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A relationship marketing catalyst: The salience of reciprocity to sport organization-sport consumer relationships
Abstract
One essential and increasingly emphasized area for sport managers to consider is relationship marketing (RM), with particular reference to relationship quality (RQ). Relationship quality is the overall assessment of relational strength and it is important to the study of RM because it provides a lens to view wide-ranging relational constructs and more precisely distinguish sport RM efforts. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the impact of the RQ construct of reciprocity on the outcome of attendance intention through the established relational mediators of trust and commitment. Several hypotheses were generated. Specifically, reciprocity will positively impact trust, commitment, and attendance intentions. Additionally, both trust and commitment were hypothesized to positively impact attendance intentions. Participants were 423 NCAA Division 1 student-subjects. Through CFA and bootstrap confidence interval (CI) the research hypotheses concerning the direct and mediated effects of reciprocity on sport consumer attendance intentions were supported.
... A critical analysis of the identified articles offers valuable insight from the sport management scholarship's perspective, body of knowledge, focus, context, research setting, and unit of analysis of the RM research: (a) In terms of perspective, although few of the articles (e.g., Shani, 1997;Stavros, Pope, & Winzar, 2008) view RM as a holistic managerial approach or strategic approach, a few (e.g., Achen, 2014;Jowdy & McDonald, 2003) presented RM as being tactical in its nature; (b) In terms of body of knowledge, these articles include empirical, conceptual, and case/industry specific studies; (c) In terms of focus, the literature concentrates on two streams of research (i.e., defining the construct and the industry application of RM [see Das, 2009]); (d) In terms of context, a significant majority of the articles focused on businessto-consumer relationships, and two studies conducted their research in the context of B-2-B markets (i.e., Cousens, Babiak, & Slack, 2000;Farrelly & Quester, 2003); (e) In terms of research setting, the majority of these studies were conducted in the context of professional sports, whereas a few others focused on college sports (e.g., Magnusen, Kim, & Kim, 2012;Wang et al., 2012) and not-for-profit sport organizations (i.e., Girginov et al., 2009;Tower et al., 2006); and (f) In terms of unit of analysis, a relatively equal number of studies conducted their investigations from the perspective of consumer behavior and organizational perspective. ...
... In effect, the articles examined show a deep variation in the application of RM and views of its definition. For instance, Kim, Trail, and Ko (2011);Kim, Trail, Woo, and Zhang (2011);and Magnusen et al. (2012) report that relationship quality is the overall assessment of relational strength and argue that it is important to the study of RM in sport because it provides a lens to a wide ranging, Anglo-Australian view of the relational constructs and their impact on sport organizations. Practically, their results provide a useful mechanism for more clearly operationalizing RM and measuring its influence on organizational performance (Magnusen et al., 2012). ...
... For instance, Kim, Trail, and Ko (2011);Kim, Trail, Woo, and Zhang (2011);and Magnusen et al. (2012) report that relationship quality is the overall assessment of relational strength and argue that it is important to the study of RM in sport because it provides a lens to a wide ranging, Anglo-Australian view of the relational constructs and their impact on sport organizations. Practically, their results provide a useful mechanism for more clearly operationalizing RM and measuring its influence on organizational performance (Magnusen et al., 2012). The work by Harris and Ogbonna (2008) is Organization-focused empirical study interviewed managers of sport clubs from the four major leagues in North America. ...
Relational perspectives have influenced marketing theory and practice over the past 40 years, with a volume of relationship marketing (RM) research accumulating over this time. In sport management specifically, a number of RM research articles have been published since the late 1990s. Although an influx has been seen, a review of said literature informs us that RM is a diverse field with no single best explanation, no clear domain and scope, and no universally accepted definition and that, most particularly, the literature is a melting pot of various concepts. This circumstance creates frustration and confusion among new researchers. Additionally, as strategic communication strategies rely on clear and consistent messaging, it is pivotal to holistically address the issue. Therefore, adopting an integrative literature review approach, this commentary revisits the RM scholarship to present, brings attention to the complex nature of the RM literature, and identifies a point of departure for researchers attempting to find a fitting “home” for their research.
... The lack of differential advantage has given rise to alternative viewpoints as to how sport organisations can remain competitive, better secure revenue streams and sufficiently meet consumer demands. One such viewpoint is the customer-oriented paradigm (Gladden and Sutton, 2009;Magnusen et al., 2012). ...
... Indeed, sport fans who receive financial incentives, various tangible rewards and special treatment in loyalty programs from their favourite sport teams have been found to pay more on cross-and up-buying and spend more on teams offering such benefits (Yoshida and Gordon, 2012). Researchers also agree that a consumer's perception of relationship-building efforts often creates motivations for reciprocation that can strengthen the relationship and thus positively influence product and service usage such as repeatedly purchasing licensed team merchandise and attending games regularly (Bolton et al., 2004;Magnusen et al., 2012). ...
... Successful relationship-building efforts induce high levels of behavioural contributions from a sport consumer as well as intense psychological commitment to the sport organisation (James et al., 2002;Magnusen et al., 2012). Commitment can be either affective or behavioural. ...
... The lack of differential advantage has given rise to alternative viewpoints as to how sport organisations can remain competitive, better secure revenue streams and sufficiently meet consumer demands. One such viewpoint is the customer-oriented paradigm (Gladden and Sutton, 2009;Magnusen et al., 2012). ...
... Indeed, sport fans who receive financial incentives, various tangible rewards and special treatment in loyalty programs from their favourite sport teams have been found to pay more on cross-and up-buying and spend more on teams offering such benefits (Yoshida and Gordon, 2012). Researchers also agree that a consumer's perception of relationship-building efforts often creates motivations for reciprocation that can strengthen the relationship and thus positively influence product and service usage such as repeatedly purchasing licensed team merchandise and attending games regularly (Bolton et al., 2004;Magnusen et al., 2012). ...
... Successful relationship-building efforts induce high levels of behavioural contributions from a sport consumer as well as intense psychological commitment to the sport organisation (James et al., 2002;Magnusen et al., 2012). Commitment can be either affective or behavioural. ...
... A relationship, commonly described as the formation of 'bonds' between an organisation and customers (Berry, 1995;Liljander & Strandvik, 1995;Storbacka, Strandvik, & Grönroos, 1994), refers to the psychological connection that a customer has with an organisation. RQ can be used to represent this bond through the perceived value created from interactions between the organisation and the customers (Magnusen, Kim, & Kim, 2012). Both customers and organisations play roles in building the relationships (Huntley, 2006). ...
... Reciprocity is defined as a moral norm driven by a sense of indebtedness, meaning one should return goods that are equivalent in value to those received. Reciprocating is a psychological mechanism that enhances feelings of pleasure and enjoyment in relational exchanges based on an organisation's service (Magnusen et al., 2012), and refers here specifically to the degree of mutual exchanges between sport consumers and teams (Magnusen et al., 2012). From an organisational perspective, reciprocity fuels customers' expectations that good will prevail, while it mitigates negative emotions (Pervan, Bove, & Johnson, 2009). ...
... Reciprocity is defined as a moral norm driven by a sense of indebtedness, meaning one should return goods that are equivalent in value to those received. Reciprocating is a psychological mechanism that enhances feelings of pleasure and enjoyment in relational exchanges based on an organisation's service (Magnusen et al., 2012), and refers here specifically to the degree of mutual exchanges between sport consumers and teams (Magnusen et al., 2012). From an organisational perspective, reciprocity fuels customers' expectations that good will prevail, while it mitigates negative emotions (Pervan, Bove, & Johnson, 2009). ...
Research question
Long-term relationships between customers and organisations can benefit both parties. The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of service-related actions provided by a professional sport team on relationship quality (RQ). The current study is aimed at answering two research questions: (1) ‘what are antecedents of RQ?’ and (2) ‘how do the composition and quality of services provided by sports organisations impact customer perceptions of the quality of their relationship?’
Research methods
Over 3300 season ticket holders (STH) of a professional Australian Football team were surveyed. The predictive ability of the antecedents and RQ was examined by testing the direct relationship between RQ and STH behavioural intentions, including intentions of remaining a STH and referral intention.
Results and findings
Four key service and performance-related antecedents (service quality, communication, administration and on-field performance) had a positive influence on RQ. RQ was a significant predictor of intentions to remain a STH and referral intention.
Implications
This study contributes to sport management literature by highlighting the importance of developing high-quality relationships. Areas team management can directly control, such as good administration and communications efforts, improve perceptions of the relationship between STH and team, providing a potential buffer against unpredictable on-field outcomes that are a feature of professional sport. Our findings should encourage sport managers to use strategic service-related actions within their operations to positively influence the deep and long-lasting relationships between STH and a sports team.
... The majority (70.5%) of the SRM studies are conducted in the context of professional sports. A few studies (16%) focused on college sports (e.g., Magnusen et al., 2012;Wang et al., 2012), and a nearly equal number of studies (13.5%) were conducted in the context of not-for-profit and niche sport (e.g., Girginov et al., 2009;Tower et al., 2006). The SRM studies are equally divided into those conducted from the perspective of consumers and those conducted from an organizational perspective. ...
... In a series of publications, Kim and his colleagues Kim, Trail, & Ko, 2011;Magnusen et al., 2012) attempted to define the constructs of SRM, specifically relationship quality. These studies were based on the tenet that nurturing relationships of a high quality between businesses and customers is a key determinant for converting SRM efforts into desirable business outcomes. ...
... Was the season ticket holder satisfied with their experience (a measure of satisfaction; e.g., Harris & Ogbonna, 2008;? Does a season ticket holder have devotion to the club (as a measure of commitment; e.g., Magnusen et al., 2012)? Does a season ticketholder believe that her/his club pays attention to what she/ he gets relative to what she/he gives to the club (as a measure of interdependence; e.g., Magnusen et al., 2012)? ...
