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Orthographic Mapping in the Acquisition of Sight Word Reading, Spelling Memory, and Vocabulary Learning
Abstract
Orthographic mapping (OM) involves the formation of letter-sound connections to bond the spellings, pronunciations, and meanings of specific words in memory. It explains how children learn to read words by sight, to spell words from memory, and to acquire vocabulary words from print. This development is portrayed by Ehri (2005a11.
Ehri , L. 2005a. “Development of sight word reading: Phases and findings”. In The science of reading: A handbook, Edited by:
Snowling , M. and
Hulme , C. 135–154. Malden, MA: Blackwell. [CrossRef]View all references) as a sequence of overlapping phases, each characterized by the predominant type of connection linking spellings of words to their pronunciations in memory. During development, the connections improve in quality and word-learning value, from visual nonalphabetic, to partial alphabetic, to full grapho-phonemic, to consolidated grapho-syllabic and grapho-morphemic. OM is enabled by phonemic awareness and grapheme-phoneme knowledge. Recent findings indicate that OM to support sight word reading is facilitated when beginners are taught about articulatory features of phonemes and when grapheme-phoneme relations are taught with letter-embedded picture mnemonics. Vocabulary learning is facilitated when spellings accompany pronunciations and meanings of new words to activate OM. Teaching students the strategy of pronouncing novel words aloud as they read text silently activates OM and helps them build their vocabularies. Because spelling-sound connections are retained in memory, they impact the processing of phonological constituents and phonological memory for words.
... Effective reading requires activation of a mapping between printed symbols (words) and phonemic sequences (sounds), which form spoken words (Castles et al., 2018;Ehri, 2005Ehri, , 2014Snowling, 2001). Thus, oral language development plays a role in the development of literacy skills (Hulme et al., 2020;Nag et al., 2019;Oakhill & Cain, 2012). ...
... The phonological route converts graphemes (letters) to phonemes (sounds) directly, providing a phonological output using a regular grapheme-phoneme conversion system. The lexical route comprises two subroutes: a semantic, or indirect, lexical route and a nonsemantic, or direct, lexical route (Coltheart, 2006), both of which support reading of sight words (Castles et al., 2018;Ehri, 2014). To become proficient readers, children must gradually shift from reading words primarily through decoding to relying on efficient direct access to word meanings through the lexical route (Castles et al., 2018). ...
... The simple view of reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986;Hoover & Gough, 1990) proposes that reading comprehension comprises two distinct components: decoding and linguistic comprehension. Decoding consists of accurate word identification or recognition based on the cognitive processes discussed above (Castles et al., 2018;Coltheart, 2006;Ehri, 2014). Linguistic comprehension consists of the ability to understand sentences and speech presented orally (Ehri, 2005;Florit et al., 2011;Georgiou et al., 2009;Hoover & Gough, 1990). ...
Objective: This study describes the construction and evidence of content validity of the Reading and Writing Neuropsychological Instruction program (Instrução Neuropsicológica da Leitura e da Escrita [INELE]). This program aims to improve children’s reading and writing skills in classrooms in early grades. Method: The INELE was developed through five stages, namely, literature review, activity creation, interrater analysis, educator input, and finalization. Interrater agreement was assessed using the content validity index, with experts and educators evaluating sections and sessions independently, leading to the creation of the final version. Results: After interrater analyses and evaluation by school educators, the final version of the INELE comprises 25 sessions organized into two sections: (a) phonological awareness and grapheme–phoneme correspondence and (b) text reading comprehension and text reading fluency. Conclusions: The INELE is a useful evidence-based intervention for reading and writing instruction in classrooms and for training of underlying cognitive processes.
... Sight words result from the reader establishing connections between a word's graphemes and phonemes, pronunciation, and meaning. Orthographic mapping represents a process connecting units of written language (graphemes/ spelling patterns) and units of oral language, like phonemes, morphemes, or syllables (Ehri, 2014). It requires knowledge of phoneme/grapheme relationships and phonemic analysis and synthesis skill (Kilpatrick, 2015). ...
... We also expect effects from broader oral language skills to emerge (Nation & Snowling, 2004). Specifically, the decoding process appears to support vocabulary development; simultaneously semantics skills also support orthographic learning (Ehri, 2014;Ouellette & Fraser, 2009). ...
... Practitioners devote significant evaluation efforts to describe students' word reading development. Orthographic mapping represents the connection-making process that converts decoded words into sight words, a critical component of skilled word reading (Ehri, 2014). The process depends significantly on phonemic awareness and letter-sound skills. ...
Practitioners are encouraged to apply theories of reading development to psychoeducational test interpretation. Orthographic mapping provides an explanation of the acquisition of sight words. Although many test batteries provide tasks for practitioners to assess reading components associated with orthographic mapping, the relationship among components will vary across batteries and specific task demands that can impact their interpretation by practitioners. This study
evaluated the effects of phonemic awareness and oral language skills on various indicators of orthographic mapping competence while controlling for word decoding skills in the standardization samples of the Kaufman Tests of Educational Achievement, 3rd Edition (KTEA-3) and the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Fourth Edition (WIAT-4). The WIAT-4 phonemic awareness subtest’s task demands and relationships between it and some measures of word reading conform to the phonemic proficiency hypothesis. We discuss implications for comprehensive psychoeducational assessment when evaluating student reading development.
... The sub-lexical route, however, is not an efficient route and the application of phoneme-grapheme correspondences (PGC) demands time and cognitive resources (e.g., Moats, 2010). With increasing spelling training and print exposure, phonological and orthographic information is amalgamated to create permanent, word-specific memory representations (Orthographic Mapping Theory; Ehri 1995Ehri , 2005Ehri , 2014. Emergent spellers learn to bond the specific letters in written words (orthography) with their sounds (phonology) and meanings through this process. ...
... Although research is not extensive, evidence is emerging that phonics instruction in L2 may aid ELLs in expanding their vocabulary (e.g., Huo & Wang, 2017;Li & Woore, 2021;Woore, 2021). In line with Ehri's Orthographic Mapping Theory (1995, 2005, 2014, we suggest that systematic training in PGC assists learners in the phonics group to develop better lexical representations. However, we do not expect significant group differences regarding the development of L2 grammatical knowledge. ...
... Phonics instruction emphasises mastering PGC, which appears to aid learners in developing robust mental word representations, tightly integrating written and spoken forms. Our findings resonate with Ehri's Orthographic Mapping Theory (Ehri 1995(Ehri , 2005(Ehri , 2014, which provides a theoretical framework that explains how these integrations contribute to reading proficiency, word learning and spelling accuracy. According to Ehri's theory, learners bond spellings to pronunciation and meaning through GPC, which leads to better vocabulary knowledge in memory. ...
The study at hand commemorates the legacy of Vivian Cook by highlighting an essential aspect of second-language (L2) writing systems: The significant role of L2 spelling. Furthermore, in response to Cook’s suggestions for future areas of research, we investigated the effectiveness of three literacy intervention programmes on the L2 spelling achievement of young English-language learners (ELLs). In addition, the focus of our investigation was to identify and analyse the most common types of spelling errors and to examine how first-language German phonology and orthography affect L2 English spelling errors. Participants (N = 75) were young ELLs with German as their first language. Over a two-year period, children received either (a) phonics, (b) whole word or (c) combined instruction when learning to read and spell in L2 English. Results indicate that there were no significant group differences on real word or pseudoword spelling accuracy, but phonics instruction led to better L2 vocabulary knowledge, while combined instruction appeared to increase children’s L2 reading rate. Additionally, young learners’ L2 misspellings were subjected to error analyses across two metrics: Phonological and orthographic errors. Groups differed significantly in the types of errors learners made. Phonological errors were predominant in all three groups, but the fewest phonological and first-language interference errors were made in the phonics group. We discuss the results in relation to the Triple Word Form Theory and Orthographic Mapping Theory and highlight educational implications.
... Although these studies identified learners' lack of reading skills in the Namibian education system, they did not explore the way reading and spelling are interrelated. Thus, the researcher found it necessary to explore the way in which a systematic spelling system for teaching English is implemented because spelling and literacy are interwoven (Ehri, 2014). Spelling skills affect both the reading and writing skills of learners. ...
... Knowledge about sound patterns that children acquire in the early years through instruction helps them to decode new words in their reading. As they mature and begin to spell longer and more complex words, children apply this knowledge of base words, prefixes, and suffixes to their spelling (Ehri, 2014;Ehri, 2000;Foorman & Petsche, 2010;Hutcheon, Campbell & Stewart, 2012). This knowledge of morphology, in turn, helps children to analyse longer words in their future reading. ...
... Therefore, explicit explanation of the English orthography, which includes the sounds, syllable patterns, meaningful word parts (morphemes), and the language of origin is needed at classroom level. Similarly, Ehri (2014) contends that as knowledge of the spelling-sound system develops and nurtures spelling patterns, the learner can use these patterns (spellings of syllables, prefixes, and suffixes) to form connections and recollect the spelling and reading of words with many syllables. In addition, Moats (2009) emphasises that well-taught phonic decoding entails more than mere letter-sound correspondence for each letter of the alphabet. ...
Namibia is a country where English is mostly acquired as a taught subject and Grade 4 is a transitional year where the medium of instruction changes from the mother tongue or predominant local language to English. The National Curriculum specifies that it is crucial for learners to acquire English literacy skills in Grades 1, 2 and 3 to ensure a smooth transitioning to Gr.4. However, data revealed that when Namibian learners enter the Senior Primary phase (Grade 4-7), their shaky foundation leaves them at a disadvantage which hinders optimal academic progress. Spelling is essential for reading comprehension therefore it is crucial for literacy development and needs to be taught explicitly in the Junior Primary phase. The case study presented in this paper is part of a broader qualitative M.Ed. study which explored the teaching of English spelling by using the Sound Reading System (SRS) in spelling instruction from Grade 1 to Grade 3 at a school in the Erongo region of Namibia. The findings revealed that teachers felt their own alphabetic knowledge was strengthened and their approach to teaching spelling had evolved. The use of SRS provided a systematic approach to their teaching. The teachers believed that there is a definite link between spelling and reading and that this strategy has provided an opportunity to teach these skills simultaneously and in an integrated manner. The paper discloses that for spelling instruction to be effective, teachers should be equipped with thorough alphabetic knowledge as well as pedagogic content knowledge.
... Dies dürfte in besonderem Maße auch für Schüler*innen mit dem SGE gelten, da sie intellektuelle Beeinträchtigungen haben, welche unter anderem die Kapazität des Arbeitsgedächtnisses und das deklarative Langzeitgedächtnis betreffen (Pitsch & Limbach-Reich, 2019;Sarimski, 2003). Die Förderung des Sichtwortschatzes als Erinnern orthografischer Muster setzt jedoch ein Konzept der alphabetischen Schrift und Graphem-Phonem-Korrespondenz voraus, da Leser*innen ansonsten nur visuelle Merkmale und den Kontext nutzen, um Wörter wiederzuerkennen (Ehri, 1998;2014). Diese Lesestrategie ist wenig effektiv und wird als lebenspraktisches Ganzwortlesen bei Schüler*innen mit IB eher kritisch gesehen (Dönges, 2007;Katims, 2000). ...
... Durch die unterschiedlichen Komponenten des Förderkonzepts lässt sich nicht bestimmen, welche Elemente welchen Einfluss auf das Gesamtergebnis haben. Ausgehend von der Studienlage lässt sich aber vermuten, dass das mehrmalige Lesen adaptierter Texte (Strickland et al., 2020), das wiederholte Wortlesen in variablen Übungsformaten (Allor et al., 2020), die analytisch-synthetische Wortarbeit (Ehri, 2014) sowie die hohe Motivation durch das Rahmenthema bedeutsam sind. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie decken sich mit denen der Studien von Allor et al. (2018;2020 Ergebnissen anderer Studien zur literalen Bildung dieser Personengruppe (Allor et al., 2014;Allor et al., 2020). ...
... diesen gezielt zu fördern, wie es von Thaler et al. (2004) vermutet wird. Möglicherweise sind ein alphabetisches Schriftkonzept und gesicherte Graphem-Phonem-Korrespondenz die bedeutsameren Voraussetzungen zum Aufbau eines frühen Sichtwortschatzes (Ehri, 1998;2014). ...
