity scores. Warming samples increased RATE, the only parameter affected by temperature. The training method was effective when water was the carrier. However, physical or chemical interactions that occur in simple food systems may influence perceived pungency.
In this research the major pungent components of chilli peppers, namely capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin and nordihydrocapsaicin, were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. Chilli pepper varieties Maraş, Süs, Cin and Isot were collected from different regions (Maraş and Urfa) of Turkey. Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin and nordihydrocapsaicin contents of Maraş peppers were 0.81–1.42, 0.38–0.70 and 0.01–0.04 mg g−1 respectively. Total capsaicinoid contents of Süs, Cin and Isot peppers were 2.11, 4.70 and 0.55 mg g−1 respectively, while total capsaicinoid contents of their seeds were 0.63, 1.70 and 1.60 mg g−1 respectively. All the peppers in this study belong to the family Solanaceae, genus Capsicum and species annuum or frutescens. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry
Thresholds and responses to capsaicin in oil- and water-based model systems were compared. Thresholds were measured among 23 individuals using an ascending forced choice method of limits. Detection thresholds were 11.75 (± 1.31) mg/L in oil and 0.31 (± 0.03) mg/L in water. A horizontal labeled magnitude scale was used to obtain suprathreshold scaling functions in corn and soybean oils and in water systems using an emulsifier (polysorbate) or alcohol to solvate the capsaicin. In the water-based systems, capsaicin ranged from weak to very strong ratings over a range of 0.3 to 10 mg/L while the same perceptual range was achieved in oil over a range of 10 to 316 mg/L. Nonconsumers of hot/spicy foods generally had higher thresholds and higher suprathreshold responses in oil systems. Differences between user groups were less pronounced in water-based stimuli.
ABSTRACTA method is described for determining the pungency, due to capsaicinoids, in raw spices, extracts, food and pharmaceutical products by means of GLC. Pure samples of the individual capsaicinoids were prepared and their pungencies determined by ASTA method 21.0 (Scoville Heat Test). The threshold pungency values for these materials are presented. The pure capsaicinoids were used to quantitate the GLC method and identify capsaicinoids found in natural materials. Details concerning sample preparation and silylation are discussed for various types of samples. By combining the concentration and threshold pungency of the individual capsaicinoids, the Scoville pungency of the material can be determined. Comparative data for pungency determined organolyptically and by GLC on samples ranging from 50,000–2,000,000 Scoville gave a correlation coefficient of 0.95 for raw data over a 1-yr period.
Heat intensity and warmed-over flavor (WOF) were evaluated to determine the effects the composition of precooked, chopped, and formed chicken patties would impart on the perception of red pepper heat and the development of oxidation. Patties were formulated at 5%, 7%, and 9% fat with marinade formulated at 0%, 0.2%, and 0.4% pepper. A trained sensory panel assessed the heat intensity over 3 min using time intensity evaluation. Heat and WOF intensities of the patties were measured 5 times over a 9-wk storage period. As fat level increased, total time intensity and time to maximum heat intensity increased. Patties formulated at 7% and 9% fat were perceived to be more intense in heat than the 5% fat patties. Patties formulated at 0.2% and 0.4% pepper had less intense WOF than patties with 0% pepper level. Chemical measurement of oxidation (thiobarbituric acid numbers) indicated that increasing pepper content decreased malonaldehyde content. Incorporation of pepper into a chopped and formed meat product requires a higher pepper content at lower fat levels to impart the same level of heat intensity as in patties of higher fat level. Increasing the pepper content also will aid in decreasing production of malonaldehyde in a precooked meat product, thereby reducing the intensity of warmed-over flavor as perceived by the consumer.
Perceived heat intensity in cheese sauces with five capsaicin levels, three fat levels and four fat mimetics was studied with time intensity techniques. Heat intensity was not related to fat mimetic. No differences occurred among fat levels at 0.0 and 0.4 ppm capsaicin. At 0.8 ppm capsaicin, maximum and total heat intensities of reduced- and low-fat sauces were equal; both were lower in full-fat sauces (P<0.001). Low-fat sauces exhibited greater maximum heat and total intensity than full-fat at 1.2 ppm capsaicin. At 1.6 ppm capsaicin, low-fat sauces had greater total intensity than either reduced-or full-fat (P<0.05) sauces. At low-fat levels, lower capsaicin concentrations provided heat equal to higher concentrations in full-fat cheese sauces.
Heat-processed and fresh salsa formulations were developed with different levels of honey (up to 10%), acid, and capsaicin. Descriptive sensory characteristics and consumer acceptability of the salsas were studied. Increasing levels of honey increased sweetness and crispness of both salsas. Higher levels of honey decreased oral heat intensity more than did lower levels. Consumers liked heat-processed salsa better than fresh and acceptability generally decreased with increasing honey content. However, about one-third of consumers liked salsas with honey more than samples without honey.
This article reports the development of a rapid and reproducible method of HPLC with fluorescence detection for the determination and quantification of the main capsaicinoids (nordihydrocapsaicin, capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin and homodihydro-capsaicin) present in hot peppers by employing a monolithic column. The type of column employed is a RP-18e (100 mm × 4.6 mm) monolithic column. A gradient method was utilised for the chromatographic separation: solvent A: water (0.1% acetic acid) and solvent B: methanol (0.1% acetic acid). A study was also made of the robustness of the method in respect of the conditions of temperature in the separation column (15–40 °C), the solvent flowrate (4–7 mL min−1), the injection volume (10–50 μL), and the percentage of methanol in the sample (25–100%). The repeatability and reproducibility of the method showed relative standard deviations of less than 2%. The robustness of the method was determined by utilising different injection volumes and different percentages of methanol in the extracts. The method developed has then been utilised for the quantification of the major capsaicinoids present in different varieties of hot peppers grown in Spain. The capsaicinoids have been separated in a time of less than 8 min.