Adopting an integrative literature review approach, this study synthesized sport relationship marketing (SRM) articles to gain insight into how relationship marketing in sport-related studies is presently understood, interpreted, and utilized. Informed by two decades of SRM literature, we synthesized our findings into a conceptual model that presents the systematic dimensions of SRM. This model transforms the theoretical contributions of the field’s scholars into actionable insights for both scholars and practitioners’ use. The work concludes by identifying specific future research to test and refine the proposed SRM model.
... This observation led Wu et al. (2012, p. 180) to suggest that 'the extent to which fans trust the team or the player influences their willingness to attend the games.' In general, research on the sports sector has connected trust with loyalty (Tsiotsou, 2013), team identification (Wu et al., 2012), and intentions to attend a sporting event Magnusen et al., 2012). For example, Filo et al.'s (2008) analysis of how brand trust impacts the relationship between distinct brand associations and brand loyalty in the sports and fitness industry led them to conclude that brand loyalty will not develop until brand trust is in place. ...
... Lu et al., 2016;Walsh et al., 2010) and has been investigated in sports-focused relationship quality literature (e.g. Lee et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2012), studies of the link between trust and intentions to attend sport events have produced contrasting results. For example, Magnusen et al. (2012) found a direct link between trust and attendance intentions, whereas did not find such a relationship. The present study focused on fans' intentions to attend their favorite local football team's games. ...
Research Question
Although team sports, particularly football, are extremely popular in sub-Saharan Africa, numerous major investments in the region’s sports infrastructure have failed, often because of sub-optimal requirements planning and low spectator demand. In light of FIFA’s recently announced aim to considerably invest into football stadia in Africa and in response to the lack of research into spectator demand in emerging countries, the present study assessed the impact facility-related factors on stadium attendance intentions in sub-Saharan Africa.
Research Method
Football fans in Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa, and Zimbabwe (N = 1,005) completed a questionnaire on facility-related factors that might affect their intentions to attend games. Structural equation modeling of the resulting data indicated which factors impact spectator behaviors.
Results and Findings: Not all the factors with the greatest impact on spectator behaviors in the four countries studied are the same as those identified in developed economies. In addition, each country’s specific characteristics appear to influence the extent to which different variables impact intentions to attend games through satisfaction with the stadium, satisfaction with the team, and trust in the team.
Implications
The study provides a better comprehension of facility-related variables and their effects on spectator demand in sub-Saharan Africa, a region which has seen very little investigation, despite the popularity of sports in this part of the world. In addition, the study is one of among a few that analyses the relevance of trust for purchase intentions in a sports setting.
... Although the link between trust and intention is well established in the literature (e.g., Doney & Cannon, 1997), the link between trust and attendance intentions in a sporting event is not well researched and the extant results are inconsistent. For example, although Magnusen et al. (2012) find that trust has a direct link to attendance intentions, Kim et al. (2011) find this relationship to be insignificant. The latter researchers explain that this might be because of the lack of alternatives in the college football context in which the study was conducted. ...
... Thus, the results suggest that the direct impact of satisfaction on sports attendance is influenced by the degree of corruption prevalent in a region. In general, trust proved to be an important driver of spectators' intentions to attend a football game, which is in line with previous research (e.g., Magnusen et al., 2012). However, trust does not seem to affect attendance in high-corruption countries. ...
Although the world of sports has witnessed numerous corruption scandals, the effects of perceived corruption in sports have not been sufficiently investigated in the literature. The aim of this paper is to examine how sports team identification weakens people’s perceptions of corruption in sports, and how it dampens corruption’s negative effects on spectator behavior. The study also examines how prevalent social norms regarding corruption in a country strengthen or weaken these effects. A survey of 1,005 sports spectators from four Sub-Saharan African countries reveals how the interplay between team identification and perceived corruption can encourage or discourage sports attendance under different conditions. Corruption is investigated through the theoretical lenses of the pluralistic nature of morality. Findings indicate that particularistic values linked to moral obligations toward the team collide with the universalistic values that demand fairness in sports. In addition, social norms of corruption moderate the clash between universalistic and particularistic values.
... Based on the commitment-trust theory (Morgan & Hunt, 1994), scholars in sport marketing have found that trust and commitment play mediating roles between reciprocity and sport consumer attendance intentions (e.g. Magnusen et al., 2012). If sport consumers perceive trust and commitment, these two variables would likely influence how those consumers interpret reciprocal exchange relationships, as well as significantly influence their future attendance intentions (Magnusen et al.). ...
... Based on these findings, the current study extends the previous understanding of sport consumer intentions, which has focused primarily on the mediating role of trust and commitment (e.g. Gursoy et al., 2017;Magnusen et al., 2012). In addition, these results are consistent with the previous literature (Palmatier et al., 2009), which argues that gratitude facilitates reciprocity and plays a key developmental role in forming and maintaining relational bonds. ...
Research question
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of residents’ co-created value on their intentions to support a sporting event through the mediating mechanism of gratitude.
Research methods
Data were collected from residents’ participating in a local recurring sporting event (Naha Marathon, n = 198) and an international recurring sporting event (New York Marathon, n = 229).
Results and findings
The findings reveal that gratitude shows a strong positive impact on residents’ event support intentions. Also, the results indicate gratitude is a mediating psychological mechanism that can explain the relationship between co-created value and residents’ event support intentions.
Implications
We provide insights into the important role of gratitude in understanding how co-created value and relationship marketing variables function together to influence residents’ intentions to support recurring sport events. Also, findings of the current study assist in the understanding of resident-event relationships and contribute to the growing understanding of residents’ support for recurring events.
... Bootstrapping, a nonparametric resampling technique to estimate statistical parameters, standard errors and bias-corrected confidence intervals are offered best in testing mediation (Cheung, 2007;Preacher and Hayes, 2008;Zhao et al., 2010). Therefore, in this study, by following Zhao et al. (2010) in testing direct and indirect paths, the bootstrapping method and the corrected confidence intervals that have been used in the sports management field previously (e.g., Magnusen et al., 2012;Kunkel et al., 2017) will be used. In the study, descriptive statistics were conducted with SPSS 24 while CFA and SEM were done with the AMOS 24 statistical program. ...
The purpose of this study is to test multi-items sports league brand associations in the leagues that are structured as open competition format and to investigate the mediating role of league fan identification on the relationship between league brand associations and psychological commitment. Proposed relationships were measured by structural equation modelling. Six brand association dimensions were identified. It was also found that league fan identification is a critical psychological connection in the development of psychological commitment of league consumers to a sports league, and a mediator between the brand association of nostalgia, escape, and peer group acceptance and psychological commitment.
... This means that sport organizations may enhance the self-connection and self-esteem of sport consumers by promoting team identification of the fans. According to various studies (Kim et al., 2011;Kim et al., 2019;Lee, 2016;Magnusen et al., 2012), the trend of sport marketing strategy has been rapidly shifting from a product-oriented strategy to a relationship marketing strategy. In the context of sport, relationship marketing refers to all marketing activities aimed at establishing, strengthening, and maintaining successful relationships between sport teams and sport consumers (Kim, 2008). ...
The relationship between team identification and sport consumption behaviors is crucial for sports management researchers and practitioners. Given that collective information about the relationship is still inconclusive, this study conducted a comprehensive review of team identification and sport consumption behaviors and explored the relationships and the impact of sport setting, culture, and sample type as moderators. The meta-analysis analyzed data from 75 effect sizes based on 43,608 participants from 52 studies. The results showed that team identification was significantly correlated with sport attendance (r = .47), media consumption (r = .46), sport merchandise consumption (r = .49), and word-of-mouth (r = .60). Sport setting and culture were found to affect the relationship significantly. The current study presents a comprehensive model that synthesizes a broad spectrum of previous studies and offers important implications for investigating sport consumption behaviors and planning sport organizations’ strategies.
... The reasons and motivations for fans holding sport products can be traced back thousands of years (Gubar, 2015), and relate primarily to our innate desires for vicarious achievement, socialization, group membership, and a wide range of other basic human tendencies (Kim et al., 2019;Sloan, 1989). Holding connotes greater levels of felt-safety, self-regulation, and distribution of risk across products (Magnusen, et al., 2012). To hold an athlete or team is to maintain a fan's internal, PIT self-image as well as to project a fan's external SIT self to others (Aiken, et al., 2021). ...
... Celebrity is not only about the sport actor himself, but also his complex repertoire of identities and the wide range of communities he belongs and connects. From national, to regional or organizational (sport club) identi cation, the sport celebrities work as community coagulator agent, thus a resourceful "relationship marketing catalyst" (Magnusen, Kim & Kim, 2012). All these overlapping communities that the sport celebrities keep together mean not only fanatic supporters or rather silent ones, but also loyal, occasional or potential customers. ...
The ways in which individuals develop temporal orientations that divide the flow of personal experience into the time zones of past, present or future influence decision making and action taking, in terms of dominant temporal orientation. Research so far has already highlighted the link between specific time orientations (mainly future) and a series of behaviors associated with health, risk taking or academic achievement. Although time perspective was investigated as a cognitive motivational concept with important implications on learning outcomes and behavior, there is little or no evidence concerning the eerent time perspectives, selfregulation and achievement motivation. It was conducted using a survey method on a convenience sample of 67 MA students. Results show positive associations between future time perspective and self-regulation, and negative associations between present fatalist and self-regulation, respectively past negative and self-regulation. Likewise, achievement motivation seems to be positively related to future time perspective and negatively related to past negative and present fatalistic. Moreover, these correlations are supported at subscale level. The present findings advice for taking into account the way in which individuals assign the personal and social experiences to time frames, that help them give order, coherence and meaning in work settings. Since career, as well as schooling is by de#nition future-oriented, identifying the dominant time perspective and its relation to behaviors associated with planning and achieving one’s goals might help better understand career choices. Concurrently, since time perspective is associated with problematic behaviors, it could be included in the study of work related behaviors (counterproductive or organizational citizenship behaviors) along with self-regulation.