Im Fokus des Beitrages steht eine Interventionsstudie zur Förderung des Sichtwortschatzes von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung. Die Förderung erfolgte durch wiederholtes Wortlesen, systematische Analyse und Synthese der fokussierten Wörter sowie dem Lesen von verbundenem Text, der diese Wörter enthält. Diese Förderung fand im Rahmen eines umfassenden Literaturprojektes zum Kinderroman "Emil und die Detektive" statt, der zu diesem Zweck für diese Schüler*innengruppe adaptiert wurde. Die Analysen der kontrollierten Einzelfallstudien zeigen bei einer vergleichsweise kurzen Förderdauer von zehn Wochen für die Schüler*innen moderate Lerneffekte bei insgesamt großer Varianz, wobei die Anstiege im Level und in der Steigung signifikant waren. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass eine textbezogene Förderung des Sichtwortschatzes durch wiederholtes Wortlesen, analytisch-synthetische Wortarbeit und Textlesen eine wirksame Kombination von Förderstrategien im Schriftspracherwerb von Schüler*innen mit intellektuellen Beeinträchtigungen sein können.
... Acquiring spelling competence, an integral component of word knowledge, is more complex than learning to read since it involves retrieving accurate word renditions from memory (Ehri, 2000;Mather and Jaffe, 2021). Spelling is important for literacy acquisition since learning about the alphabetic system and the orthographic form of words contributes to word pronunciation and meaning in memory and assists with word retrieval (Ehri, 2014;Perfetti and Hart, 2002). Emergent readers benefit from explicit teaching on their path toward literacy (Galuschka et al., 2020;O'Leary and Ehri, 2020), especially for EFL learners who do not have a strong English background (Kahn-Horwitz, 2020). ...
... The multiple opportunities for revision of the phonemegrapheme and grapheme-phoneme connections in the digital escape rooms could explain the successful outcomes of the intervention. Repeated graphotactic patterns and phonological input in keeping with the theory of statistical learning using the digital gamed learning in the escape rooms helped to cement the EFL young learners' spelling in memory and assisted in making spelling automatic (Ehri, 2014;Perfetti and Hart, 2002;Treiman and Kessler, 2022). Automaticity in the spelling process, which enables concentration on the message, is critical in the path toward literacy (Grünke and Skirde, 2022). ...
This study examines the efficacy of using a digital gamed platform in acquiring phoneme-grapheme correspondences of closed syllables with short vowels. Fifty-five fourth-grade English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners navigated through five digital escape rooms where they learned, practiced, and produced target graphemes. Mixed methods analyses found that spelling competence in the intervention group as opposed to the control group improved in the post-test and continued to improve significantly in the delayed post-test. Following analysis of the participant interviews four themes emerged. Autonomous learning and self-monitoring were the dominant themes followed by engagement and motivation, self-confidence and self-esteem, and peer learning and social interaction in decreasing order of prevalence. Combining learning with play while participants navigated within the digital learning environment proved to be an effective method of teaching young EFL learners to spell. The results of this intervention contribute to recent research in the post-COVID-19 era and mirror OECD goals for the 21st century which have highlighted the need for effective digital platforms that promote independent learning while maximizing student engagement.
... Readers must also manage attention to and switch attention between various text features, such as graphophonological and semantic aspects of printed words (Ehri, 2014;Perfetti & Stafura, 2014). The graphophonological-semantic cognitive exibility task requires individuals to switch back and forth between graphophonological and semantic aspects of printed words while sorting them along both dimensions simultaneously, indexed by accuracy and speed (Cartwright, 2002;Cartwright et al., 2017Cartwright et al., , 2019 Inhibitory Control These tasks require identi cation and suppression of distracting information or suppression of habitual responses, such as the computerized Flanker task used by Johann and Karbach (2020) that required participants to resist visual distractors that were congruent or incongruent with target stimuli in a computerized visual-matching task, which was scored on accuracy and response time. ...
... Perspectives that integrate EFs in understandings of reading may also elucidate the cognitive mechanisms underlying orthographic mapping-the essential linking of orthographic, phonological, and semantic aspects of print in skilled word identification (Ehri, 2014). EFs underlie links between these three processes (Perfetti & Stafura, 2014), which reflect both word reading and language comprehension. ...
... Conrad et al. 2013;Querido et al. 2020). As word-specific orthographic knowledge deals with one's knowledge of specific words, its role in reading can be easily rationalised as it aids in a reader's ability to both recognise and produce words in their language (Ehri 2014;Zarić et al. 2021). However, general orthographic knowledge is argued to be involved in reading as when learners do not know the specific words, they will need to rely on their knowledge of the orthographic rules of the language to identify and produce words (Apel 2011;Ehri 2005Ehri , 2014. ...
... As word-specific orthographic knowledge deals with one's knowledge of specific words, its role in reading can be easily rationalised as it aids in a reader's ability to both recognise and produce words in their language (Ehri 2014;Zarić et al. 2021). However, general orthographic knowledge is argued to be involved in reading as when learners do not know the specific words, they will need to rely on their knowledge of the orthographic rules of the language to identify and produce words (Apel 2011;Ehri 2005Ehri , 2014. ...
Background: Research acknowledges the importance of phonological processing and orthographic processing for reading and spelling in both consistently and inconsistently written languages. While the focus has tended to be on the role of phonological processing in languages with consistent orthographies, the role of orthographic processing, specifically orthographic knowledge has yet to be as extensively explored.Aim: To address this gap, this article explores the unique contributions of phonological awareness (PA) and orthographic knowledge for reading and spelling in the consistently written language of isiXhosa. In addition, we investigate the multi-dimensional character of orthographic knowledge by establishing whether letter-sound knowledge is a sub-component of orthographic knowledge, alongside word-specific and general orthographic knowledge.Setting: A quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted with 182 isiXhosa third graders.Methods: Participants completed word-specific and general orthographic knowledge tasks, which were specifically designed for the study, along with tasks of oral reading fluency, spelling accuracy, PA, rapid automatised naming and letter-sound knowledge.Results: Using confirmatory factor analyses along with regression analyses, the findings provide support for the multi-dimensional character of orthographic knowledge inclusive of word-specific orthographic knowledge, general orthographic knowledge and letter-sound knowledge. Further, it was revealed that for this sample of isiXhosa third graders, orthographic knowledge was more influential to reading and spelling performance over and above PA, providing evidence for the importance of orthographic skill for both reading and spelling in isiXhosa.Conclusion: The present study adds to a growing understanding of the multi-dimensional nature of orthographic knowledge and provides evidence for the importance of orthographic knowledge for reading and spelling in isiXhosa.Contribution: The findings support the need for phonics instruction that incorporates activities which build learners’ orthographic knowledge and other writing-related skills. Further, continuous exposure to books and reading will also strengthen learners’ orthographic knowledge.
... Knowing the etymology or origin of English words also helps with both decoding skill and vocabulary development (Henry, 2011). Instruction in these elements facilitates a mental process called orthographic mapping, which is the "formation of letter-sound connections to bond the spellings, pronunciations, and meanings of specific words in memory" (Ehri, 2014). ...
... Reading fluency, defined as a combination of word reading accuracy, automaticity, and prosody, is vital to reading proficiency (Hudson et al., 2005) because there is a very strong correlation between fluency and comprehension (e.g., Rasinski et al., 2011). Word-level automaticity, or effortless recognition of individual words, is essential for reading proficiency (Ehri, 2014(Ehri, , 2020. Text-level automaticity, or oral reading fluency, is most effectively developed through extensive practice with connected text (Hudson et al., 2020). ...
https://aacte.org/resources/research-reports-and-briefs/science-of-reading/
... A study conducted in 2005 reported that unique variance for RC in Grade 2 was explained predominantly by the word recognition abilities; however by Grade 8 as the word recognition abilities improved to the level of sight reading or orthographic reading, most of the variance in RC was explained by listening comprehension (Catts, Hogan, & Adolf, 2005). Thus, at the beginning of learning to read, the non-lexical route is the only one available for children (Ehri, 2014). With reading instruction and practice, the repeated decoding of the same words leads to the development of the lexical pathway, in which whole word orthographic representations are stored. ...
... This route enables the reader to correctly and rapidly identify familiar words, whether they are consistent or not. It is the most frequently used route by expert readers (Ehri, 2014). Thus, in the process of learning to read, children need to develop various skills necessary for the development of decoding and word recognition abilities, practice these skills and their word recognition skills and these will, in turn enhance the speed and automaticity of decoding. ...
Purpose: Studies in India have examined the relation of rapid automatized naming (RAN), reading fluency (RF), phonological awareness (PA), spelling ability, and language ability with reading comprehension (RC) in English in children where English is taught for the purpose of education. However, the predictor variables of RC have not been explored. Aim: To propose a structural model for RC in English in children with mother tongue Marathi studying in English medium schools. Materials and Methods: Participants included 80 children with mother tongue Marathi (Grades 1 and 2) in English medium schools. A battery of test for the assessment of language, RAN, PA, RF, spelling and RC in English was administered. Smart PLS 3.0 was used for the analysis of data. Results: The final model proposed had loadings > 0.708, composite reliabilities > 0.7, and AVE of all constructs > 0.5. Discriminant validity of the model was ascertained as the values were less than the heterotraitmonotrait (HTMT) criteria of 0.85 for all components. 86% of variance in RC was explained by language ability (β = 0.409, P < 0.001) and RF (β = 0.453, P < 0.001), when RF was mediated by RAN-letter (β = 0.348, P < 0.001), and PA (β = 0.384, P < 0.001). Conclusion: The structural model proposed in the study is reliable and valid. Language ability and RF have significant influence on RC, and RAN-letter and PA have a significant mediating role in the relationship between RF and RC. Thus, RC in English can be improved if language and RF are developed, and RF can be improved by enhancing RAN-letter speed, and PA skills in these children.
... Decoding involves translating written words into their spoken equivalents by applying knowledge of letter-sound correspondences. Without strong phonological awareness, children may find it difficult to decode unfamiliar words, leading to poor reading fluency and comprehension (Ehri, 2014). Castles, Rastle & Nation (2018) highlights that early phonological awareness is a key determinant of a child's ability to decode words accurately and efficiently, thereby facilitating fluent reading. ...
... The authors recommended a balanced approach to reading instruction that includes explicit teaching of phonological awareness and phonics alongside opportunities for rich language experiences. Ehri (2014) examined the role of orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. The study reviewed various empirical studies and theoretical models to explore how phonological awareness contributes to orthographic mapping and its impact on reading development. ...
Purpose: This study sought to investigate the role of phonological awareness in early reading development. Methodology: The study adopted a desktop research methodology. Desk research refers to secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily accessed through the online journals and library. Findings: The findings reveal that there exists a contextual and methodological gap relating to phonological awareness in early reading development. Preliminary empirical review revealed that phonological awareness was crucial for early reading development, serving as a foundation for decoding skills and overall literacy. It emphasized the importance of early, systematic instruction in phonological awareness within early childhood education to improve reading outcomes and reduce reading difficulties. The study highlighted that phonological awareness also contributed to spelling and vocabulary development, enhancing overall language proficiency. It advocated for integrated and inclusive educational strategies that consider diverse linguistic and cultural contexts to bridge literacy gaps and promote equitable learning opportunities for all children. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The Phonological Deficit Hypothesis, Simple View of Reading and the Emergent Literacy Theory may be used to anchor future studies on the role of phonological awareness in early reading development. The study recommended further exploration into the multifaceted nature of phonological awareness to advance theoretical models and emphasized the need for early, systematic, and engaging phonological awareness instruction in early childhood education. It called for individualized interventions for at-risk children, ongoing teacher professional development, and frequent monitoring of progress. The study also urged policymakers to invest in early literacy programs, ensure equitable access to educational resources, and include phonological awareness assessments in screening programs. Additionally, it advocated for increased collaboration between researchers, educators, and policymakers to create a cohesive approach to early literacy education.
... Durch die unterschiedlichen Komponenten des Förderkonzepts lässt sich nicht bestimmen, welche Elemente welchen Einfluss auf das Gesamtergebnis haben. Ausgehend von der Studienlage lässt sich aber vermuten, dass das mehrmalige Lesen adaptierter Texte , das wiederholte Wortlesen in variablen Übungsformaten , die analytisch-synthetische Wortarbeit (Ehri, 2014) ...