A simple method for the analysis of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin in peppers and pepper sauces by solid phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry has been developed. A novel device was designed for direct extraction solid phase microextraction in order to avoid damage to the fiber. The analysis was performed without derivatization for the gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. Selection fiber, extraction temperature, extraction time and pH, were optimized. The method was linear in the range 0.109-1.323 microg/mL for capsaicin and 0.107-1.713 microg/mL for dihydrocapsaicin with correlation coefficient up to r=0.9970 for both capsaicinoids. The precision of the method was less than 10%. The method was applied to the analysis of 11 varieties of peppers and four pepper sauces. A broad range of capsaicin (55.0-25 459 microg/g) and dihydrocapsaicin (93-1 130 microg/g) was found in the pepper and pepper sauces samples (4.3-717.3 and 1.0-134.8 microg/g), respectively.
Oral rinsing with different solutions significantly reduced mouth-burn of capsaicin solutions in both eaters and noneaters of chili peppers. Cold solutions (5 degrees C) were more effective in reduction of mouth-burn than solutions at 20 degrees C. Sucrose solutions (10%) at 20 degrees C and whole milk at 5 degrees C were equally effective while 5% ethanol was no more effective in mouth-burn reduction than water at 20 degrees C. Reduction of mouth-burn by sucrose was not dose dependent. Noneaters of chili peppers experienced a slightly greater reduction of mouth-burn from sucrose solutions than eaters. Oral rinsing with sweetened milk containing 0 and 10% fat, of varying globule size, resulted in similar degree of mouth-burn reduction. The first (control) sample was rated higher in intensity than subsequent ones, suggesting desensitization, which appears to be due to the interaction of stimulation of chemo-, mechano-, thermo- and gustatory receptors.
The studies reported here addressed the question of whether the pungent principle in chilies, capsaicin, suppresses taste and flavor intensity. Over a period of several minutes, groups of frequent and infrequent eaters of chili repeatedly rated the taste and flavor intensities of sweet and sour solutions that also contained either orange or vanilla flavor, and capsaicin at 0, 2, 4, and 16 ppm. As well as the intensity of the qualities while in the mouth, measures of the number of rating periods for the intensity to dissipate to zero, and the summed total intensity were also derived. Infrequent chili users rated the capsaicin burn as more intense than did the frequent users. With few exceptions, and for groups, sweetness was suppressed by the presence of capsaicin. By contrast, sourness was unaffected by capsaicin. Flavor intensities also showed suppression by capsaicin. High correlations between ratings of sweetness and flavor were found, suggesting that perceptual confusion between the two qualities may have been responsible for the flavor suppression. A second experiment examined the effects of capsaicin on ratings of strawberry flavor alone. This study produced little evidence of flavor suppression by capsaicin. These results are discussed in terms of an attentional model of capsaicin's effects.
The capsaicinoid content in fruits of Capsicum annuum decreased within several days to a level of only 10% of the starting value when cells were disrupted by homogenization. This decrease was not observed in fruits that were carefully cut into halves. The analysis of one half made it possible to determine the reference content at time zero for the second half. A much lower decrease was observed when minced fruits were stored under nitrogen, whereas storage under oxygen resulted in considerable losses of capsaicinoids, indicating oxidative processes as a cause for the decrease of capsaicinoid content.
A method has been developed for the extraction of capsaicinoids from peppers by pressurized liquid extraction (PLE); these compounds are determined by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), with detection by fluorescence spectrophotometry and mass spectrometry (MS). The stability of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin has been studied at different temperatures (50-200 degrees C), and several extraction variables have been assayed: solvent (methanol, ethanol, and water), different percentages of water in the methanol (0-20%) and in the ethanol (0-20%), and the number of extraction cycles. The study has evaluated the repeatability (RSD < 7%) and the reproducibility (RSD < 7%) of the method. Finally, the PLE method developed has been applied to quantify the capsaicinoids present in three varieties of hot peppers cultivated in Spain, quantifying five capsaicinoids: nordihydrocapsaicin, capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, an isomer of dihydrocapsaicin, and homodihydrocapsaicin.
An HPLC method has been developed for the analysis of extracts of fresh peppers containing capsaicinoids and of both capsaicinoids and piperines in pepper-containing foods produced and sold in Korea. The HPLC method was optimized by defining how composition of the mobile phase affected retention times. Both identification and quantification were based on retention times and the following criteria: linearity of the UV response at 280 nm in HPLC, recoveries from spiked samples, and observed individual molecular ions in the mass spectra of the extracts determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. This method, with a limit of detection of approximately 15-30 ng, was used to quantify the distribution of capsaicinoids in 11 Korean whole peppers and in 12 commercial pepper-containing foods. Total capsaicinoid levels of whole peppers ranged from 1.21 microg/g for the PR Gang ja variety to 121.1 microg/g for the Chung yang variety. The levels in food extracts, four of which also included two piperines, ranged from 11.0 microg/g for radish kimuchi to 3752 microg/g for capsaicin sauce. The results demonstrate (a) the usefulness of the HPLC method for the simultaneous analysis of capsaicinoids derived from red peppers and piperines derived from black and white peppers extracted from complex food matrices and (b) the wide-ranging spread of levels of pungent pepper compounds in fresh peppers and in pepper-containing foods consumed in Korea.
Determination of pungency due to capsicum by gas-liquid chromatography
- P H Todd
- M G Besinger
- T Biftu
Todd, P. H., Besinger, M. G., & Biftu, T. (1977). Determination of pungency due to
capsicum by gas-liquid chromatography. Journal of Food Science, 42(3),
660-664.