... With the emergence of the relationship-orientated marketing paradigm, many studies have focused on trust as a key variable of relationships (e.g. Brown et al., 2019;Magnusen et al., 2012;Morgan & Hunt, 1994;Palamatier et al., 2006). Though, despite the indisputable importance of customer trust, there is no general agreement in the literature about its definition and conceptualization (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003;Mayer et al., 1995;Morgan & Hunt, 1994). ...
Research question
This study aimed to propose and test a model that depicts fitness instructors’ interaction quality (IQ) skills (i.e. technical, social and communication/listening) and their role in building customer trust in the service provider and customer satisfaction.
Research methods
Data were collected from a sample of customers of a national fitness chain in Greece. Structural equation modeling was used to establish the factorial validity of the scales and test the proposed model.
Results and findings
The results indicated that fitness instructors’ social and communication/listening skills positively relate to the development of customer trust in the service provider (fitness club). Furthermore, social skills were found to positively affect customer satisfaction. Nevertheless, technical skills did not have any impact either on customer trust in the service provider or on customer satisfaction. Finally, customer trust in the service provider was shown to be a key variable in the model since it partially mediated the relationship between social skills and customer satisfaction.
Implications
An in-depth understanding of fitness instructors’ skills, that improve the quality of interactions with customers, can guide fitness club managers to develop effective human resource policies in order to differentiate their organizations within competition, capitalizing on customer trust in the service provider and customer satisfaction.
... Later, the same researchers focused on relationship quality management (RQ) and added the variable of channel preferences to the body around loyal sport fans. Using the definition of RQ from Hennig-Thurau and Klee (1997) of an overall assessment of the strength and depth of a relationship between organizations and consumers, RQ can be used to represent a "bond" between an organization and customers established through the perceived value created from organization/customer interactions (Magnusen et al., 2012). Karg et al. (2019) also showed results of a positive correlation between RQ, service quality, communication, administration and on-field performance. ...
Purpose
The objective of this paper is to respond to four research questions. The first two as how likely are college football season ticket holders to recommend (1) purchasing a similar season ticket package and (2) attending a home football game, to a friend or colleague. The third question examines if there is a difference between advocacy toward purchasing season tickets as compared to advocacy toward game attendance. Finally, we identify what factors impact advocacy for college football season ticket holders.
Design/methodology/approach
An online survey of 57,240 season ticket holders from 69 different National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision programs was undertaken. The data were analyzed to build a model of the drivers of advocacy in season ticket holders from a conceptual base of advocacy, trust and loyalty.
Findings
The identified drivers include both institutionally influenced factors and factors related to season ticket holder behaviors/demographics. The season ticket holder is arguably the highest level of fan for any sports organization from an affinity perspective and clearly the most important from a business perspective. This research argues that the season ticket holder should not only be the focus of ticket sales efforts but also leveraged as marketing advocates with the objective of attracting additional fans.
Originality/value
The value of this research is the large sample of data from season ticket holders of NCAA Division 1 football clubs and the resulting learning it provides to researchers and practitioners.
... These tests replace standard tests of covariance-based SEM, such as the AVE of the latent formative construct or factor loading thresholds of over .60 (for a detailed review, see Hair et al., 2011). This process represents the preferred method for examining models with mediating variables (Cheung & Lau, 2008) and followed previous sport management research (cf., Magnusen, Kim, & Kim, 2012). Mediation effects examined whether the confidence intervals for bootstrapping procedures were significantly different from 0. These bootstrapping tests provided a robustness check on the standard error and corresponding statistical significance of the proposed mediation effects. ...
This research explored the role of athlete on- and off-field brand image on consumer commitment toward the athlete and associated team, preference by the athlete’s sponsor, and the mediating effect of consumers’ self-brand connection on these relationships. Data were collected from fans of soccer players through a cross-sectional survey promoted on social media platforms. A partial least squares structural equation model examined the direct effects of both athlete brand dimensions on athlete commitment, team commitment, and athlete sponsor preference, and the indirect effects mediated via self-brand connection. The results indicate that an athlete’s on-field image is significantly related to athlete sponsor preference, while the off-field image influences athlete commitment and team commitment. Self-brand connection is influenced by athlete off-field image and mediates the relationship between off-field image and athlete commitment. This study contributes to a better understanding of how to manage athlete brands and linkages between fans, athletes, and associated entities.
... Ele construído através de relacionamentos com a marca e suas empresas. O número de empresas que cuida da amplificação e desenvolvimento destes relacionamentos com os seus clientes, aplica este tópico abordado na literatura de marketing (GRÖONROS, 1994;MAGNUSEN et al., 2012;MURDY e PIKE, 2012). ...
... Moreover, it compares and contrasts the digital communication use behavior by different groups of fans (e.g., age, gender, household income, and member type). The use of social media channels helps maintain a passionate fan base and deepen fan loyalty and involvement, limiting fan discontent and disconnection and competition from multiple entertainment services [29]. Prior studies have investigated the social media use in sports management and showed that sports organizations prefer Facebook over Twitter when engaging stakeholders [11]. ...
Social media (SM) has become sports organizations' most preeminent vehicle to engage with fans and to enhance relationship marketing. Prior studies have mostly focused on the standpoints of sports organizations; less is known about fans' SM experience and perspective. This study focuses on sports fans' SM use during a game, and seeks to understand their popular SM uses and gratifications and the effect of individual characteristics. Informed by the uses and gratifications theory (UGT), we analyze survey data of 400 season-ticket holders of a professional NBA team. Our quantitative data analysis suggests that during a game the NBA sports fans use SM for posting on Twitter & Facebook, on Instagram & Snapchat, and checking emails. The less popular uses and gratifications include accessing teams' website, downloading video, and accessing mobile Apps. These usage behaviors varied by individual age, gender and household income. Research contribution and implications are discussed.
... Ele construído através de relacionamentos com a marca e suas empresas. O número de empresas que cuida da amplificação e desenvolvimento destes relacionamentos com os seus clientes, aplica este tópico abordado na literatura de marketing (GRÖONROS, 1994;MAGNUSEN et al., 2012;MURDY e PIKE, 2012). ...
RESUMO O artigo teve como objetivo apresentar os resultados de um estudo bibliométrico que buscou identificar o perfil dos artigos científicos na base de dados Scopus e Emerald Insight sobre o termo lealdade a marca, no período de 2013 a 2018 e analisar de como está a evolução da divulgação dos estudos científicos internacionais na área do marketing. Para a realização deste artigo, foi executada uma pesquisa descritiva quantitativa; quanto ao procedimento, foi de tipo bibliométrico. Para a organizar as informações, foi utilizado uma tabulação de dados no software Excel. Nos resultados bibliométricos com o termo lealdade a marca, publicados nas bases citadas na referente pesquisa nos anos de 2013 a 2018, percebeu-se um número elevado de 5810 documentos no que foi reduzido para 50 documentos. Percebeu-se que no período analisado, que dos 50 documentos houve publicações na área do marketing, mas não com um grande fator de impacto em alguns periódicos, e outras áreas como de operações e sistemas teve um maior impacto usando o termo lealdade a marca. Palavras-chave: Lealdade a Marca. Marca. Bibliometria. 1 INTRODUÇÃO O assunto lealdade a marca tem recebido atenção por parte de pesquisadores acadêmicos e consultores empresariais. Embora não seja algo novo, parece existir uma concordância acerca de seu sentido por advir aberto no campo de pesquisa do marketing. Conceitos de lealdade a marca é tratado como termo comum, apesar de ter alguns enfoques a ele atribuído. Ele construído através de relacionamentos com a marca e suas empresas. O número de empresas que cuida da amplificação e desenvolvimento destes relacionamentos com os seus clientes, aplica este tópico abordado na literatura de marketing (GRÖONROS, 1994; MAGNUSEN et al., 2012; MURDY e PIKE, 2012). O marketing de relacionamento tem como escopo gerar relacionamentos vantajosos a longo prazo entre os parceiros (MIQUEL-ROMERO, CAPLLURE GINER e ADAME-SÁNCHES, 2014). Quanto mais as duas as partes ficarem motivadas a manter o relacionamento e imbricadas entre si, menor o risco da dissolução da relação e maior a disposição delas a investir nesse relacionamento-sobretudo em investimentos não recuperáveis (SCHERR, MIAO e PALMATIER, 2015). A fidelização dos consumidores está ligada ao cognitivo da experiência da compra. Autores Dick e Basu (1994) destacam que a fidelização se baseia em aparências cognitivos, afetivos e conotativos. O Padrão comportamental e atitudinal de fidelização desenvolvido por estes articulistas aconselha que a fidelização não é um julgamento dicotômico, em que se qualifica a fidelização em fidelização (verdadeira) ou não fidelização, mas que permanecem também dois estilos intermediários que são a fidelização latente (qualificada por um modelo de compra frequente baixo e uma atitude apropriada elevada) e a fidelização espúria (qualificada por um padrão de compra frequente elevada e uma atitude favorável baixa). O objetivo deste trabalho é identificar e mapear o desenvolvimento cientifico, da ciência do marketing sobre o termo lealdade a marca na literatura e nas bases de dados Scopus e na base Emerald Insight sobre o tema. Sendo assim, a questão de pesquisa é: como está o
... Similarly, despite a substantial increase in revenue in the sports industry, the cost of running a sport organisation has increased at a faster rate (Kim & Trial, 2011). Sport organisations have also faced increasing fan discontentment and disconnection (Kim & Trail, 2011;Magnusen, Kim, & Kim, 2012), competition within the sport industry, rising expectations from fans, and competition from many other entertainment services (Adamson, Jones, & Tapp, 2006;Kim & Trail, 2011;Stavros & Westberg, 2009). Hence, retaining an enthusiastic fan base and intensifying fan loyalty and involvement are the foremost challenges for sport marketers (Mullin et al., 2014;Rein et al., 2006;Stavros & Westberg, 2009). ...