Im Zentrum dieser Arbeit stehen wortspezifische Zugänge zu literaler Förderung von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung. Die Repräsentation von Wörtern im mentalen Lexikon beinhaltet insbesondere die Bedeutungs-, Ausdrucks- und Schriftebene. Aspekte der Diagnostik und Förderung dieses wortspezifischen Wissens unter Berücksichtigung von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung standen im Mittelpunkt der verschiedenen Studien: 1) Evaluation eines förderdiagnostischen Konzepts zur elementaren Vokabularentwicklung unterstützt kommunizierender Schüler*innen, 2) Lehrer*innenbefragung zum Einsatz von Lautgebärden im (Schrift-)Spracherwerb von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung, 3) Effekte einer Förderung des Sichtwortschatzes von Schüler*innen der Sekundarstufe mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung im Rahmen eines umfassenden Literaturprojekts, 4) Definition eines Lesegrundwortschatzes auf Grundlage des ChildLEX-Korpus, 5) Effekte des umfassenden literalen Förderprogramms "Schulfreunde" im Anfangsunterricht von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung.
... A consciência fonológica proporciona à criança a oportunidade de refletir sobre os sons da fala e é através de tal reflexão/consciência que a criança identifica palavras que rimam, começam ou terminam com os mesmos sons, e são capazes de manipular a estrutura sonora para a formação de novas palavras. Não é à toa que o nível de consciência fonológica de crianças em A período de alfabetização é considerado um fator preditor do sucesso na leitura (Ehri 2014;Scarborough 2001; Snowling e Hulme 2013; Teixeira e Azevedo 2021). ...
... For example, orthographic knowledge, involving understanding the conventions and rules of written language, significantly contributes to spelling accuracy (Apel, 2011;Ehri, 2014). Morphological awareness, the understanding of word structure and the ability to manipulate morphemes, is also essential for spelling skills (Grigorakis & Manolitsis, 2021). ...
This study investigated the role of domain-specific and domain-general factors in predicting early literacy skills in Italian children. A sample of 239 first-grade students was evaluated using a broad neuropsychological battery to assess their cognitive skills. The results showed that phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, speed of processing, and attentional control all played a role in predicting reading and writing abilities. These findings support the importance of considering not just domain-specific language skills, but also domain-general cognitive skills when identifying children at risk of difficulties in reading and writing. The study supports the adoption of a multifactorial-probabilistic model to accurately diagnose specific learning disorders.
... . (Blachman et al., 2004;Denton & Al Otaibam, 2011;Ehri, 2014) . (Yaw et al., 2012) . ...
This study compares the effectiveness and efficiency of using words with pictures and words alone with simultaneous prompting (SP) to teach sight word reading to four students, 8 to 11 years of age, with mild intellectual disabilities (ID). An adapted alternating treatment design was used to assess the two methods. The results suggest that both procedures were equally effective. Maintenance data showed that all students were able to maintain the acquired skills through the two teaching procedures, although words with picture resulted in a slightly higher maintenance level. words with pictures were more efficient according to four efficiency measures. All participants learned the words in fewer sessions and trials, made less errors, and needed less instructional time when they were presented with pictures rather than alone. Although pictures do assist in sight word acquisition, participant were unable to read all words in the absence of the picture. This finding is consistent with the phenomenon of overshadowing (pictures can be extra stimulus prompt where it distracts the learner's attention from the word) and blocking effect where the learner associates the spoken word with the picture and not with the written word.
... Therefore, the development of reading fluency in L2 requires not only knowledge of the writing system but also constant efforts to build stable lexical representations of the L2 words that allow a direct and automatic access from the form to the meaning. In other words, learners gradually develop the skill of 'sight word reading' based on frequent exposure to L2 texts and noticing strategies supporting both deliberate and incidental vocabulary acquisition (Ehri, 2014). Learners acquiring a highly inflecting language, though, might need more time to achieve the automaticity of sight word reading than learners acquiring isolating or weakly inflected languages as they need to process the information encoded in the multiple morphological shapes a given word assumes in different sentential contexts (Bexterm€ oller, 2018) With regard to reading development in Latin, we take a cautious stance, since the grammar-translation method used in German schools focuses on translation of Latin textual units. ...
The present paper evaluates the processes of reading acquisition in Latin from the component-skills approach and discusses how advances in reading in modern foreign languages could be adapted to the specific needs of Latin as a historical language. Compared to the holistic and socially embedded approaches to modern foreign language acquisition, the grammar-translation method traditionally used in schools shows considerable weaknesses in the development of basic reading skills in Latin. Therefore, we address the possible advantages of corpus-based teaching strategies and present Machina Callida, a psycholinguistically informed e-tutor suitable for supporting Latin vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension at beginner and intermediate levels. Using digital corpora of original Latin texts, the application semi-automatically generates contextualized vocabulary exercises tailored to the needs of different groups of learners. Through its integration with the research data repository Zenodo, Machina Callida supports online collaboration in the creation and distribution of open educational resources through crowdsourcing.
... and phonemes (meaningful units of sound), but they also reflect morphological structure. The ability to decode words using knowledge of grapheme-phoneme correspondences is a powerful tool for unlocking the pronunciations of unfamiliar written words and learning their orthographic forms (e.g., Ehri, 2005Ehri, , 2014Share, 1995). However, in English orthography, morphological information tends to be preserved at the expense of grapheme-phoneme regularity (Berg & Aronoff, 2017;Rastle, 2018). ...
In this pre-registered meta-analysis, we investigated the effectiveness of morphology instruction on literacy outcomes for primary school children in English-speaking countries. We were interested in overall reading and spelling outcomes, but we also looked separately at results for trained and untrained words in order to determine whether there was evidence of transfer to untrained words. Further, we were interested in whether results transferred beyond the word level to reading comprehension outcomes. Our screening process revealed 28 eligible studies, which contributed 177 effect sizes to the analyses. Robust variance estimation methods were used to account for dependence between effect sizes. Overall, effect sizes on reading and spelling outcomes were small to moderate. Effect sizes were larger for trained words than untrained words. There was evidence of transfer to untrained words for spelling outcomes, but not for reading outcomes. There was also no clear evidence of effects on reading comprehension outcomes. In general, the evidence was characterised by large amounts of heterogeneity and imprecision, which was reflective of the wide variety within and between studies in terms of intervention content, outcome measures, intervention dosage and type of control group. We discuss the limitations of the current literature and make recommendations for future research and practice in the field of morphology instruction. (207 words – max 250).
... Apel (2011) explains that the orthographic knowledge of the letter combinations is stored in the mental lexicon due to the repeated exposure to printed words. Therefore, significant contribution of orthographic awareness is required for fluent reading, enabling individuals to recognize letters quickly and process the sentence with less cognitive effort (Ehri, 2014). To become a fluent reader, an individual requires orthographic awareness, including knowing letter positions, combination, and their sequencing, which makes up a meaningful word (Kim, 2022). ...
This study examined the independent contribution of morphological awareness and orthographic awareness in reading comprehension, controlling for working memory and reading fluency in Arabic-speaking children. Participants (N = 244) from grades four and five, were classified into typical comprehenders (n = 207) and poor comprehenders (n = 37). All the participants underwent reading comprehension tasks (sentence comprehension and reading maze), orthographic awareness tasks (word choice and parsing), morphological awareness test (root morpheme awareness), working memory test (listening sentence span), word reading fluency, and word reading accuracy and fluency (reading in one minute). The results indicated that morphological awareness and orthographic awareness contributed significantly to reading comprehension (composite scores) only in the typical comprehenders group. Although morphological awareness showed significant predictive relation with reading comprehension, orthographic awareness was a stronger predictor of reading comprehension while controlling for working memory and reading fluency. The findings are discussed, and future directions for research are suggested.
... For example, within decoding/word recognition, sight word recognition is listed in the models but was not explicitly identified in the reviews as an evidence-based component of the SOR for MLs. While it may be possible that sight word recognition is not important for MLs' proficient reading, it is more likely that sight word recognition was implicit within word recognition or decoding in many of the studies reviewed since it results from orthographic mapping in increasingly sophisticated phases of letter, sound, and word knowledge (Ehri, 2014). Thus, although not identified in any of the systematic reviews we examined, we hypothesize that as a key part of word recognition more broadly, sight word recognition is similarly important for MLs as it is for monolingual English-speaking students. ...
The science of reading (SOR) refers to the sum of what we know about how people learn to read based on empirical studies across multiple disciplines. The purpose of this review was to identify research evidence to inform the SOR for multilingual learners (MLs). We reviewed 30 systematic reviews related to reading and reading instruction for MLs conducted primarily in K-5 U.S. classrooms. Results identified four broad clusters of components related to English reading comprehension as well as instructional practices and programs effective in addressing each component. Clusters included oral language, phonological awareness, decoding and oral reading fluency, and reading comprehension. Notably, oral language and reading skills in both MLs’ first language and in English were essential components of the SOR for MLs. Implications for theory and research as well as policy, curriculum, and instruction are provided.
... The greater the number of lexical entries and the greater the depth of lexical representations that the reader has, the simpler and more effective the word reading process becomes (Perfetti, 1998). In this way, vocabulary facilitates not only the recognition of familiar words, whose representation readers have already stored in their lexicon, but can also help readers grasp unfamiliar words using strategies such as reading them by analogy (Cain et al., 2015;Ehri, 2014). As previously mentioned, the attribution of meanings to words is essential for the reader to understand what he or she reads (Kintsch & Rawson, 2005). ...
Research has consistently revealed the existence of an interconnection between reading comprehension, word reading, reading fluency, vocabulary and rapid naming. The main goal of this study was to explore the possible mediating role of reading fluency in the relationship between reading comprehension and the remaining skills, and to test whether the magnitude of these relationships was similar across different years of schooling. For this purpose, a longitudinal study with two assessment time points was carried out in a sample of 2nd and 3rd graders who were learning to read in European Portuguese, an intermediate-depth orthography. The results evidenced that reading fluency not only directly influences reading comprehension but also plays a mediating role in the relationship between reading comprehension and skills such as word reading and rapid naming. On other hand, the results indicate a unique effect of vocabulary on reading comprehension. Taken together, these results have important implications for educational practice, suggesting that explicit intervention in reading should include both the teaching and training in reading fluency and the construction of a richer lexical repertoire.
... Comprehensive research has demonstrated that students with intellectual disabilities encounter more significant challenges in developing word decoding than their typically developing peers (for meta-analyses, see Dessemontet et al., 2019;Gilmour et al., 2019). However, there is considerable variability in the word decoding abilities among students with intellectual disabilities (Allor & Chard, 2011), but decoding skills are essential for reading comprehension (Ehri, 2014;Gough & Tunmer, 1986). Generally, research demonstrates that students with intellectual disabilities face challenges in reading comprehension (Alquraini & Rao, 2020;Lemons et al., 2013), potentially related to difficulties in decoding, understanding text structure and making inferences (Dessemontet et al., 2019;Gilmour et al., 2019). ...
This study investigates the reading performance of younger students with intellectual disabilities to gain insight into their needs in reading education. Participants were 428 students in Grades 1 to 3 in Sweden. They performed LegiLexi tests measuring pre-reading skills, decoding and reading comprehension based on the model of Simple View of Reading. Results demonstrate a great variation in reading acquisition among students. Some students are able to decode single words and read shorter texts with comprehension already in Grade 1. Other students still struggle with learning letters and developing phonological awareness in Grade 3. According to their longitudinal data over grades, results show that most students progress in pre-reading skills, decoding, and reading comprehension. Hence, assessing reading skills among students with intellectual disabilities in Grades 1–3 using tools aligned with the Simple View of Reading seems applicable and informative for teachers. This study underscores the significance of informed instructional practices for empowering these students in reading education.
... Several theories have been proposed to account for orthographic facilitation. One proposal is that the orthographic form of a word can help to specify and clarify the sound, or the phonological form of the word (Ehri, 2014;Ricketts et al., 2009;Rosenthal & Ehri, 2008). For example, consonant sounds (e.g., /t/, /d/) at the final position of the word are often less pronounced or less clear when spoken. ...