Social Media (SM) is an established channel by which organisations can create and seek to co-create value with consumers and other stakeholders. However, the role of SM in building relationships (i.e. relationship marketing) is uncertain. Thus, this research aims to investigate the use of SM as a relationship marketing tool. The study adopted a qualitative research approach drawing from multi-domain data sources (i.e. SM platform domain, organisation domain, and consumer domain). Three different but interrelated studies were conducted. The findings from the three studies are integrated to construct a multi-dimensional understanding of the place and use of social media in relationship marketing. Results inform that SM is providing new directions to relationship marketing, support it as an effective channel in realising relationship marketing goals. Theoretically, the work has extended Grönroos’s relationship marketing process model through the lens of social media. Practically, results suggest that managers should implement activities to further foster the value of social media that facilitates brand humanisation, enhances product experience, empowers audiences to be informed consumers, and provides customer services.
... In terms of the findings' practical implications, all the respondents put an emphasis on the ability that SM provides to listen to and understand customers' needs on an ongoing basis, respond accordingly, and to be able to create and cocreate additional value for fans. This value of SM helps curb the challenges professional sport teams face today, such as retaining an enthusiastic fan base, intensifying fan loyalty and involvement (Mullin et al., 2014), increasing fan discontent and disconnection (Magnusen et al., 2012), and competition from multiple entertainment services . Managers are, therefore, recommended to capitalize on the identified opportunities. ...
This study aims to obtain an in-depth understanding of the use, opportunities, and challenges related to social media (SM) in achieving relationship marketing (RM) goals in professional sport. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 26 managers of professional sport teams from the four major leagues in North America. Results outline the platforms adopted, the six intended objectives of SM use, the seven opportunities SM provides, and the seven challenges of SM as a RM medium. Theoretical and practical implications as well as suggestions for future research are provided.
... As a consequence, relationship marketing has the potential to increase an organization's competitive advantage in the marketplace (Funk & James, 2001;Bee & Kahle, 2006). Furthermore, relationship marketing within the sport setting provides managers the opportunity to initiate potential relationships, preserve existing relationships, and repair damaged relationships (Magnusen, Kim, & Kim, 2012). ...
Formed in 1996, the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) did not have a profitable team until 2011. By the end of 2013, however, 50% of WNBA teams turned a profit. In an effort to better understand how WNBA organizations are moving toward the trend of profitability, this study employed the excellence theory of public relations to examine how WNBA organizations are utilizing Twitter both during the season and off-season, and examined if there was a difference in Twitter usage between profitable and non-profitable teams. Using the codes provided by previous studies on social media engagement, results indicated that In-Game Information and Interactivity were the most frequent themes utilized by organizations during the season and off-season, respectively, and profitable teams were tweeting less than non-profitable teams. Findings suggest that organizations should update their followers with in-game and organizational information to foster relationships with fans.
... The findings aggregately informed us that Twitter helps curb the challenges that professional sport teams face today, such as retaining an enthusiastic fan base, intensifying fan loyalty and involvement (Mullin et al., 2014), increasing fan discontent and disconnection (Magnusen, Kim, & Kim, 2012), and competition from multiple entertainment services ). Yet again, it is worth noting that the values (co)created on Twitter vary from team to team, which is partly a reflection of the observed differences in the practices of communication and interaction among the teams. ...
This study, guided by the relationship marketing theoretical framework, adopted an observational netnography method to investigate professional sport teams’ use of Twitter as a relationship marketing tool. Specifically, the study focused on the three core components of the theoretical framework of relationship marketing: communication, interaction, and value. The observational netnography is based on data gathered from the official Twitter account of 20 professional sport teams in the four major North American leagues over a seven-month period. Results outline seven emergent communication types, six interaction practices, and ten values (co)created by the teams or/and fans. Theoretical and practical implications, as well as impetus for future research, are identified.
... [VIF] < less than five [5]; Hair et al., 2011) and validity (the parameter estimates for each formative indicator should be statistically significant after a nonparametric bootstrapping procedure of 5,000 resamples; Hair et al., 2011) were assessed, which represents the preferred method for testing models with mediating variables as recommended by Cheung (2007), and utilized in previous sport management research (cf., Magnusen, Kim, & Kim, 2012). A 5-percent level of significance was selected for investigating critical t-values of path coefficients (t-values > 1.96). ...
Understanding the role of the league brand on consumers’ support for individual teams is important for the successful management and marketing of both leagues and teams. In the current research, brand architecture and brand association literature are integrated to examine the role of the league brand on the relationship between the team brand and team-related behavior. Data from an online survey of professional soccer league consumers (N = 414) were analyzed using structural equation modelling with bootstrapping procedures. The relationship between the team brand and team-related behavior was partially mediated by the league brand. Findings of this research contribute new knowledge by empirically demonstrating that characteristics of the league brand have an influence on team-related behavioral intentions. Furthermore, we contribute a different analytical approach for brand association research using formative indicators to measure team and league brand associations. In the managerial implications we outl...
... The SEM was used to test the mediation effect of LMX in the relationship between political skill and career-related out-come variables, such as career satisfaction, perceived external marketability, life satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness. To test the mediation effects between latent constructs we employed a bootstrapping method due to its greater statistical power compared to other methods such as Baron and Kenny's (1986) Sobel z-test (see Magnusen, Kim, & Kim, 2012, for a review). ...
Organizational politics, be it in sport organizations or other business contexts, is an unavoidable aspect of work and life. Further, some individuals are better than others at navigating the political arena and advancing their careers. It is therefore important to understand what characteristics those individuals possess and how exactly those characteristics lead to desirable career outcomes. This study progresses the organizational behavioral sciences forward by examining the mediation effects of leader-member exchange (LMX) in the relationships between intern political skill and four career-related outcomes (career satisfaction, perceived external marketability, life satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness). A total of 201 sport management student subjects were obtained. A boot-strapping method estimated with structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the mediation effects. The results of the study show that all the hypothesized mediation effects were indeed supported. Therefore, we concluded that the mediated paths of political skill through LMX to support career-success outcomes were supported. These results will hopefully stimulate continued interest in the individual “skills” and intervening ways through which aspiring sport professionals can achieve success in their internships (and subsequent employment) and current sport professionals can attain beneficial career-related outcomes.
... É cada vez maior o número de empresas que se preocupa em desenvolver relacionamentos com os seus clientes, sendo este um tópico bastante abordado na literatura de marketing (Grönroos, 1994;Magnusen et al., 2012;Murdy & Pike, 2012). Muitas destas empresas estão inseridas no paradigma do Marketing de Relacionamento (Hoffman & Lowitt, 2008), que visa estabelecer, desenvolver, e manter trocas relacionais de sucesso (Morgan & Hunt, 1994). ...
A cada dia os clientes tem mais cartoes de fidelidade nas carteiras e parecem se sentir menos fidelizados as marcas. Tendo isso em vista, este artigo procura analisar caracteristicas relevantes para a elaboracao e gestao deste tipo de iniciativa. Procura-se responder a questao: “Como elaborar um programa de fidelidade de clientes?”. Apos a revisao da literatura foram conduzidos oito estudos de casos em empresas de diferentes setores em Portugal. Alem de argumentos encontrados na literatura, os resultados apontam a necessidade de considerar a natureza dinâmica deste tipo de programa e a questao da sustentabilidade destas iniciativas. Constatou-se ainda que os programas de fidelidade necessitam estar alinhados com a estrategia de marketing das empresas, ou seja, os programas devem ser dinâmicos e permitir mudancas e alteracoes constantes, consoante as necessidades das empresas, devendo adaptar-se as estrategias comerciais e as campanhas promocionais que vao sendo utilizadas pelas marcas. DOI: 10.5585/remark.v13i1.2526
... Thus, further investigations of potential mediators are essential to gaining a more complete understanding of the sponsorship effectiveness phenomenon. For example, the sponsorship literatures should include a more thorough examination of the role of trust because it has been identified as an essential variable in sport consumer-team relationship (Magnusen, Kim, & Kim, 2012; Kim, Trail, & Ko, 2011) and a critical determinant of sponsorship effectiveness (Meenaghan, 2001). Thus, integrating both gratitude and trust into the sponsorship research framework may help further explain the complex link between sponsorship investment and sponsorship effectiveness. ...
Sponsorship is a significant element of today's marketing communication. Nevertheless, managers and researchers lack of systematic and integrative understanding of key factors that influence sponsorship outcomes and the contexts in which the relationships between sponsorship effectiveness antecedents and outcomes are stronger or weaker. The authors attempt to address this gap by providing a systematic meta-analytic review of sponsorship effectiveness that incorporates (1) cognitive, affective, and conative consumer-focused sponsorship outcomes; (2) sponsor-related, dyadic, and sponsee-related antecedents to consumer-focused sponsorship outcomes; and (3) sponsorship-related and methodological moderators of the relationships between the three antecedent categories and three outcome categories. Our findings help assess the validity and robustness of the predictive capability of the antecedents, and they also offer a more generalizable and empirically established set of factors that are vital to the achievement of key sponsorship outcomes. Several of our results afford noteworthy implications for improving the effectiveness of sponsorship research and practice.
... A central idea in relationship marketing theories is the existence of a continuum of customer relationships, ranging from transactional to relational oriented (Gravald & Grö nroos, 1996;Magnusen, Kim, & Kim, 2011). In line with this view, Garbarino and Johnson (1999) suggest that an organization can have both low and high relational customers. ...
Researchers have suggested that brand equity is vital for professional sport teams by focusing on the examination of sport fans in general. The current study aims to examine the differences in team brand equity perceptions between fan club members and non-members, and the predictive role of brand equity dimensions on behavioral intentions. Data were collected from fans of a professional football league (n = 2287) with an adapted version of the spectator-based brand equity scale. The results gathered through a confirmatory factor analysis provide evidence of fair psychometric properties of the measurement scale. A multi-group CFA analysis showed factorial stability of the model in both groups, while the latent mean comparisons revealed significant differences in the dimensions of brand mark, social interaction, commitment, team history, organizational attributes, team success, head coach, management, stadium, and internalization. In addition, a multi-group SEM analysis revealed that the relationships between brand equity dimensions and behavioral intentions are not significantly different among the groups. Social interaction, team success and internalization were the significant positive predictors of behavioral intentions among the overall sample. These findings highlight the importance of studying different types of consumers and suggest managerial implications, such as the need for clubs to establish reciprocal relationships with fans in order to increase their levels of internalization and contribute to increased behavioral intentions.
... In addition, the result introduces the perception of social impact as a new antecedent of sponsorship response, contributing to the sport sponsorship literature, which has examined the effects of various factors related to events, sponsors, and consumers on consumers' responses to the sponsorship of sport events (e.g., Speed & Thompson, 2000;Gwinner & Swanson, 2003). Moreover, the result confirms balance theory (Heider, 1946(Heider, , 1958, and further reinforces the principle of reciprocity, whose importance has been demonstrated in various academic fields such as sociology (Gouldner, 1960), consumer psychology (Cialdini, 2009;Du, Sen, & Bhattacharya, 2008), and more recently sport consumer behavior (Kim & Trail, 2011;Magnusen, Kim, & Kim, 2012). ...
This study investigates the determinants and consequences of the perceived social impact of a sport event by analyzing data obtained from 458 local attendees of the 2012 FedEx St. Jude Classic. Results show that a sport event generates a higher level of social impact for local attendees if they feel a greater sense of social camaraderie at the event and/or perceive a higher level of the social responsibility of the event. In turn, the creation of social impact leads to greater business returns, such that local attendees perceiving a high level of social impact are likely to support the event and its sponsors. These results offer some empirical evidence for Chalip's (2006) framework of social leverage, and show why events and their sponsors need to make efforts to generate social benefits for host communities.
O presente trabalho teve como objetivo analisar o efeito do nível de exposição, envolvimento, domínio e similaridade no recall do patrocínio máster de um clube de futebol entre torcedores sócios e não sócios. Foi aplicada uma survey em 1.037 torcedores de um clube de futebol situado no nordeste brasileiro, cujo dados obtidos foram analisados por meio da análise fatorial exploratória e regressão logística. Os resultados confirmaram, de forma parcial, o efeito do nível de impacto da exposição, similaridade e do domínio no recall do patrocínio máster. Observaram-se que não ocorre alteração da chance de consumir produtos e/ou serviços do patrocinador máster quando se é sócio torcedor ou não. Os achados indicam que para a exposição, tem ações diferentes conforme o desempenho do clube na temporada. Na similaridade, os sócios torcedores apresentam maior chance de consumir os produtos e/ou serviços do patrocinador máster. Como contribuição, o estudo avança na discussão ao constatar que há fatores dos torcedores que estão ligados ao futebol que levam ao recall do patrocinador máster. Além disso, os resultados mostram que alguns fatores ligados ao futebol que afetam ou estão presentes na vida dos torcedores do clube implicam no consumo de produtos e serviços do principal patrocinador do clube de futebol.
Purpose
In the age of nine-figure transfer fees and football stars building their own brands and follower base, a shift in fan identification in football appears to be taking place as athletes can build strong connections with their followers. This paper examines the level of identification shown by football fans towards both their favourite team and their favourite player, in connection with the concept of fan loyalty.
Design/methodology/approach
A total of 4,707 international respondents participated in an online survey to examine the relationship between fan identification and fan loyalty, and to measure the impact of variables like country, player, club, on fan identification using multi-regression analyses.
Findings
The results underline the strong presence of team identification compared to identification of single players. Results have also revealed that the relationship between a fan's favourite team and player has a significant impact on identification levels towards both actors. Fans supporting a foreign club were found to show significantly stronger team identification than those who support a club from their own country or region.
Originality/value
This research contributes to the growing body of publications in the field of sports consumer research and underlines the importance of understanding the quality of relationships and thus the identification of fans with clubs and individual players for the stakeholders involved. International sports marketing is becoming increasingly important and an understanding of fan interests is essential for effective marketing, as information on trends in fan interests enables a more tailored strategy for clubs and sponsors.
Spor organizasyonlarının başarısı büyük ölçüde yeterli sayıda taraftar çekmeye ve bunu sürdürmeye bağlıdır. Bu yüzden taraftarların elde tutulması ve sayılarının arttırılmasını kolaylaştıran faktörlerin daha iyi anlaşılmasının gerekliliği ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu noktadan hareketle çalışmanın amacı, profesyonel spor kulüpleri tarafından sağlanan hizmetlerle ilgili eylemlerin, taraftarlar açısından ilişki kalitesi üzerindeki etkisini incelemektir. Araştırmaya 301 sezonluk (kombine) bilet sahibi taraftar katılmıştır. Veri toplamak amacıyla araştırmacılar tarafından hazırlanan “Kişisel Bilgi Formu”, “Sezonluk (Kombine) Bilet Sahipleri Memnuniyet Ölçeği”, “İlişki Kalitesi Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Çalışmanın hipotezlerini test etmek amacıyla spor organizasyonları tarafından sağlanan hizmetlerin, ilişki kalitesi ve taraftarların tüketim niyetlerine olan etkisini açıklamak için kavramsal bir model oluşturulmuş ve test edilmiştir. Verilerin analizinde, SPSS 26 ve Hayes (2019) tarafından geliştirilen Process Macro v.4.2 programları kullanılmıştır. Analizler sonucunda spor organizasyonları tarafından sağlanan hizmetlerin, taraftarların kulüple olan ilişkilerinin gücü ve kalitesini etkilediği, aynı zamanda hizmetlerin, ilişki kalitesi aracılığıyla, taraftar davranışları üzerinde önemli bir etkiye sahip olduğu görülmüştür.
Sport marketing researchers and practitioners have suggested that sport organizations that effectively engage in social media conversations with fans are likely to influence fan behavior. Few prior studies have empirically examined the relationship between social media engagement and sport product purchases, particularly event tickets. The current study utilized artificial intelligence to examine eight user sentiments on official sport organizations’ Twitter accounts, then determine if those sentiments were related to season ticket sales. Three years of season ticket data were obtained from 62 NCAA Division I men’s basketball teams and utilized in a regression model, which also identified Twitter sentiment scores from 176,439 posts captured from the official Twitter account of those programs. A final model, which included several control variables, explained 65.7% of the variance in season ticket sales, with the lagged sentiments of “joy” (positive) and “sadness” (negative) having a statistically significant relationship with season tickets sold.
Purpose
The current study examines (1) the relationships among the crisis response, trust and negative behavioral intentions (i.e. avoidance and revenge), (2) the mediation role of trust in the crisis communication of sports organization and (3) the moderation effect of team identification between the crisis response and trust.
Design/methodology/approach
A questionnaire was used to collect data from 324 Major League Baseball (MLB) fans who met specific criteria (i.e. background information; knowing about the Houston Astros sign-stealing scandal and how the team responded to it). Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were employed to test the proposed hypotheses.
Findings
The findings showed that perceived adequacy of the crisis response positively influenced sports fans' perceived trust. This trust was negatively associated with revenge and avoidance intentions. The mediation effect of trust was also found in the relationship between the crisis response and both avoidance and revenge intentions. Regarding the interaction effect of team identification, however, the relationship between the crisis response and trust was not moderated by team identification levels.
Originality/value
The present study contributes to a comprehensive understanding of crisis communication in sports fans' perceptions and behavioral intentions. It illuminates a psychological process through which perceived adequacy of crisis response reduces negative behavioral intentions through trust.
Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the role of trust on sport fan behavior following the favored team’s loss.Methods Online survey modes were employed to collect the data. A total of 300 individuals participated in the study, of which 288 were valid and therefore analyzed. To test the hypotheses, structural equation modeling was conducted using Mplus 8.Results The findings are as follows. First, cognitive trust had a significant effect(+) on future viewing intention. Second, affective trust had a significant effect(+) on future viewing intention. Third, cognitive trust had a significant effect(-) on switching behavior. Fourth, affective trust had no significant effect on switching behavior. Fifth, team identification moderated the relationship between affective trust and switching behavior.Conclusions The results of this study suggest that sport fans’ trust affects fan behavior following a team’s loss. Therefore, professional sport teams should seek to establish strong affective trust and cognitive trust.
This study presents a structured model to investigate whether sports fans’ team identification and organization-public relations (OPR) directly affect their attitudes toward their favorite teams or related behavioral intentions. In addition, it examines which antecedents, such as sports media consumption or duration of being a fan, affect team identification and OPR, and investigates whether gender works as a moderator in the model. An online survey was used and a total of 673 responses of the National Football League (NFL) fans were analyzed. The results of path analyses show that sports media consumption directly affects team identification and OPR, while the duration of being a fan did not significantly influence OPR and had only a small effect on team identification. Moreover, the degree of identification and relational perception of an NFL fan directly affect attitudes toward his or her favorite team. Finally, a person’s attitudes toward the favorite team directly affect his or her purchase intention of team-related products and attendance intention. Among paths in the proposed model, only one path, from attitude to attendance intention, was significantly different between the male and female groups.
Wybuch pandemii koronawirusa COVID-19 i towarzyszące temu wstrzymanie rozgrywek sportowych stało się przyczynkiem do dyskusji zarówno naukowej, jak i publicystycznej na tematy związane z podstawami funkcjonowania rynku sportu. Wyrazem refleksji naukowej młodych badaczy w tym obszarze jest niniejsza publikacja. Autorzy w swoich pracach przyjęli dwie perspektywy analizy: problematykę zarządzania oraz uwarunkowania prawne.
Purpose: This study extended Perugini and Bagozzi's (2001) model of goal-directed behavior (MGB) and integrates the relationship quality (RQ) viewpoint to analyze university students' decision-making model of repurchase in Chinese Professional Baseball League (CPBL) games. Method: The study used a quantitative approach and obtained 429 usable questionnaires (a response rate of 85.8%). The collected data were statistically analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM). Results: Apart from negative anticipated emotions, other MGB predictors and RQ exerted significant and positive effects on desire and behavioral intention. Originality: Based on the theoretical framework of MGB, this empirical analysis identified the influential factors of decision-making in sports spectating behavior, which will help professional sports managers to design appropriate marketing strategies. The study also concluded that establishing a good relationship quality with sports consumers can enhance the desire and behavioral intention of re-attendance to professional baseball games.