Research suggests that bilinguals often have weaker vocabulary in their second language compared to that of monolinguals (e.g., Hoff, 2013). It is thus important to identify factors that may facilitate vocabulary learning for bilinguals. One suggested factor is the presence of orthography while learning new oral vocabulary. The current study aims to examine the orthographic facilitation effect on vocabulary learning and evaluate whether this effect is larger for children who are simultaneous or emergent bilinguals, compared to monolinguals. A group of 33 bilingual and 38 English monolingual Year 2–4 students participated in an online novel word learning study. Novel words were paired with pictures of vintage tools and taught by presenting the pictures and repeating their names, either with the spelling of the words or picture only. Learning was measured using a picture-naming task, and a 4AFC word-picture matching task. The results showed a significant effect of orthographic facilitation in both measures. For the picture naming task, there was a significant interaction between orthographic condition and language group, with the monolingual group benefiting more from the presence of orthography. However, no such interaction was found in the 4AFC matching. We conclude that both English monolingual and bilingual children learn more novel words when the spellings of words are present, and that this benefit does not appear to be larger for bilingual children.
... Since RC is an internal process, researchers continue to study the components of this process and different ways to improve it (Danaei et al., 2020). In this context, researchers highlight that RC should be considered with some basic components, including but not limited to vocabulary (Quinn et al., 2015), decoding words (Ehri, 2014), reading fluency (Fuchs et al., 2001), prior knowledge (Ertem, 2009), working memory level (Al-Jarrah & Ismail, 2018), and motivation and attitude (Kuşdemir & Bulut, 2018). ...
Virtual Reality (VR) stands at the forefront of transformative educational technologies in the 21st century, promising to redefine traditional learning paradigms. This research delves into the impact of VR on higher education students' Reading Comprehension (RC) skills, contrasting it with conventional paper-based reading environments. By conducting a comparative analysis of RC skills among students engaged in reading a selected narrative through VR glasses and those using a paper-based format, this study offers valuable insights into the efficacy and challenges of VR in enhancing reading comprehension. A cohort of 98 undergraduate students participated in this study, which employed a mixed-methods research approach to scrutinize the differences in RC outcomes between the experimental (VR) and control (paper-based) groups. The findings reveal a notable disparity in RC scores, with the control group outperforming their VR counterparts, highlighting the need for further investigation into the obstacles faced by students when reading in a VR setting. Qualitative analysis sheds light on the underlying reasons for the diminished RC levels observed in the VR group, providing a nuanced understanding of the interaction between medium and comprehension. The implications of this research are far-reaching, offering crucial guidance to educational technologists, curriculum designers, policy makers, and educators contemplating the integration of VR into educational frameworks. By identifying the constraints and potential of VR in reading instruction, this study paves the way for optimizing VR-based learning environments to foster higher levels of reading comprehension among students.
Emerging readers need direct, explicit instruction; however, teachers often lack time and opportunity to provide integrated, embedded practice that moves learners from merely sounding out words to processing textual meaning and context. The Sortegories web-based app meets learners at their reading skill-level and provides purposeful practice that enables accelerated skill development toward mastery. This document provides ESSA Tier 4 evidence and "Demonstrates a Rationale" for the impact of Sortegories.
The article explores how neurolinguistics, which is the study of how language and the brain are connected, can help improve English teaching for students who speak Arabic. Arabic-speaking students face a range of challenges when learning English, which are influenced by the structural and phonological differences between the two languages, as well as cultural and cognitive factors. Therefore, this study points out the differences in structure
between Arabic and English and explains how knowing how the brain handles language can lead to better teaching techniques. By using knowledge from neurolinguistics along with language education, teachers can more effectively help Arabic learners, especially with pronunciation and practicing the language. The article provides strategies and examples based
on research to help educators, and it stresses the importance of experienced teachers in overcoming challenges with pronunciation and language skills. Both descriptive and qualitative approaches are applied in this paper. There are findings listed in the conclusion section, in this study, indicate that neurolinguistics plays a significant role in enhancing English communication skills for Arabic students.
Keywords: Neurolinguistics, ELT, Communication Skills, Arabic-Speaking Students, Language Acquisition
A short form of the 60-item computer-based orthographic processing assessment (long-form COPA or COPA-LF) was developed. The COPA-LF consists of five skills, including rapid perception, access, differentiation, correction, and arrangement. Thirty items from the COPA-LF were selected for the short-form COPA (COPA-SF) based on cognitive diagnostic modeling (CDM) analyses. Both parametric and nonparametric CDM and correlational analyses were conducted with the responses of 74 U.S. second-grade students on the COPA-SF. Results supported five skills of orthographic processing represented on the COPA-SF. Concurrent and convergent validity evidence was found for the COPA-SF. Overall, the findings suggest that the COPA-SF is a time-efficient, reliable, multidimensional measure of orthographic processing.
Purpose
Opportunities for literacy learning should be made accessible to all. For children with developmental disabilities who are emergent communicators, instruction in language and word reading may not be accessible through traditional practices.
Method
Within this clinical focus article, we propose a conceptual model—accessible literacy for emerging communicators (ALEC)—guided by universal design for learning (UDL). UDL provides guidance to make learning accessible by considering all students' needs for engagement, representation, and action and expression. The ALEC model leverages UDL to offer clinical guidance to identify and implement opportunities for language and word reading learning for emerging communicators using augmentative and alternative communication. For emerging communicators with developmental disabilities, applying UDL principles to literacy opportunities includes mapping literacy onto meaningful interactions, providing high-meaning and orthographic representations, and embedding literacy into augmentative and alternative communication technology. We explore this approach clinically, reporting on cases in which we used the approach with three young children on the autism spectrum.
Results
Based on clinical observation of data collection sessions in which UDL principles were applied to literacy, three participants demonstrated improved engagement compared with other sessions that targeted literacy goals.
Conclusion
More research is needed, but our initial exploration showed that, by applying UDL guidelines for access, literacy learning opportunities can be made accessible for children with developmental disabilities who are emerging communicators.
This phenomenological study delves into the lived experiences of learners struggling with frustration levels in reading. Recognizing the significance of aiding such individuals, and comprehending the multifaceted impacts of their difficulties on emotional, social, cultural. and academic domains becomes imperative, thereby necessitating a tailored reading intervention program. Employing a mixed-methods approach integrating qualitative and quantitative methodologies, data were collected through questionnaires and guided interviews, and then analyzed through a comprehensive six-phase method. The study encompassed 15 learner- participants and 10 teacher-participants. Results highlighted the diverse challenges encountered by these learners in reading-related tasks, with consequential results across aspects. Furthermore, the findings emphasized the adoption of coping mechanisms by learners and highlighted the indispensable support systems from parents, peers, teachers, and the educational institution. In conclusion, the implementation of a reading intervention program emerged as pivotal in empowering learners with a frustration level of reading and fostering their holistic development.
High-quality decodable books enhance literacy by providing children with focused practice opportunities to break down sounds they have learned and apply their decoding skills. Just Right Reader (JRR) hired LXD Research to measure its impact during a pilot study in the Spring of 2024 to determine the effect of their decodable books on literacy outcomes. Conducted in four schools in an urban Texas school district, the six-week study included 93 JRR and 111 non-JRR students, with 69 students submitting implementation logs that were used to track dosage.
Key findings reveal meaningful progress for JRR students from the mid-year to end-of-year assessments, outperforming Non-JRR students. JRR students showed a MAP Growth Percentile improvement of 33 points (34 to 67), compared to 23 points in Non-JRR students (31 to 54). Additionally, JRR students excelled in DIBELS ORF accuracy, with the median percentile rising from 46 to 62, while Non-JRR improved from 42 to 44. Due to the small sample, these changes were not statistically significant.
Notably, the 45% of JRR students who read for 3+ hours at home (i.e., High Dosage implementation) demonstrated remarkable growth, improving from below the 14th percentile to above the 72nd percentile. Overall, the JRR program meaningfully boosted literacy development.
İşte bu kitap, mevcut ses esaslı ilk okuma yazma öğretiminde özellikle sözcük ve cümle üretiminin kolaylaştırılmasını ve öğrencinin Türkçenin temel yapı taşları olan hece türlerini ve hecelemeyi doğru kavramasını sağlayan bir revize sunulmaktadır. İlkokuma yazma öğretiminde yeni bir model olarak sunduğum Ses Esaslı İlk Okuma Yazma Öğretimi, Türkçe İlk Okuma Yazma Öğretiminde DNA Modeli’nden de yararlanılarak yapılan bu revizede üç temel değişiklik/aşama sunulmaktadır:
This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of using TikTok application in improving speaking skill for EFL learners. The research design employs pre-experimental research with the sample of 25 students. The technique data collection was done by administering pre-test and post-test. This research used descriptive statistic Paired Sample T-Test to analyze the data. The mean score of pre-test was 46.6 and 71.4 for post-test. Based on the statistical analysis, it showed that the use of TikTok application give a good impact for the students speaking skill because the mean score of post-test was higher than pre-test. In testing hypothesis, it was found that the significance value of the result of TikTok application thought self-introduction was 0.00 lower than 0.05, so the hypothesis was accepted. Additionally, some improvements were seen after the treatment such as “I em” to be “I am”, “lipe” to be “live” and other vocabulary items. In conclusion, TikTok application was significantly effective in improving speaking skill for EFL learners at X grade in SMK Unwanul Falah NWDI Paok Lombok.
Este estudo investigou as relações entre a consciência fonológica, fonêmica e letras quando associadas à instrução fônica explícita, sobre o desempenho em leitura e escrita de crianças de 1º, 2º e 3º anos. Delineamento quase-experimental em três etapas, pré-teste, intervenção e pós-teste. Os participantes foram 48 alunos (Midade = 6,98a), aleatoriamente distribuídos nos grupos de intervenção e comparação. Foi aplicado um programa de intervenção com 22 sessões de intervenção de instrução fônica, consciência fonológica, fonêmica e conhecimento de letra-som. Os dados foram analisados com base na correlação de Spearman, regressões lineares múltiplas, testes Mann-Whitney e qui-quadrado de Pearson, controlando a variável grupo. Os resultados demonstraram correlação significativa entre a consciência fonológica, fonêmica, letras e as medidas de leitura e escrita. As regressões demonstraram forte e significativa variação explicada entre as variáveis consciência fonológica e fonêmica para as medidas de leitura e escrita, exceto o conhecimento de letras que atingiu efeito de teto e não demonstrou significância. Essas evidências têm implicações educacionais para a compreensão de quais habilidades incorporadas em um programa de instrução fônica contribuem significativamente para a alfabetização inicial das crianças.
Esta coletânea apresenta propostas baseadas em evidências para fomentar a prática da leitura no contexto escolar e familiar, direcionadas a gestores educacionais, docentes em atividade e em formação, abrangendo diversas áreas do conhecimento. O objetivo principal é disseminar estratégias acessíveis que possam ser implementadas tanto no ambiente escolar quanto doméstico, promovendo uma abordagem holística para o desenvolvimento da leitura. As pesquisas foram conduzidas no Laboratório Multiusuário de Informática e Documentação Linguística (LAMID) da Universidade Federal de Sergipe, com foco na interface entre linguagem e comportamento. As propostas apresentadas são resultado de investigações interdisciplinares que englobam áreas como educação, inteligência artificial e saúde, explorando temas como variação linguística, processos de leitura, esforço cognitivo e aspectos emocionais associados. Esta coletânea visa preencher uma lacuna importante na literatura, oferecendo orientações práticas e fundamentadas cientificamente para educadores e familiares, com o intuito de criar um ambiente propício ao desenvolvimento de habilidades de leitura e promover uma cultura de leitura que transcenda os limites da sala de aula.
Strategic incremental rehearsal (SIR), a modified version of the incremental rehearsal strategy, is a flashcard instructional method that is often used to assist struggling readers. Peer-mediated interventions can also increase student abilities and achievement, specifically when used for reading proficiency. However, there is limited empirical research that has examined these two strategies simultaneously. In the current study, we investigated the effectiveness of using a peer tutor when implementing SIR to increase student sight word reading. Researchers conducted the study within a school-based after-school program in a suburban school district. Three 4th- and 5th-grade students who were identified as reading proficiently on grade level served as peer tutors, whereas three 2nd-grade students whose teachers indicated were reading on or below grade level were identified as participants. Peer tutors were taught the SIR strategy and then implemented the intervention using a multiple baseline single case design. Results indicated that using a SIR peer-mediated approach was effective at increasing the number of words read correctly for all participants. Treatment acceptability data suggested that the participants liked the SIR peer-mediated intervention. The application of peer-mediated SIR within the classroom setting is discussed.
Literate adults are able to produce the same word in different language modalities—for instance, through speaking and writing. Yet how speaking and writing interact is not well understood. The present study takes a new perspective on the question of the co-activation of phonological and orthographic representations in speaking and writing by examining the acquisition of novel words. We tested how novel words get integrated into modality-specific lexicons by biasing novel word acquisition toward speaking or writing and assessing cross-modal transfer at the first stages of learning. Participants learned novel words paired with pictures of novel objects and practiced them overtly through speaking or typing. At test, typed training led to higher recall accuracy than spoken training whether words were recalled through typing or speaking. Performance in typing (RT and durations) benefited more from typed than spoken training. Crucially, performance in speaking did not benefit specifically from spoken training and was similar after spoken or typed training. Results are compatible with an asymmetric integration in the phonological and orthographic lexicons according to the modality of training, with representations created in the orthographic lexicon directly transferring to the phonological lexicon, while the opposite doesn’t seem to occur. Cross-modal transfer dynamics are discussed according to the level of lexical activation.
This chapter discusses orthographic learning, i.e., how children learn the relation between their spoken language and writing system. The process is discussed for children learning to read and write in one language, as well as for multilingual children acquiring literacy in more than one language. In both cases, the developmental course is mapped from children's first insights into the form and function of their writing systems to the development of word-specific mental representations that code for multiple linguistic forms (i.e., sound, spelling, and meaning). The chapter concludes with instructional recommendations for supporting children's orthographic learning throughout development.
Bilingual children are at risk for gaps in literacy in the societal language compared to monolingual peers. However, most research has focused on reading achievement, and only few studies have investigated spelling abilities, with contradictory findings. Here, we compare Hebrew spelling skill and its predictors in bilingual and monolingual elementary school children, immersed in Hebrew as a societal language. Specifically, we examined the morphological elements in Hebrew spelling. Monolingual children outperformed bilingual children in spelling accuracy, in both 2nd and 4th grade. In addition, phonological awareness and morphological awareness were significant predictors of spelling for both groups, but their relative contribution differed across the groups. Finally, even though bilingual children had lower morphological knowledge than monolingual peers, both groups showed the expected developmental pattern of spelling function letters more accurately than root letters. This pattern in Hebrew spelling acquisition is driven by the morpho-orthographic regularities of the language. These results support previous findings emphasizing the role of morphology in Hebrew spelling acquisition, extending them to bilingual children. We suggest that examining the linguistic backgrounds of children and the unique characteristics of the language and orthography are crucial for reaching a nuanced understanding of bilingual spelling acquisition.
The role of children's receptive vocabulary knowledge in word and nonword reading (decoding) in an orthographically transparent language is debated. Moreover, we have little understanding of how the role of vocabulary might differ between monolingual children and bilingual children from immigrant families (or language minority bilingual children (LMBC)) at different stages of reading development. This study examined the relation of receptive vocabulary to word and nonword reading accuracy and speed in 140 monolingual and bilingual students attending Grades 1, 3, or 5 in Italy. Both receptive vocabulary and reading performance were assessed using standardized tests in Italian. Regression models showed that for monolingual Italian children receptive vocabulary was related to word reading accuracy and speed in Grade 1 and word reading accuracy in Grade 5. In the LMBC group, receptive vocabulary was related to word and nonword reading accuracy and speed in Grade 1, to word reading accuracy in Grade 3, and to word reading speed in Grade 5. These findings suggest that vocabulary knowledge supports reading even in the earlier stages of reading development in a language with transparent orthography and underscore the importance of strengthening and assessing LMBC's receptive vocabulary for the adequate development of their reading skills.
Working memory (WM) has been consistently linked to reading. However, the mechanism(s) linking WM to reading remain unclear. WM may indirectly exert an effect onto reading through mediators such as phonemic awareness (PA) and/or rapid automatized naming (RAN). In a sample of children with reading difficulty ( n = 117), separate mediation analyses tested direct and indirect (through PA and RAN) effects of WM on untimed word decoding and recognition (i.e., basic reading skills) and timed word decoding and recognition (i.e., reading fluency). WM exerted a direct effect on basic reading skills and reading fluency. For basic reading skills, there was a significant indirect effect of WM on reading through the mediation of PA (but not through RAN). By contrast, for reading fluency, there was a significant indirect effect of WM on reading through the mediation of RAN (but not through PA). Findings reinforce the importance of WM, PA, and RAN for broad reading skills, while offering a mechanistic explanation for why poor PA and/or RAN may differentially lead to reading difficulty.
Phonics, as a teaching method, helps the learners to establish a connection between graphemes and phonemes. Moreover, it also improves their reading and pronunciation skills alongside spelling and vocabulary. In this context, the current study attempts to investigate the effectiveness of using technology-enhanced language learning (TELL) tools as a supplementary resource to teach systematic synthetic phonics to a government school's KG- Grade 1 learners. For this purpose, 60 Grade KG-1 primary-level learners were selected through one group pretest-posttest design. After conducting the pretest, learners were taught phonics skills, that is A-Z letter-sound correspondence, blending, and segmenting of CVC words through digital tools for 27 weeks. Afterwards, a posttest was administered. The statistical analysis of pretest and posttest revealed a significant improvement in learning all three aspects of phonics instruction as the dependent paired sample t-test affirmed rather significant results, that is, p = 0.000 for all three categories. Furthermore, the analysis of gender, age, and interest variables exhibited the TELL intervention's positive impact on all the participants. Hence, TELL tools are proposed as supplementary materials for phonics instruction in government schools of Pakistan at the primary level to help the learners and teachers.
To increase early identification and intervention of dyslexia, a prescreening instrument is critical to identifying children at risk. The present work sought to shorten and validate the 30-item Mandarin Dyslexia Screening Behavior Checklist for Primary School Students (the full checklist; Fan et al., 心理与行为研究, 19, 521–527, 2021). Our participants were 15,522 Mandarin-Chinese-speaking students and their parents, sampled from classrooms in grades 2–6 across regions in mainland China. A machine learning approach (lasso regression) was applied to shorten the full checklist (Fan et al., 心理与行为研究, 19, 521–527, 2021), constructing grade-specific brief checklists first, followed by a compilation of the common brief checklist based on the similarity across grade-specific checklists. All checklists (the full, grade-specific brief, and common brief versions) were validated and compared with data in our sample and an external sample (N = 114; Fan et al., 心理与行为研究, 19, 521–527, 2021). The results indicated that the six-item common brief checklist showed consistently high reliability (αs > .82) and reasonable classification performance (about 60% prediction accuracy and 70% sensitivity), comparable to that of the full checklist and all grade-specific brief checklists across our current sample and the external sample from Fan et al., 心理与行为研究, 19, 521–527, (2021). Our analysis showed that 2.42 (out of 5) was the cutoff score that helped classify children’s reading status (children who scored higher than 2.42 might be considered at risk for dyslexia). Our final product is a valid, accessible, common brief checklist for prescreening primary school children at risk for Chinese dyslexia, which can be used across grades and regions in mainland China.
Purpose
Children with speech sound disorder (SSD) are at known risk for literacy deficits. The purpose of this study was to review the available literature for intervention approaches that simultaneously target the development of literacy and speech sound production skills in children with SSD.
Method
In this review, we examined the available evidence for intervention frameworks that support literacy skill development, specifically within the context of SSD intervention. A total of 13 articles met inclusion criteria, reporting both speech sound production and literacy outcomes for children with SSD receiving speech sound therapy that incorporated literacy skills to support literacy development.
Results
The most common literacy focus for children receiving SSD intervention centered on the development of phonological awareness skills. Findings revealed that, on average, SSD intervention embedded into phonological awareness intervention improved both speech sound production accuracy and literacy skills in children with SSD. Children who received speech sound therapy only had reduced literacy skills as compared to their peers. Follow-up studies showed that children with SSD who had received phonological intervention exhibited literacy skills on par with their typically developing peers, well after treatment ended.
Conclusions
Speech-language pathologists have the opportunity to support both literacy skill and speech sound production development in children with SSD. The majority of reviewed research included preschool-aged and early elementary–aged children. Future research is needed to investigate how to support literacy development in older children with SSD.
Effective management of energy and water resources is essential for mitigating environmental impacts and enhancing sustainability. This paper proposes a multiple objective linear program (MOLP) tailored to accommodate energy-water applications in diverse climatic conditions in the Netherlands. It introduces an innovative approach that combines few-shot learning (FSL), meticulously designed to expand the datasets effectively, and sophisticated machine learning architectures such as Deep Autoregression (DeepAR) to allow for more precise and reliable predictions. The method neatly implements machine learning to solve operations research problems and significantly reduces the reliance on extensive datasets typically necessary for accurate predictive modelling. Experimental results show a notable increase in prediction accuracy, with the integrated approach surpassing traditional models by up to 33%. Additionally, we achieve an extension of the eight solved scenarios to 800 similar scenarios so that the operational efficiency and sustainability of resource management are significantly improved, demonstrating the potential of machine learning technologies in this field. The strategic application of the proposed method compensates for the limitations associated with small datasets and ensures the scalability and effectiveness of the predictive models across various environmental scenarios.
This study examined the reading skills of children who have deficient decoding skills in the years following the first grade and traced their progress across 20 sessions of a decoding skills intervention called Word Building. Initially, the children demon- strated deficits in decoding, reading comprehension, and phonemic awareness skills. Further examination of decoding attempts revealed a pattern of accurate decoding of the first grapheme in a word, followed by relatively worse performance on subsequent vowels and consonants, suggesting that these children were not engaging in full al- phabetic decoding. The intervention directed attention to each grapheme position within a word through a procedure of progressive minimal pairing of words that dif- fered by one grapheme. Relative to children randomly assigned to a control group, children assigned to the intervention condition demonstrated significantly greater im- provements in decoding attempts at all grapheme positions and also demonstrated significantly greater improvements in standardized measures of decoding, reading comprehension, and phonological awareness. Results are discussed in terms of the consequences of not fully engaging in alphabetic decoding during early reading expe- rience, and the self-teaching role of alphabetic decoding for improving word identifi- cation, reading comprehension, and phonological awareness skills.
The lexical quality hypothesis (LQH) claims that variation in the quality of word representations has consequences for reading skill, including comprehension. High lexical quality includes well-specified and partly redundant representations of form (orthography and phonology) and flexible representations of meaning, allowing for rapid and reliable meaning retrieval. Low-quality representations lead to specific word-related problems in comprehension. Six lines of research on adult readers demonstrate some of the implications of the LQH. First, large-scale correlational results show the general interdependence of comprehension and lexical skill while identifying disassociations that allow focus on comprehension-specific skill. Second, word-level semantic processing studies show comprehension skill differences in the time course of form-meaning confusions. Studies of rare vocabulary learning using event-related potentials (ERPs) show that, third, skilled comprehenders learn new words more effectively and show stronger ERP indicators for memory of the word learning event and, fourth, suggest skill differences in the stability of orthographic representations. Fifth, ERP markers show comprehension skill differences in meaning processing of ordinary words. Finally, in text reading, ERP results demonstrate momentary difficulties for low-skill comprehenders in integrating a word with the prior text. The studies provide evidence that word-level knowledge has consequences for word meaning processes in comprehension.