Purpose
The primary purpose of this study was to generate a composite sport fan equity index (SFEI) for use in estimating the asset value of an individual fan to a sport organization. The index was developed by applying a simple additive weighting (SAW) method.
Design/methodology/approach
A cross-sectional survey-based research was carried out to validate key components of sport fan equity (SFE) and formulate the SFEI on the basis of the NCAA Division I collegiate sport context. These objectives were satisfied through a twofold process involving first-order confirmatory factor analysis intended to assess the validity of SFE measurement scales and SAW designed to produce the composite SFEI.
Findings
The developed index indicated that the average SFE of focal sport fans of Division I collegiate sport was 54.8 and that the overall SFE of such contributors ranged from 20.4 (the lowest score) to 94.6 (the highest score). The SFEI serves as a single, summary score and an essential gauge for sport marketers to use when assessing profitable fans and tracking/comparing them over time.
Originality/value
This research contributes to the sport marketing literature through its application of SAW in an initial effort to produce an easily understandable index that determines the asset value of sport fans and serves as an imperative criterion for overall sport team valuation from the sport consumer side. Specifically, the SFEI can function as a standard numeric measure that enables sport marketers to identify fans from whom sport organizations can generate considerable profits, segment these devotees systematically, and tailor marketing strategies to each fan base.
In recent years we have seen an increase in corporate and media interest in women’s sport leagues and events. Despite the increase in commercialism and professionalism of women’s sport, there is a lack of research focusing on the marketing of and through women’s sport. This current study addresses this gap, examining the motivations of sponsors involved in the women’s Australian Rules football national league. Exploratory in outlook, this paper presents insights from key sponsorship decision-makers. It was found that sponsorship was motivated by a desire to promote gender equality at a firm, industry and broader societal level. Sponsorship of women’s football provides convergence of corporate social responsibility and commercial benefits. The paper provides insights for sport marketing and initiates the conversation of women’s sport sponsorship.
Cross-sectional studies of attitude-behavior relationships are vulnerable to the inflation of correlations by common method variance (CMV). Here, a model is presented that allows partial correlation analysis to adjust the observed correlations for CMV contamination and determine if conclusions about the statistical and practical significance of a predictor have been influenced by the presence of CMV. This method also suggests procedures for designing questionnaires to increase the precision of this adjustment.
The paper investigates the dynamic association among relationship dimensions and their impact on interpersonal and interorganizational commitment in a sample of Australian and Chinese companies that do business together. Path modeling was used to explore the hierarchical nature of the relationship dimensions amongst one another and on the dependent variables. We conclude that relationship variables in our cross-cultural study are hierarchical and that personal relationships are critical to building and enhancing interorganizational relationships. We note that some relationship dimensions may not have significant direct relationships with commitment, but their indirect and total effects may be significant. Our results challenge conventional conceptualization of relationship dimensions by suggesting a hierarchy of importance among the dimensions.
Prior research has demonstrated a direct relationship between loyalty and reasons for liking a particular sport team. The current study replicates and extends this line of inquiry by examining the mediating role of attachment, a process by which an individual moves from merely liking a team (attraction) to becoming loyal to a team (allegiance). Data (Collegiate N = 194; Collegiate and Professional N = 402, Favorite Sport Team N = 808) were collected to examine 13 benefits and attributes associated with liking a sport team, 3 attitude formation properties, and allegiance. A three-stage test of mediation using MLR revealed that attachment mediated the relationship between allegiance and Vicarious Achievement, Nostalgia, Star Player, Escape, Success, and Peer Group Acceptance. Results demonstrate that allegiance is the outcome of a process by which individuals develop stronger emotional reactions to, more functional knowledge about, and greater symbolic value for benefits and attributes associated with a sport team.
The most commonly used method to test an indirect effect is to divide the estimate of the indirect effect by its standard error and compare the resulting z statistic with a critical value from the standard normal distribution. Confidence limits for the indirect effect are also typically based on critical values from the standard normal distribution. This article uses a simulation study to demonstrate that confidence limits are imbalanced because the distribution of the indirect effect is normal only in special cases. Two alternatives for improving the performance of confidence limits for the indirect effect are evaluated: (a) a method based on the distribution of the product of two normal random variables, and (b) resampling methods. In Study 1, confidence limits based on the distribution of the product are more accurate than methods based on an assumed normal distribution but confidence limits are still imbalanced. Study 2 demonstrates that more accurate confidence limits are obtained using resampling methods, with the bias-corrected bootstrap the best method overall.
The importance of relationship quality in relationship marketing has been well documented; however, very little attention has been paid to the issues of relationship quality in sport consumer behavior contexts. We investigated the cognitive structure of relationship quality (RQ) constructs (Trust, Commitment, Intimacy, Identification, Reciprocity) by comparing a general-specific model to a hierarchical model. In addition we empirically tested the link between RQ and three sport consumer behavioral intentions: attendance, media consumption, and licensed merchandise consumption. The model comparison revealed that individual constructs reflected both the distinct aspects of the specific dimensions of relationship quality and the holistic nature of relationship quality, supporting a general-specific model. Results from the simultaneous equation model indicated that for sport consumers, relationship quality with the team explained 56% of the variance in intention to attend games, 75% of intention to consume sport media, and 66% of intention to purchase licensed merchandise.
Sports teams generate an emotional response from their fans that is stronger than in any other industry. In an effort to capitalize on the emotional relationship they share with their fans, professional sports teams try to position themselves as brands. This paper examines the strategies and actions four French soccer teams have implemented in order to build and exploit their brand. Our results underline that the development and implementation of a brand strategy should be profitable for most professional soccer teams. However, sport managers need to see the relevance of building strong brand equity for their club. Admittedly, performance on the field remains important in the development of the team brand equity. That is why professional sports teams need to build a strong brand that will enable them to go through performance cycles.
Recreation specialization proposes that participation in an activity progresses along a continuum from general to specific modes of perception and behavior. Research typically measures an individual's position on that continuum by an additive index comprised of items that reflect multiple dimensions of specialization including past experience, commitment to the activity, centrality to lifestyle, and skill. This paper investigates the theoretical limitations of a specialization continuum, and the problems inherent in an additive index used to measure specialization. This study presents data from a 1988 study on the Ocoee River in Tennessee exploring how each of these hypothesized dimensions of specialization differentially affect user (1) motives for participation, (2) perceptions of crowding, and (3) preferences for management action. Factor analysis of 11 different specialization variables produced three specialization dimensions including (1) a past experience dimension, (2) a commitment dimension, and (3) a lifestyle dimension. Differences between the zero order correlations of three separate index scores for each dimension were tested on twenty different motive, crowding, and management items. Results show these dimensions are differentially related to user evaluations and attitudes, and confirm that an additive index that reflects a continuum from general to specific slights the complexity of the specialization process. Further, the lifestyle and commitment dimensions covaried with past experience among the less experienced users, but leveled off or diminished at the upper levels of experience. These findings suggest the need for alternate research strategies that explore the conceptual and methodological detail of these multiple dimensions, and that account for historical fluctuations or ceiling effects that may characterize commitment and lifestyle involvement.
A Monte Carlo study compared 14 methods to test the statistical significance of the intervening variable effect. An intervening variable (mediator) transmits the effect of an independent variable to a dependent variable. The commonly used R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny (1986) approach has low statistical power. Two methods based on the distribution of the product and 2 difference-in-coefficients methods have the most accurate Type I error rates and greatest statistical power except in 1 important case in which Type I error rates are too high. The best balance of Type I error and statistical power across all cases is the test of the joint significance of the two effects comprising the intervening variable effect.
Channels research has consistently argued that asymmetric channel relationships are more dysfunctional than those characterized by symmetric interdependence. The authors propose that the degree of both interdependence asymmetry and total interdependence affect the level of interfirm conflict, trust, and commitment. Using survey data from automobile dealers, they demonstrate that, with increasing interdependence asymmetry, the dealer's trust in and commitment to the supplier decline while interfirm conflict increases. In addition, they demonstrate that relationships with greater total interdependence exhibit higher trust, stronger commitment, and lower conflict than relationships with lower interdependence. The effects on conflict are consistent with those predicted by bilateral deterrence theory, and the effects on trust and commitment are in accord with the authors' bilateral convergence predictions.
The Web is an increasingly important component of promotional strategy for many organizations. To date, most advertising research has focused on banner ads. In the present study, home pages as promotional vehicles are evaluated. Specifically, we examine the influence of perceived home page complexity on communication effectiveness, as measured by attention to the home page, attitude toward the home page, attitude toward the company, and purchase intent. Qualitative research is used to identify important factors that appear to influence perceptions of home page complexity, including home page length, number of graphics, number of links, amount of text, and use of animation. A pretest experiment further aided in the selection of appropriate factors and factor levels to manipulate in a subsequent, main experiment. The findings in the main experiment suggest that consumers respond more favorably toward home pages that fall in a moderate range of perceived complexity.
The purpose of this article is to describe statistical procedures to assess how prevention and intervention programs achieve their effects. The analyses require the measurement of intervening or mediating variables hypothesized to represent the causal mechanism by which the prevention program achieves its effects. Methods to estimate mediation are illustrated in the evaluation of a health promotion program designed to reduce dietary cholesterol and a school-based drug prevention program. The methods are relatively easy to apply and the information gained from such analyses should add to our understanding of prevention.
In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.
This paper examines how and why consumers devel- op, enter into, and maintain relationships in a sports marketing context. This paper presents a framework for understanding how and why consumers engage in relationship marketing. Based on Kelman's functional approach to attitude change, this framework presents three qualitatively different levels for understanding relationship formation and maintenance: (a) compli- ance is superficial, temporary, and often the result of external influence; (b) identification is related to self- esteem and image enhancement of sport consumers; and (c) internalization is the result of values similarity. Internalization is more likely to result in a long-term relationship. Relationship Marketing in Sports: A Functional Approach
Commitment is an essential part of successful long-term relationships. Whereas commitments by both parties in an exchange can provide the foundation for development of relational social norms, disproportionate commitments can lead to opportunism by the less committed partner. The authors study the effect of the credibility and proportionality of commitment inputs in an exchange upon the development of relational social norms, opportunism, and long-term commitment intentions. They also investigate longitudinal effects of the credibility of long-term commitment intentions, relational social norms, and opportunism in one time period on commitment inputs and long-term commitment intentions in later periods. Data gathered from a behavioral simulation suggest that (1) the credibility of commitment inputs in exchange is positively related to the development of relational social norms, (2) and is positively related to long-term commitment intentions in the same time period, (3) relational social norms may be undermined by opportunistic conduct, and (4) the presence of relational social norms in one time period is positively related to commitment inputs and long-term commitment intentions in later periods.
This article integrates social network and exchange theory to develop a model of customer value based on three relational drivers: relationship quality (the caliber of relational ties), contact density (the number of relational ties), and contact authority (the decision-making capability of relational contacts). The results suggest that the value generated from interfirm relationships derives not only from the quality of customer ties (e.g., trust, commitment, norms), as is typically modeled, but also from the number and decision-making capability of interfirm contacts and the interactions among relational drivers. Moderator analysis of customer characteristics suggests that increasing contact density benefits sellers that have customers with high employee turnover rates, whereas building relationships with key decisions makers generates the highest returns among customers that are more difficult to access. The conceptual model of the impact of interfirm relational drivers on customer value receives support from dyadic data across 446 business-to-business exchanges.
This research, investigating retailer-consumer relationships, has three distinct intended contributions: (1) It shows that different relationship marketing tactics have a differential impact on consumer perceptions of a retailer's relationship investment; (2) it demonstrates that perceived relationship investment affects relationship quality, ultimately leading to behavioral loyalty; and (3) it reveals that the effect of perceived relationship investment on relationship quality is contingent on a consumer's product category involvement and proneness to engage in retail relationships. The authors empirically cross-validate the underlying conceptual model by studying six consumer samples in a three-country, transatlantic, comparative survey that investigates two industries.
Numerous theoretical structures involve the concept of mediation, the mechanism that accounts for the relation between the predictor and the criterion. The, empirical interpretation of mediation has employed multiple independent models to assess components of the overall structure in a piecemeal manner. This article discusses various limitations of using this independent approach and proposes the use of structural equation modeling (SEM) as an alternative. The article furthermore distinguishes current limitations in using SEM software for assessing mediation in complex structures and presents a strategy for supplemental details that more accurately measure the magnitude of mediational effects, in particular, specific indirect effects.
Several theories of relationship marketing propose that customers vary in their relationships with a firm on a continuum from transactional to highly relational bonds. Few empirical studies have segmented the customer base of an organization into low and high relational groups to assess how evaluations vary for these groups. Using structural equation analysis, the authors analyze the relationships of satisfaction, trust, and commitment to component satisfaction attitudes and future intentions for the customers of a New York off-Broadway repertory theater company. For the low relational customers (individual ticket buyers and occasional subscribers), overall satisfaction is the primary mediating construct between the component attitudes and future intentions. For the high relational customers (consistent subscribers), trust and commitment, rather than satisfaction, are the mediators between component attitudes and future intentions.
A theoretical framework of trust in internet shopping and intentions of purchasing Licensed Sport Merchandise (LSM) online was tested through Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) procedures. Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the measurement model, which included scales to measure Trust in Internet Shopping, Transferred Trust, Experienced Trust, Psychological Attachment, and Intentions of Purchasing LSM online. The SEM showed that Transferred Trust and Experienced Trust held positive and significant associations with Trust in Internet Shopping. Trust in Internet Shopping and Psychological Attachment were positively and significantly associated with Intentions of Purchasing LSM online and, together, explained 50% of the variance in purchase intention.
Relationship marketing-establishing, developing, and maintaining successful relational exchanges-constitutes a major shift in marketing theory and practice. After conceptualizing relationship marketing and discussing its ten forms, the authors (1) theorize that successful relationship marketing requires relationship commitment and trust, (2) model relationship commitment and trust as key mediating variables, (3) test this key mediating variable model using data from automobile tire retailers, and (4) compare their model with a rival that does not allow relationship commitment and trust to function as mediating variables. Given the favorable test results for the key mediating variable model, suggestions for further explicating and testing it are offered.
The authors investigate the role of trust between knowledge users and knowledge providers. The kind of knowledge of special concern is formal market research. Users include marketing and nonmarketing managers; providers include marketing researchers within a user's own firm and those external to the firm. A theory of the relationships centering on personal trust is developed to examine (1) how users' trust in researchers influences various relationship processes and the use of market research and (2) how the relationships vary when examined across dyads. The relationships were tested in a sample of 779 users and providers of market research information. Results indicate that trust and perceived quality of interaction contribute most significantly to research utilization, with trust having indirect effects through other relationship processes, as opposed to important direct effects on research utilization. Deeper levels of exchange, including researcher involvement in the research process and user commitment to the research relationship, however, have little effect on research use. Finally, the relationships in the model show few differences depending on whether the producer and user share marketing or research orientations. Interogranizational dyads, however, generally exhibit stronger model relationships than intraorganizational dyads.
Building on previous work suggesting that trust is critical in facilitating exchange relationships, the authors describe a comprehensive theory of trust in market research relationships. This theory focuses on the factors that determine users' trust in their researchers, including individual, interpersonal, organizational, interorganizational/interdepartmental, and project factors. The theory is tested in a sample of 779 users. Results indicate that the interpersonal factors are the most predictive of trust. Among these factors, perceived researcher integrity, willingness to reduce research uncertainty, confidentiality, expertise, tactfulness, sincerity, congeniality, and timeliness are most strongly associated with trust. Among the remaining factors, the formalization of the user's organization, the culture of the researcher's department or organization, the research organization's or department's power, and the extent to which the research is customized also affect trust. These findings generally do not change across different types of dyadic relationships.
The bootstrap, a computer-intensive approach to statistical data analysis, has been recommended as an alternative to parametric approaches. Advocates claim it is superior because it is not burdened by potentially unwarranted normal theory assumptions and because it retains information about the form of the original sample. Empirical support for its superiority, however, is quite limited. The present article compares the bootstrap and parametric approaches to estimating confidence intervals and Type I error rates of the correlation coefficient. The parametric approach is superior to the bootstrap under both assumption violation and nonviolation. The bootstrap results in overly restricted confidence intervals and overly liberal Type I error rates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Most theories of relationship marketing emphasize the role of trust and commitment in affecting performance outcomes; however, a recent meta-analysis indicates that other mediating mechanisms are at work. Data from two studies—a laboratory experiment and a dyadic longitudinal field survey—demonstrate that gratitude also mediates the influence of a seller's relationship marketing investments on performance outcomes. Specifically, relationship marketing investments generate short-term feelings of gratitude that drive long-lasting performance benefits based on gratitude-related reciprocal behaviors. The authors identify a set of managerially relevant factors and test their power to alter customer perceptions of relationship marketing investments to increase customer gratitude, which can make relationship marketing programs more effective. Overall, the research empirically demonstrates that gratitude plays an important role in understanding how relationship marketing investments increase purchase intentions, sales growth, and share of wallet.
Sport consumers are increasingly discontented and disconnected with sport organizations and researchers have advocated a fundamental shift in sport marketing from a traditional exchange paradigm to a relationship paradigm. Relationship quality is critical to understanding sport consumer-organization relationships because it can: (a) render a platform to organize wide-ranging relational constructs; (b) provide insight into evaluating relationship-marketing effectiveness; and (c) diagnose and address problems in relationships. Therefore, we propose a conceptual framework of sport consumerorganization relationship quality that consists of three main components. First, we specify that relationship quality consists of five distinct but related relational constructs (trust, commitment, intimacy, self-connection, and reciprocity). Second, we suggest that relationship quality influences word of mouth, media consumption, licensed-product consumption, and attendance behaviors. Finally, we argue that psychographic factors such as relationship styles, relationship drive, and general interpersonal orientation are moderators, as well as demographic factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, region, and income.
Interest in the problem of method biases has a long history in the behavioral sciences. Despite this, a comprehensive summary of the potential sources of method biases and how to control for them does not exist. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to examine the extent to which method biases influence behavioral research results, identify potential sources of method biases, discuss the cognitive processes through which method biases influence responses to measures, evaluate the many different procedural and statistical techniques that can be used to control method biases, and provide recommendations for how to select appropriate procedural and statistical remedies for different types of research settings.
We examine how the disclosure of negative firm information may prompt top executives to render personal and professional favors for security analysts, who may reciprocate by rating firms relatively positively. We further examine how negative ratings may prompt executive negative reciprocity toward an analyst and how such retaliation may deter other analysts' negative ratings. Because analyst recommendations influence investor behavior, firm reputation, and access to capital, our theory and supportive findings suggest that corporate leaders enhance and perpetuate external support for their firms via social influence processes that develop and maintain social exchange relations with a key type of external constituent.
Building upon work from social exchange theory and channels of distribution, a model of distributor-manufacturer working relationships from the distributor's perspective is presented. An initial empirical test, using a structural equation methodology, provided acceptable support of the model, given some measurement limitations. Further work on modeling both perspectives of the exchange relationship is discussed.