Three experiments using 88 undergraduates examined the role of orthography in rhyme detection. Ss in Exps I–II monitored lists of aurally presented words for a word that rhymed with a cue word. The critical variable was whether the target word was orthographically similar or different from the cue word (e.g., "pie–tie" and "rye–tie," respectively). In Exp I, monitor latencies to detect orthographically different rhymes were longer than latencies to detect orthographically similar rhymes, whether cue words were presented aurally or visually. Exp II replicated this orthography effect using only auditory presentation of the cue word and a larger sample of items. In Exp III, orthographic similarity yielded shorter reaction times to decide that 2 words rhymed and longer reaction times to decide that they did not rhyme. Results are interpreted in terms of some recent models of semantic memory. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In 2 experiments, the authors examined whether spellings improve students' memory for pronunciations and meanings of new vocabulary words. Lower socioeconomic status minority 2nd graders (M = 7 years 7 months; n = 20) and 5th graders (M = 10 years 11 months; n = 32) were taught 2 sets of unfamiliar nouns and their meanings over several learning trials. The words were defined, depicted, and embedded in sentences. During study periods, students were shown written forms of 1 set but not the other set. Spellings were not present during word recall. Results of analyses of variance showed that spellings enhanced memory for pronunciations and meanings compared to no spellings (ps < .01). Better readers and spellers increasingly outdistanced poorer readers and spellers in remembering pronunciations over trials when spellings accompanied learning (p < .05), suggesting a Matthew effect. An explanation is that spellings activated graphophonemic connections to better secure pronunciations and meanings in memory. Results indicate that orthographic knowledge benefited vocabulary learning and diminished dependence on phonological memory. Instructional implications are that teachers should include written words as part of vocabulary instruction and that students should pronounce spellings as well as determine meanings when they encounter new vocabulary words. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The mnemonic value of spellings in a paired-associate sound learning task was examined in 4 experiments. 120 1st and 2nd graders were taught 4 CVC nonsense sounds as oral responses. The stimuli were geometric figures or numbers of alphabet letters corresponding to initial consonant sounds. Various types of adjunct aids or activities occurred during study and feedback periods as the learning trials progressed. Visual spellings or misspellings of the CVC sounds were shown, or Ss imagined visual spellings, or they listened to oral spellings or to sounds broken into phonetic segments, or they rehearsed the sounds. Spellings were not present during test trials when sounds were recalled. In all experiments, sound learning was fastest when correct spellings were seen or imagined. The preferred interpretation is that spellings are effective because they provide readers with orthographic images useful for symbolizing and storing sounds in memory. Spelling-aided sound learning scores were highly correlated with Ss' knowledge of printed words, indicating that this representational process may be used by beginning readers to store printed words in lexical memory. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although English lacks 1-to-1 relationships between sounds and spellings, considering the context in which a phoneme occurs can often aid in selecting a spelling. For example, /a/ is typically spelled as a when it follows /w/, as in wand, but as o when it follows other consonants, as in pond. In 2 experiments, the authors asked whether children's spellings of vowels in nonwords were affected by the following (Experiment 1) and preceding (Experiment 2) consonants. The participants in both experiments had spelling levels that ranged from kindergarten and 1st grade through high school. Children with higher levels of spelling skill took more advantage of context, and use of preceding context generally emerged earlier than use of following context. The results are interpreted within the framework of a statistical learning view of spelling and spelling development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined the influence of letter-name instruction on beginning word recognition. Thirty-three preschool children from low-socioeconomic-status families participated in 16 weeks of letter-name or comprehension-focused instruction. After instruction, children's ability to learn 3 types of word spellings was examined: words phonetically spelled with letters children had been taught (e.g., BL for ball), words phonetically spelled with letters children had not been taught, and words with visually distinct letter spellings that were nonphonetic. Children who received letter-name instruction learned words phonetically spelled with letters included in instruction significantly better than other words. Children receiving comprehension instruction performed significantly better on visually distinct word spellings. Results demonstrate the beneficial effects of alphabet-letter instruction on beginning phonetic word recognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Phonetic-cue reading involves reading words by storing and retrieving associations between some of the letters in spellings and sounds in pronunciations. Cipher reading involves processing all of the letter–sound relations in spellings. These two types of reading were compared experimentally. Novice beginning readers in kindergarten were assigned either to a group that was taught to decode—the cipher readers—or to a group that practiced isolated letter–sound relations—–the phonetic-cue readers. On posttests, cipher readers learned to read 15 similarly spelled words almost perfectly, whereas cue readers learned less than half of the words. Cipher readers also spelled better than cue readers. Errors indicated that cue readers were processing partial letter-sound cues in words. Results indicated that phonetic-cue reading is another way besides visual memory and decoding to read words. Results documented the importance of beginning readers' advancing beyond cue reading to cipher reading. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Evaluated whether picture mnemonics help prereaders learn letter–sound associations in 2 experiments with 20 1st graders (Exp I), 30 preschoolers, and kindergartners (Exp II). Pictures integrating the associations were compared with disassociated pictures and with a no-picture control condition. Ss in the integrated-picture group learned 5 letter-sound associations (e.g.,
f, /f/), each represented by a picture whose shape included the letter (e.g., letter
f drawn as the stem of a flower) and whose name (flower) began with the letter's sound. Ss in the disassociated-picture group learned letter–sound associations with pictures having the same names as the integrated pictures, but drawn differently—without letter shapes. Ss in the control group learned associations with picture names but no pictures. Prior to letter–sound training, all groups were taught how to segment the initial sounds of the picture names. Results reveal that Ss taught with integrated mnemonics learned more letter–sound associations and also more letter–picture associations than did the other 2 groups, which did not differ. Integrated pictures were effective because they linked 2 otherwise unconnected items in memory. It is concluded that the shape of letters included in pictures reminded learners of previously seen pictures with those shapes whose names began with the relevant letter sounds. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
ABSTRACTS
A quantitative meta‐analysis evaluating the effects of phonemic awareness (PA) instruction on learning to read and spell was conducted by the National Reading Panel. There were 52 studies published in peer‐reviewed journals, and these contributed 96 cases comparing the outcomes of treatment and control groups. Analysis of effect sizes revealed that the impact of PA instruction on helping children acquire PA was large and statistically significant ( d = 0.86). PA instruction exerted a moderate, statistically significant impact on reading ( d = 0.53) and spelling ( d = 0.59). Not only word reading but also reading comprehension benefited. PA instruction impacted reading under all the conditions examined although effect sizes were larger under some conditions. PA instruction helped various types of children: normally developing readers as well as at‐risk and disabled readers; preschoolers, kindergartners, and first graders; low socioeconomic status children as well as mid‐high SES. PA instruction improved reading, but it did not improve spelling in disabled readers. PA instruction was more effective when it was taught with letters than without letters, when one or two PA skills were taught than multiple PA skills, when children were taught in small groups than individually or in classrooms, and when instruction lasted between 5 and 18 hours rather than longer. Classroom teachers were effective in teaching PA to their students. Effect sizes were larger for studies using more rigorous experimental designs, with rigor assessments drawn from Troia (1999). In sum, PA instruction was found to make a statistically significant contribution to reading acquisition. [See also a letter to the editors regarding this article, and the first author's response: http:dx.doi.org10.1598RRQ.37.2.1 ]
Un meta‐análisis cuantitativo que evaluó los efectos de la instrucción en conciencia fonémica (CF) sobre el aprendizaje de la lectura y la escritura fue llevado a cabo por el Panel Nacional de Lectura (National Reading Panel). Se tomaron 52 estudios, publicados en revistas con referato, que aportaron 96 casos en los que se comparó el resultado de los grupos de tratamiento y de control. El análisis de las magnitudes del efecto reveló que el impacto de la instrucción en CF sobre el desarrollo de la CF en los niños fue grande y estadísticamente significativo ( d = 0.86). La instrucción en CF ejerció un impacto moderado, estadísticamente significativo en la lectura ( d = 0.53) y escritura ( d = 0.59). No sólo se benefició la lectura de palabras, sino también la comprensión lectora. La instrucción en CF impactó en la lectura, en todas las condiciones examinadas, sin embargo las magnitudes del efecto fueron mayores en algunas condiciones. La instrucción en CF ayudó a distintos tipos de niños: lectores de desarrollo normal, lectores de riesgo y lectores con dificultades; niños de jardín, preescolar y primer grado; niños de NSE bajo y niños de NSE medio‐alto. La instrucción en CF mejoró la lectura pero no la escritura en los lectores con dificultades. La instrucción en CF fue más efectiva cuando se realizó con apoyo de las letras que cuando no se enseñaron las letras, cuando se enseñaron una o dos habilidades de CF que cuando se enseñaron múltiples habilidades, cuando se insruyó a los niños en pequeños grupos que cuando se realizó individualmente o en el aula y cuando la instrucción duró entre 5 y 18 horas que cuando abarcó más tiempo. Los docentes fueron eficaces en la enseñanza de la CF a los estudiantes. Las magnitudes del efecto fueron mayores en los estudios que utilizaron diseños experimentales más rigurosos, con evaluaciones de rigor tomadas de Troia (1999). En suma, se halló que la instrucción en CF constituye una contribución significativa a la adquisición de la lectura.
Eine quantitative Meta‐Analyse, welche Auswirkungen phonischen Aufnahmebewußseins (PA) beim Erlernen des Lesens und Buchstabierens bewertet, wurde vom Nationalen Lesegremium durchgeführt. Es wurden 52 Studien in von Lehrern rezensierten Fachzeitschriften publiziert und diese nannten 96 Fälle, bei denen die Ergebnisse von Anwendungs‐ und Kontrollgruppen verglichen wurden. Die Analyse über Wirksamkeitsausmaße ergab, daß der Einfluß von PA‐Anweisungen in der Unterstützung der Kinder beim Erwerb von PA groß und statistisch bedeutend ( d = 0.86) war. PA‐Anweisungen übten einen ausgleichenden, statitisch bedeutsamen Einfluß aufs Lesen ( d = 0.53) und Buchstabieren ( d = 0.59) aus. Nicht nur das Lesen von Wörtern, sondern auch das Leseverständnis wurde begünstigt. PA‐Anweisungen beeinflußten das Lesen unter all den untersuchten Bedingungen, obwohl die Ausmaße der Auswirkungen bei einigen Bedingungen größer waren. PA‐Anweisungen halfen unterschiedlich gearteten Kindern: normal sich entwickelnde Leser, sowie auch risikobedingte und behinderte Leser; Vorschüler, Kindergartenteilnehmer und Erstklässler; Kinder der unteren Gundschulstufen (SES) als auch mittlerer und höherer Grundschulstufen (SES). PA‐Anweisungen verbesserten das Lesen, nicht jedoch das Buchstabieren bei behinderten Lesern. PA‐Anweisungen waren wirksamer, wenn sie zusammen mit den Buchstaben statt ohne Buchstaben unterrichtet wurden, wenn jeweils eine oder zwei PA‐Fertigkeiten statt ein Mehrfaches an PA‐Fertigkeiten unterrichtet wurde, wenn Kinder in kleinen Gruppen statt einzeln unterrichtet oder in Klassenräumen, und wenn der Unterricht insgesamt zwischen 5 und 18 Stunden andauerte, statt langfristiger. Klassenlehrer waren beim Unterricht von PA erfolgreich mit ihren Schülern. Das Wirkungsausmaß war unter Nutzung strengerer Experimentierpläne für den Unterricht größer, mit den von Troia (1999) abgeleiteten straffen Bewertungen. Zusammengefaßt fand man, daß die PA‐Anweisung einen statistisch nachweisbar bedeutenden Beitrag zum Erwerb von Lesefertigkeiten leisten.
Une méta‐analyse quantitative pour évaluer les effets de l'enseignement de la conscience phonémique (CP) sur l'apprentissage de la lecture et de l'écriture a été conduite par la Commission Nationale de Lecture. Elle a porté sur 52 études publiées dans des journaux à comité de rédaction ayant conduit à 96 études comparant les résultats de groupes expérimentaux et contrôles. L'analyse de l'importance des effets révèle que l'enseignement de la CP sur le développement de la CP a un impact large et statistiquement significatif ( d = 0.86). L'enseignement de la CP a un effet modéré, statistiquement significatif ( d = 0.53) sur l'écriture ( d = 0.59). Non seulement la lecture de mots en bénéficie mais également la compréhension. L'enseignement de la CP a un impact sur la lecture dans toutes les conditions examinées, bien que la taille de l'effet soit plus large dans certaines conditions. L'enseignement de la CP est une aide pour différents types d'enfants: aussi bien pour ceux qui apprennent à lire normalement que pour les enfants à risque et pour ceux qui ont des difficultés; pour les enfants d'école maternelle ou de première année de primaire: pour les enfants de milieu social défavorisé aussi bien que pour ceux de classe moyenne. L'enseignement de la CP facilite le développement de la lecture mais pas celui de l'écriture chez les enfants en difficulté. L'enseignement de la CP a plus d'effet quand il a lieu avec des lettres que sans lettres, quand on enseigne une ou deux compétences de CP que de multiples compétences de CP, quand il a lieu en petit groupe que individuellement ou en salle de classe, et quand l'enseignement dureentre 5 et 18 heures plutôt que plus longtemps. L'enseignement de la CP en classe par des enseignants est efficace. La taille des effets est plus grande quand les études utilisent des plans expérimentaux plus rigoureux, et des évaluations rigoureuses provenant de Troia (1999). En bref, il apparaît que l'enseignement de la CP apporte une contribution statistiquement significative à l'acquisition de la lecture.