The decomposition of effects in structural equation models has been of considerable interest to social scientists. Finite-sample or asymptotic results for the sampling distribution of estimators of direct effects are widely available. Statistical inferences about indirect effects have relied exclusively on asymptotic methods which assume that the limiting distribution of the estimator is normal, with a standard error derived from the delta method. We examine bootstrap procedures as another way to generate standard errors and confidence intervals and to estimate the sampling distributions of estimators of direct and indirect effects. We illustrate the classical and the bootstrap methods with three empirical examples. We find that in a moderately large sample, the bootstrap distribution of an estimator is close to that assumed with the classical and delta methods but that in small samples, there are some differences. Bootstrap methods provide a check on the classical and delta methods when the latter are applied under less than ideal conditions.
The manner in which the concept of reciprocity is implicated in functional theory is explored, enabling a reanalysis of the concepts of "survival" and "exploitation." The need to distinguish between the concepts of complementarity and reciprocity is stressed. Distinctions are also drawn between (1) reciprocity as a pattern of mutually contingent exchange of gratifications, (2) the existential or folk belief in reciprocity, and (3) the generalized moral norm of reciprocity. Reciprocity as a moral norm is analyzed; it is hypothesized that it is one of the universal "principal components" of moral codes. As Westermarck states, "To requite a benefit, or to be grateful to him who bestows it, is probably everywhere, at least under certain circumstances, regarded as a duty. This is a subject which in the present connection calls for special consideration." Ways in which the norm of reciprocity is implicated in the maintenance of stable social systems are examined.
Researchers have argued that consumers frequently view marketing efforts as intrusive and that they fail to exhibit either trust or commitment. However, studies have found that some customers develop strong emotional relationships with firms, often independently of firm-driven relationship-building efforts. These confusing findings indicate that there is a need for additional research to explore the dynamics underlying service firm—customer relationships. The aim of this study is to elucidate customers' conception and manifestation of their relationships with service firms. Therefore, the objectives are to uncover the extent to which various types of customers exhibit relational links with service firms and to generate insights into the manner in which such identification is manifested. After a review of recent studies into relationship marketing, the authors present and explain the research design and method. Then, the authors present the findings that emerged during the focus groups and in-depth interviews with soccer supporters.
Salespeople involved in the marketing of complex services often perform the role of "relationship manager." It is, in part, the quality of the relationship between the salesperson and the customer that determines the probability of continued interchange between those parties in the future. A relationship quality model is advanced and tested that examines the nature, consequences, and antecedents of relationship quality, as perceived by the customer. The findings suggest that future sales opportunities depend mostly on relationship quality (i. e., trust and satisfaction), whereas the ability to convert those opportunities into sales hinges more on conventional source characteristics of similarity and expertise. Relational selling behaviors such as cooperative intentions, mutual disclosure, and intensive followup contact generally produce a strong buyer-seller bond.
In this study, an Online Prepurchase Intentions Model is proposed and empirically tested in the context of search goods. The focus of this research is to determine whether intent to search the Internet for product information is a key element for marketing researchers to employ in predicting consumers’ Internet purchasing intentions. Data were collected through a mail survey to computer users who resided in 15 U.S. metropolitan areas. Two-stage structural equation modeling was employed to test hypotheses. The results show that intention to use the Internet to search for information was not only the strongest predictor of Internet purchase intention but also mediated relationships between purchasing intention and other predictors (i.e., attitude toward Internet shopping, perceived behavioral control, and previous Internet purchase experience). Direct and indirect relationships between two antecedents (attitude toward Internet shopping and previous Internet purchase experience) and Internet purchase intention were also found. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed.
SUMMARY Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis are developed by extending certain studies on robustness of the t statistic. These measures are shown to possess desirable properties. The asymptotic distributions of the measures for samples
from a multivariate normal population are derived and a test of multivariate normality is proposed. The effect of nonnormality
on the size of the one-sample Hotelling's T2 test is studied empirically with the help of these measures, and it is found that Hotelling's T2 test is more sensitive to the measure of skewness than to the measure of kurtosis.
The controversy over using college students as subjects in applied research has been a topic of philosophical discourse and empirical investigation. Thirty-two studies are reviewed in which students and nonstudents participated as subjects under identical conditions. In studies reporting statistical tests of between-group differences, the preponderance of findings indicated that the experimental results differed in the two samples. By contrast, no major differences associated with the type of subject were reported in the majority of studies which did not employ statistical procedures to compare the findings in the two samples. Explanations for differences in the sample are offered, and serve as a basis for recommendations for future research.
Attempts to examine the concepts of trust and commitment, on two levels of retail relationships: the salesperson level as well as the store level, and test their impact on relationship quality. Based on a review of the literature, a conceptual model has been developed that links trust and commitment to relationship quality. A number of research hypotheses have been formulated to examine the relationships proposed. The paper presents the model developed and discusses some empirical findings from a survey of 1,261 shoppers in a departmental store setting in Victoria, Australia. In particular, the two levels of relationships (salesperson and store level) are examined from the customer’s perspective, using structural equation modelling (LISREL VIII). Concludes with a discussion of the implications of the study and provides directions for future research.
A review of the assessment of face validity in consumer-related scale development research is reported, suggesting that concerns over the lack of consistency and guidance regarding item retention during the expert judging phase of scale development are warranted. After analyzing data from three scale development efforts, guidance regarding the application of different decision rules to use for item retention is offered. Additionally, the results suggest that research using new, changed, or previously unexamined scale items should, at a minimum, be judged for face validity.
The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
Exchange has been widely accepted as the core concept in marketing, yet the topic has received limited attention by researchers in the marketing discipline. The authors discuss exchange theory and tie it more closely to the basic underpinnings of marketing.
Discusses the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of relationship marketing (RM) to show that RM is but one, albeit perhaps a major, manifestation of the ongoing paradigm shift in business and marketing. The rapid revolutionary changes in the economic and technological environment of business (such as the information revolution) made simultaneously both possible and necessary the changes that can be summarized as a fundamental paradigm shift. Further, it can be argued that this paradigm shift itself is a logical end result of two phenomena: the perennial quest to get closer to the customer and the ever widening scope of business and marketing towards a holistic view of the processes. The external and internal forces that led to the paradigm shift in business and marketing were manifested early in service marketing for natural reasons. Thus it is understandable that the concept of RM was first conceived of in service marketing but it is by no means limited to it. The parallel development in business is often labelled partnering (strategic alliances and partnerships).
This research promotes an innovative qualitative methodology, the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET), for sport and tourism research. ZMET has been applied mainly in marketing research (e.g., advertising) for major companies. This study adopts ZMET because of its sophisticated imaging techniques in eliciting both consumers' spoken and tacit thoughts and feelings (e.g., more valid, more reliable) in a way that traditional methods do not. Furthermore, the powerful data elicitation technology available through ZMET enhances not only the data collection process, but also the interpretation of that data and the study's trustworthiness (i.e., validity, reliability, and credibility). The study findings suggest a conceptual model that combines exchange theories with essential and necessary dispositional variables to explain sport tourists' loyalty development processes. The model contains four antecedents of loyalty with ‘exchange-relationships’ as the moderator and ‘trust’ as a precursor. The concept of social and resource exchanges reflecting the long-term nature of consumer consumption processes enables this model to capture the complex and dynamic relationships in the loyalty development processes. This model also rises to the marketing challenge of building long-term consumer relationships. Sport tourists' loyalty, therefore, might be strengthened or retained by maximizing trust and several or all of these antecedents through customer relationship building with social and resource exchanges.
Because the reactions of sport fans are so often a function of their level of identification with and commitment to the team, the accurate measurement of identification/commitment (I/C) is of utmost importance to sport psychologists and marketers. Typically, two scales have been employed to assess I/C: the Sport Spectator Identification Scale (Wann & Branscombe, 1993) and the Psychological Commitment to Team Scale (Mahony, Madrigal, and Howard, 2000). The current study was designed to examine the relationship between these two inventories as well as their relationships with fan behaviors. The results indicated that the two measures were highly correlated and both scales predicted fan behaviors. Discussion includes the importance of developing a multidimensional measure of I/C. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article explores the role of consumer guilt in a retail context. The results of a field study indicate that a consumer's lack of purchase can lead to a guilt response when social connectedness with a salesperson exists and the consumer perceives he or she has control over the purchase decision. A subsequent laboratory study established that when consumers experience guilt, they intend to pursue reparative actions during future purchase interactions with the salesperson to reciprocate the initial connection they established. This reparation is directed specifically toward the salesperson and not the firm.
Research on the behavioural intentions (BI) of business-to-business customers has focused on the influence and the interactions among constructs driving BI, giving rise to two perspectives for the structural equation modeling of constructs influencing BI. In the first perspective, BI is impacted directly by relationship quality (RQ) and its antecedents such as relationship benefits (RB) and relationship sacrifices (RS). The second perspective suggests that antecedent dimensions of RB and RS may act indirectly through the construct of relationship value (RV), which drives RQ but also directly influences BI. The current study was undertaken to resolve the differences between these two perspectives. The findings indicate that RQ has a strong direct influence on BI while RV has a weak direct influence but a significant indirect influence on BI through the RQ construct. In addition, the constructs of RB and RS influence RQ directly, as well as through the RV construct.Research Highlights►Relationship benefits and sacrifice acts through relationship value and relationship quality. ►Relationship value influences behavioural intentions indirectly via relationship quality. ►Relationship value weakly influences behavioural intentions directly. ►Relationship value exists; however, it is not the only path to behavioural intentions.
The present study examines both positive and negative norms of reciprocity in managerial work relationships by assessing three components of reciprocal behavior: immediacy, equivalence, and interest motive. The findings show that subordinate reports of immediacy, equivalence, and self-interest were negatively associated, and mutual-interest was positively associated, with relationship quality as reported by both subordinates and managers (other-interest was not significant). These components of reciprocity were also subjected to cluster analysis to identify groupings of reciprocity styles. The results indicate styles reflecting high quality (n=65), low quality (n=120), and negative social exchanges (n=23). Analyses addressing reciprocity configurations and work outcomes showed that the higher quality exchange relationships had higher levels of perceived organizational support and altruism (but not commitment) than the lower and negative exchange groups, while only the negative reciprocity group showed lower levels of performance and conscientiousness as rated by the manager.