An experiment investigated whether exposure to orthography facilitates oral vocabulary learning. A total of 58 typically developing children aged 8-9 years were taught 12 nonwords. Children were trained to associate novel phonological forms with pictures of novel objects. Pictures were used as referents to represent novel word meanings. For half of the nonwords children were additionally exposed to orthography, although they were not alerted to its presence, nor were they instructed to use it. After this training phase a nonword-picture matching posttest was used to assess learning of nonword meaning, and a spelling posttest was used to assess learning of nonword orthography. Children showed robust learning for novel spelling patterns after incidental exposure to orthography. Further, we observed stronger learning for nonword-referent pairings trained with orthography. The degree of orthographic facilitation observed in posttests was related to children's reading levels, with more advanced readers showing more benefit from the presence of orthography.
A good deal has been learned about the basic parameters of orthographic learning, but many researchers in this field have observed that less is known about how this learning comes about. The orthographic learning function needs to be systematically mapped for both normal and disabled readers. Most studies to date have understandably used a small number of selected points on the learning curve, and although more exposures tend to elicit stronger outcomes, only a comprehensive mapping effort can determine whether orthographic learning adheres to the standard power function common to a wide variety of skill learning.
Three experiments were designed to examine children's and adults' ability to pronounce consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) nonsense words. Some of the nonwords, like tain and goach, shared their VC unit with a number of real words. Other nonwords, like goan and taich, shared their VC unit with few or no real words. Pooling across items, the very same grapheme-phoneme correspondences occurred in the two types of nonwords. First graders, good and poor third grade readers, and adults all performed better on the nonwords with the more common VC units than on the nonwords with the less common VC units. Although readers appeared to use VC units in the pronunciation of nonwords, we did not find evidence for use of initial CV units. Implications of the results for reading development, dyslexia, and models of nonword pronunciation are discussed.
This paper reviews and evaluates three recent stage theories of reading acquisition (Marsh, Friedman, Welch, & Desberg; Frith; Seymour) and also discusses the relationships between phonological awareness and reading, especially the direction of causality in such relationships. Data from a longitudinal study of reading acquisition are then reported. This study included assessments of phonological skills in children before they had begun to learn to read. The results of the study suggest that (a) even if learning to read is conceptualised as a sequence of stages, not all children pass through the same sequence of stages, (b) phonological awareness and reading acquisition have a reciprocal interactive causal relationship, not a unidirectional one, and (c) phonological skills can play a role in the very first stage of learning to read among phonologically adept children. Hence, it is incorrect to claim that the first stage of learning to read always involves such non-phonological procedures as "logographic" processing.
Three phases comprise the development of word reading skill: accuracy, automaticity, and speed. The 3rd phase is reached when components of the identification process (i.e., graphic, phonological, semantic) are unitized in memory for particular words. Attainment of this final phase was explored with 2 experiments. In Exp I with Ss from 1st-, 2nd-, and 4th-grade classes, skilled and less skilled readers identified familiar printed words, CVC nonwords, digits, and pictures. Attainment of unitized speeds to printed words was inferred if Ss identified words as rapidly as digits. This level was exhibited by skilled readers in all grades but by less skilled readers only in 4th grade. Unitized speed with CVCs was evident among 2nd- and 4th-grade skilled readers, but not among less skilled readers at any grade. In Exp II, 18 1st-grade and 19 2nd-grade poor readers practiced reading familiar words and CVCs. Practice boosted RTs to CVCs but not to words read accurately before training, and RTs to both remained slower than digit RTs, indicating that practice promotes the development of unitized speeds very slowly in less skilled readers. (45 ref)
Experiment 1 examined the time course of orthographic learning among Grade 3 children. A single encounter with a novel orthographic string was sufficient to produce reliable recall of orthographic detail. Moreover, newly acquired orthographic information was retained 1 month later. These data support the logistic learning functions featured in contemporary connectionist models of reading rather than a "threshold" model of orthographic learning. Experiments 2 and 3 examined self-teaching among novice readers. In contrast to the findings from less regular orthographies such as English and Dutch, beginning readers of a highly regular orthography (Hebrew) appear to be relatively insensitive to word-specific orthographic detail, reading in a nonlexical "surface" fashion. These results suggest fundamental differences between shallow and deep orthographies in the development of orthographic sensitivity.
Two experiments tested the common assumption that knowing the letter names helps children learn basic letter-sound (grapheme-phoneme) relation because most names contain the relevant sounds. In Experiment 1 (n=45), children in an experimental group learned English letter names for letter-like symbols. Some of these names contained the corresponding letter sounds, whereas others did not. Following training, children were taught the sounds of these same "letters." Control children learned the same six letters, but with meaningful real-word labels unrelated to the sounds learned in the criterion letter-sound phase. Differences between children in the experimental and control groups indicated that letter-name knowledge had a significant impact on letter-sound learning. Furthermore, letters with names containing the relevant sound facilitated letter-sound learning, but not letters with unrelated names. The benefit of letter-name knowledge was found to depend, in part, on skill at isolating phonemes in spoken syllables. A second experiment (n=20) replicated the name-to-sound facilitation effect with a new sample of kindergarteners who participated in a fully within-subject design in which all children learned meaningless pseudoword names for letters and with phoneme class equated across related and unrelated conditions.
How do children acquire the vast array of concepts, strategies, and skills that distinguish the thinking of infants and toddlers from that of preschoolers, older children, and adolescents? In this new book, Robert Siegler addresses these and other fundamental questions about children's thinking. Previous theories have tended to depict cognitive development much like a staircase. At an early age, children think in one way; as they get older, they step up to increasingly higher ways of thinking. Siegler proposes that viewing the development within an evolutionary framework is more useful than a staircase model. The evolution of species depends on mechanisms for generating variability, for choosing adaptively among the variants, and for preserving the lessons of past experience so that successful variants become increasingly prevalent. The development of children's thinking appears to depend on mechanisms to fulfill these same functions. Siegler's theory is consistent with a great deal of evidence. It unifies phenomena from such areas as problem solving, reasoning, and memory, and reveals commonalities in the thinking of people of all ages. Most important, it leads to valuable insights regarding a basic question about children's thinking asked by cognitive, developmental, and educational psychologists: How does change occur?
• The mnemonic value of spellings in a paired-associate sound learning task was examined in 4 experiments. 120 1st and 2nd graders were taught 4 CVC nonsense sounds as oral responses. The stimuli were geometric figures or numbers of alphabet letters corresponding to initial consonant sounds. Various types of adjunct aids or activities occurred during study and feedback periods as the learning trials progressed. Visual spellings or misspellings of the CVC sounds were shown, or Ss imagined visual spellings, or they listened to oral spellings or to sounds broken into phonetic segments, or they rehearsed the sounds. Spellings were not present during test trials when sounds were recalled. In all experiments, sound learning was fastest when correct spellings were seen or imagined. The preferred interpretation is that spellings are effective because they provide readers with orthographic images useful for symbolizing and storing sounds in memory. Spelling-aided sound learning scores were highly correlated with Ss' knowledge of printed words, indicating that this representational process may be used by beginning readers to store printed words in lexical memory. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• The mnemonic value of spellings in a paired-associate sound learning task was examined in 4 experiments. 120 1st and 2nd graders were taught 4 CVC nonsense sounds as oral responses. The stimuli were geometric figures or numbers of alphabet letters corresponding to initial consonant sounds. Various types of adjunct aids or activities occurred during study and feedback periods as the learning trials progressed. Visual spellings or misspellings of the CVC sounds were shown, or Ss imagined visual spellings, or they listened to oral spellings or to sounds broken into phonetic segments, or they rehearsed the sounds. Spellings were not present during test trials when sounds were recalled. In all experiments, sound learning was fastest when correct spellings were seen or imagined. The preferred interpretation is that spellings are effective because they provide readers with orthographic images useful for symbolizing and storing sounds in memory. Spelling-aided sound learning scores were highly correlated with Ss' knowledge of printed words, indicating that this representational process may be used by beginning readers to store printed words in lexical memory. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• Three phases comprise the development of word reading skill: accuracy, automaticity, and speed. The 3rd phase is reached when components of the identification process (i.e., graphic, phonological, semantic) are unitized in memory for particular words. Attainment of this final phase was explored with 2 experiments. In Exp I with Ss from 1st-, 2nd-, and 4th-grade classes, skilled and less skilled readers identified familiar printed words, CVC nonwords, digits, and pictures. Attainment of unitized speeds to printed words was inferred if Ss identified words as rapidly as digits. This level was exhibited by skilled readers in all grades but by less skilled readers only in 4th grade. Unitized speed with CVCs was evident among 2nd- and 4th-grade skilled readers, but not among less skilled readers at any grade. In Exp II, 18 1st-grade and 19 2nd-grade poor readers practiced reading familiar words and CVCs. Practice boosted RTs to CVCs but not to words read accurately before training, and RTs to both remained slower than digit RTs, indicating that practice promotes the development of unitized speeds very slowly in less skilled readers. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• Three phases comprise the development of word reading skill: accuracy, automaticity, and speed. The 3rd phase is reached when components of the identification process (i.e., graphic, phonological, semantic) are unitized in memory for particular words. Attainment of this final phase was explored with 2 experiments. In Exp I with Ss from 1st-, 2nd-, and 4th-grade classes, skilled and less skilled readers identified familiar printed words, CVC nonwords, digits, and pictures. Attainment of unitized speeds to printed words was inferred if Ss identified words as rapidly as digits. This level was exhibited by skilled readers in all grades but by less skilled readers only in 4th grade. Unitized speed with CVCs was evident among 2nd- and 4th-grade skilled readers, but not among less skilled readers at any grade. In Exp II, 18 1st-grade and 19 2nd-grade poor readers practiced reading familiar words and CVCs. Practice boosted RTs to CVCs but not to words read accurately before training, and RTs to both remained slower than digit RTs, indicating that practice promotes the development of unitized speeds very slowly in less skilled readers. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
How do we remedy young children's word-reading difficulties? This article describes how educators collaborated to develop research-based procedures that helped children to become "word detectives.".
Phonetic-cue reading involves reading words by storing and retrieving associations between some of the letters in spellings and sounds in pronunciations. Cipher reading involves processing all of the letter-sound relations in spellings. These two types of reading were compared experimentally. Novice beginning readers in kindergarten were assigned either to a group that was taught to decode-the cipher readers-or to a group that practiced isolated letter-sound relations-the phonetic-cue readers. On posttests, cipher readers learned to read 15 similarly spelled words almost perfectly, whereas cue readers learned less than half of the words. Cipher readers also spelled better than cue readers. Errors indicated that cue readers were processing partial letter-sound cues in words. Results indicated that phonetic-cue reading is another way besides visual memory and decoding to read words. Results documented the importance of beginning readers' advancing beyond cue reading to cipher reading.
Pictures that allow the mind to behold invisible aspects of reality may be worth much more than the 1,000 words proclaimed in the adage, particularly to children in the midst of constructing cognitive schema to make sense of their experiences, and particularly when the picture entails a system of symbols organizing an entire dimension of experience. For example, when children learn to read printed language, they become able to visualize what they are saying and hearing. When children learn to read clocks and calendars, they acquire a visual means of representing the passage of time. When children learn to read music, they become able to visualize what is sung or played on an instrument. In each case, a visual-spatial representational system is acquired by the mind for perceiving and thinking about experiences which cannot be seen and which have temporal duration rather than physical extent as a basic property. Acquisition of a spatial model offers several potential advantages. It enables the possessor to hold onto and keep track of phenomena which themselves leave no trace or have no permanence. It imposes organization upon the phenomena by specifying units, subunits, and interrelationships which might otherwise be difficult to detect or discriminate. However, some degree of distortion or inaccuracy may also result because properties of space may not be completely isomorphic with properties of the nonspatial modality, and also because the spatial system, being a cultural invention, carries no guarantee that it is perfectly conceived.
This experiment examined whether kindergartners who were taught to segment words into phonemes either by monitoring articulatory gestures or by manipulating blocks would benefit in their ability to read and spell. Novice beginning readers who could invent partial sound spellings but could not decode new words were assigned randomly to three groups. The mouth treatment group learned to position pictures to depict the sequence of articulatory gestures in words. The ear treatment group learned to position blocks to depict the sequence of sounds in words. A no-treatment control group received no special instruction. Results revealed that both types of phonemic awareness instruction were effective in teaching phonemic segmentation and in enhancing children's ability to spell the sounds in words even though letters were not used during training. However, only articulatory instruction enhanced processes that enabled children to read words. Our interpretation is that awareness of articulatory gestures facilitates the activation of graphophonemic connections that helps children identify written words and secure them in memory.
Learning to read and spell words is a central part of becoming literate. During text reading, most words are processed, and skilled readers are able to do this effortlessly. How they become skilled at processing graphic cues has been the focus of our research. Findings indicate that prereaders do not acquire graphic skill by learning to read signs and labels in their environment. Rather, mastery of letters is required. Whereas prereaders use visual or context cues to identify words, as soon as children move into reading they shift to letter-sound cues. Initially, words are read by accessing remembered associations between a few letters in spellings and sounds in pronunciations. Later, when decoding skill matures, complete spellings are analyzed as phonemic symbols for pronunciations and are stored in memory. Various studies indicate that having a visual picture of speech in memory is an important part of a person's information-processing equipment. Spellings may influence how words are pronounced, what sounds people think are in words, how quickly people judge spoken word rhymes, how rapidly pronunciations change over time.
Can embedded mnemonics ease the task of learning a foreign alphabet? English-speaking preschoolers (N = 36, M = 5;2 years) were taught 10 Hebrew letter-sound relations. Experimental letters were learned with mnemonics that embedded letter shapes in drawings of objects whose shapes resembled the letters and whose English names began with the letters' sounds (e.g., , desk, /d/). Control letters were learned with the same objects but depicted unlike letter shapes. Children learned to segment initial sounds in words. Then they learned each letter set to criterion in a counterbalanced, repeated measures design. Embedded letters were mastered in fewer trials, were less frequently confused with other letters, were remembered better 1 week later, and facilitated performance in word reading and spelling transfer tasks compared to control letters. We suggest that embedded mnemonics better secured letters to their sounds in memory which in turn improved word learning for children in Ehri's (2005)7.
Ehri , L. 2005 . “ Development of sight word reading: Phases and findings. ” . In The science of reading: A handbook , Edited by: Snowling , M. and Hulme , C. 135 – 154 . Malden, MA : Blackwell . [CrossRef]View all references partial alphabetic phase.
This study investigated the hypothesis that vocabulary influences word recognition skills indirectly through set for variability, the ability to determine the correct pronunciation of approximations to spoken English words. One hundred forty children participating in a 3-year longitudinal study were administered reading and reading-related measures at four time points. Hierarchical regression and path analyses indicated that vocabulary and phonemic awareness made independent contributions to variance in set for variability; that vocabulary directly influenced future reading comprehension and indirectly influenced future decoding and word recognition through set for variability; and that set for variability influenced future reading comprehension indirectly through both decoding and word recognition, controlling for autoregressive effects.
English-speaking preschoolers who knew letters but were nonreaders (M = 4 years 9 months; n = 60) were taught to segment consonant–vowel (CV), VC, and CVC words into phonemes either with letters and pictures of articulatory gestures (the LPA condition) or with letters only (the LO condition). A control group received no treatment. Both trained groups outperformed controls on phoneme segmentation, spelling, word reading, and nonword repetition posttests. LPA training enhanced children's ability to learn to read words with practice more than LO training. The favored explanation, consonant with the motor theory of speech perception, is that LPA training activated the articulatory features of phonemes in words as children practiced reading them so that grapheme-phoneme connections were better secured in memory. Results also suggested that phoneme segmentation training with letters improved phonological short-term memory.
Presents 3 experiments examining the processes used by 5-yr-old children in learning to read words. In Exps 1 and 2, 42 children learned to associate printed 3- or 4-letter abbreviations, or cues, with spoken words (e.g.,
bzn for the word basin). All letters in the cue corresponded to phonemes in the spoken word, except for one that corresponded to a similarly articulated phoneme. Ss found the phonetic cues easier to learn than the control cues when the critical letter was in the middle or at the beginning of the word. In Exp 3, 15 children learned to read words with a relatively direct correspondence between their letters and sounds more easily than words with less obvious letter-sound correspondences. It is concluded that from a very early stage in learning to read, children are sensitive to the relationships between the phonological and written forms of words. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
traces the development of sight word reading from a time when prereaders use strictly visual cues to a time when readers analyze spellings as symbols for the phonemic structure of words (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study was designed to determine whether children's conceptualization of the component sounds in words is influenced by their knowledge of the words' spellings. For example, the spelling of pitch may lead learners to discover the phonetic element [t] in its pronunciation and to conceptualize this as a separate phoneme, whereas the spelling of rich should not. Positive results were obtained in a phonemic segmentation task with real and made-up words taught to fourth graders. Findings are interpreted to show that phonemic segmentation skill may be a consequence of as much as a prerequisite to learning to read words. Results are consistent with a theory of printed word learning in which visual spellings are retained in memory through a sound symbolization process.
Ways to Assess Sight Word ReadingMemory Processes That Enable Sight Word ReadingDevelopmental TheoriesSynopsis of the TheoriesPhase Theory of Sight Word ReadingTransition from the Partial Alphabetic to Full Alphabetic PhaseDevelopment of Automaticity, Speed, and UnitizationConcluding Comments
Reading words may take several forms. Readers may utilize decoding, analogizing, or predicting to read unfamiliar words. Readers read familiar words by accessing them in memory, called sight word reading. With practice, all words come to be read automatically by sight, which is the most efficient, unobtrusive way to read words in text. The process of learning sight words involves forming connections between graphemes and phonemes to bond spellings of the words to their pronunciations and meanings in memory. The process is enabled by phonemic awareness and by knowl-edge of the alphabetic system, which functions as a powerful mnemonic to secure spellings in memory. Recent studies show that alphabetic knowledge enhances chil-dren's learning of new vocabulary words, and it influences their memory for doubled letters in words. Four phases characterize the course of development of sight word learning. The phases are distinguished according to the type of alphabetic knowledge used to form connections: pre-alphabetic, partial, full, and consolidated alphabetic phases. These processes appear to portray sight word learning in transparent as well as opaque writing systems. Life is indeed exciting but demanding these days for researchers who study read-ing. Because many educators are seeking evidence as the basis for decisions about reading instruction, there is great interest in scientific studies of reading processes and instruction. My studies over the years have focused on how beginners learn to read words. My plan is to review what I think we know about learning to read words, particularly sight words; to present some new findings that involve chil-dren's vocabulary learning and memory for orthographic structure; and to point out some issues that linger. An issue of special interest is whether this research in English is relevant for more transparent orthographies.
An experiment with random assignment examined the effectiveness of a strategy to learn unfamiliar English vocabulary words
during text reading. Lower socioeconomic status, language minority fifth graders (M=10years, 7months; n=62) silently read eight passages each focused on an unknown multi-syllabic word that was underlined, embedded in a meaningful
context, defined, depicted, and repeated three times. Students were grouped by word reading ability, matched into pairs, and
randomly assigned to one of two conditions. In the strategy condition, students orally pronounced the underlined words during
silent reading. In the control condition, students penciled a check if they had seen the underlined words before but did not
say the words aloud. Results of ANOVAs showed that the oral strategy enhanced vocabulary learning (ps<.01), with poorer readers showing bigger effect sizes than better readers in remembering pronunciation-meaning associations
and spellings of the words. In a second experiment, 32 fifth graders from the same school described the strategies they use
when encountering unfamiliar words in context. Better readers reported more word-level strategies whereas poorer readers reported
more text-based strategies. Our explanation is that application of the word-level strategy of decoding new words aloud strengthened
connections between spellings, pronunciations, and meanings in memory compared to silent reading of new words, particularly
among poor readers who were less skilled and less likely to use this strategy unless instructed to do so.
KeywordsVocabulary learning–Self-teaching–Orthographic learning–Reading words in text–Decoding vocabulary words–Silent versus oral word reading–Reader ability–Spelling memory
The authors report data from a longitudinal study of the reading development of children who were assessed in the years of their 8th, 11th, 14th, and 16th birthdays. They examine the evidence for Matthew effects in reading and vocabulary between ages 8 and 11 in groups of children identified with good and poor reading comprehension at 8 years. They also investigate evidence for Matthew effects in reading and vocabulary between 8 and 16 years, in the larger sample. The poor comprehenders showed reduced growth in vocabulary compared to the good comprehenders, but not in word reading or reading comprehension ability. They also obtained lower scores on measures of out-of-school literacy. Analyses of the whole sample revealed that initial levels of reading experience and reading comprehension predicted vocabulary at ages 11, 14, and 16 after controlling for general ability and vocabulary skills when aged 8. The authors discuss these findings in relation to the influence of reading on vocabulary development.
Two experimental training studies with Portuguese-speaking preschoolers in Brazil were conducted to investigate whether children benefit from letter name knowledge and phonological awareness in learning letter-sound relations. In Experiment 1, two groups of children were compared. The experimental group was taught the names of letters whose sounds occur either at the beginning (e.g., the letter /be/) or in the middle (e.g., the letter /'eli/) of the letter name. The control group was taught the shapes of the letters but not their names. Then both groups were taught the sounds of the letters. Results showed an advantage for the experimental group, but only for beginning-sound letters. Experiment 2 investigated whether training in phonological awareness could boost the learning of letter sounds, particularly middle-sound letters. In addition to learning the names of beginning- and middle-sound letters, children in the experimental group were taught to categorize words according to rhyme and alliteration, whereas controls were taught to categorize the same words semantically. All children were then taught the sounds of the letters. Results showed that children who were given phonological awareness training found it easier to learn letter sounds than controls. This was true for both types of letters, but especially for middle-sound letters.
This article presents a theoretical framework designed to accommodate core evidence that the abilities to repeat nonwords and to learn the phonological forms of new words are closely linked. Basic findings relating nonword repetition and word learning both in typical samples of children and adults and in individuals with disorders of language learning are described. The theoretical analysis of this evidence is organized around the following claims: first, that nonword repetition and word learning both rely on phonological storage; second, that they are both multiply determined, constrained also by auditory, phonological, and speech–motor output processes; third, that a phonological storage deficit alone may not be sufficient to impair language learning to a substantial degree. It is concluded that word learning mediated by temporary phonological storage is a primitive learning mechanism that is particularly important in the early stages of acquiring a language, but remains available to support word learning across the life span.
Children (4 to 6 years of age) were taught to associate printed 3- or 4-letter abbreviations, or cues, with spoken words (e.g., bfr for beaver). All but 1 of the letters in the cue corresponded to phonemes in the spoken target word. Two types of cues were constructed: phonetic cues, in which the medial letter was phonetically similar to the target word, and control cues, in which the central phoneme was phonetically dissimilar. In Experiment 1, children learned the phonetic cues better than the control cues, and learning correlated with measures of phonological skill and knowledge of the meanings of the words taught. In Experiment 2, the target words differed on a semantic variable-imageability-and learning was influenced by both the phonetic properties of the cue and the imageability of the words used.
Adolescents with word-reading skills below grade level were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. Those receiving interventions practiced reading 100 multisyllabic words, either by analyzing graphosyllabic units in the words or by reading the words as unanalyzed wholes. The third group received no special instruction. Posttests revealed that graphosyllabic instruction helped students to decode novel words, remember how to read words with practice, and remember the spellings of words when compared to controls. In contrast, whole-word instruction yielded no benefit on transfer tasks compared to controls. Effects were observed primarily among adolescents reading at a third-grade-equivalent level and less so at a fourth- and fifth-grade-equivalent level. Results are consistent with a connectionist view of word learning and indicate the importance of providing struggling readers with instruction and practice in how to fully analyze the graphosyllabic constituents of words.
Orthographic processing in models of word recognition
- A Cunningham
- R Nathan
- K Raher
Cunningham, A., Nathan, R., & Raher, K. (2011). Orthographic processing in models of word recognition. In M. Kamil,
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The development and teaching of word recognition skill
- W Tunmer
- T Nicholson
Tunmer, W., & Nicholson, T. (2011). The development and teaching of word recognition skill. In M. Kamil, P. Pearson, E.
Moje, & P. Afflerbach (Eds.), Handbook of reading research, Volume IV (pp. 405-431). New York, NY: Routledge.
Vocabulary processes
- W Nagy
- J Scott
Nagy, W., & Scott, J. (2000). Vocabulary processes. In M. Kamil, P. Mossenthal, P. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook
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Development of sight word reading: Phases and findings
- L Ehri
Ehri, L. (2005a). Development of sight word reading: Phases and findings. In M. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The
science of reading: A handbook (pp. 135-154). Malden, MA: Blackwell.