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Effects of Timing and Sincerity of an Apology on Satisfaction and Changes in Negative Feelings During Conflicts
Abstract and Figures
Using attribution theory, this study examined the effects of apology timing, apology
sincerity, and feeling understood on communication satisfaction and changes in negative
emotions (e.g., anger and sadness) during conflict discussions. Sixty romantic couples
engaged in conversations about recurring disagreements in their relationships. One
partner from each couple apologized either earlier or later during the discussions. The
findings showed that different variability existed between the timing of the apology
and reports of communication satisfaction. Later apologies, rather than earlier apologies,
given during conflict discussions that were completed in less than 10 minutes were
associated with more communication satisfaction. Earlier apologies, rather than later
apologies, given during conflict discussions that could have continued past 10 minutes
were associated with more communication satisfaction. Additionally, reports of feeling
understood and apology sincerity predicted communication satisfaction and apologies
seen as more sincere were related to reports of less hard negative emotions such as anger,
but were not related to reports of soft negative emotions, such as sadness. These findings
have implications for the process of forgiveness and the mediation of disputes.
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... Existing research has categorized apology timing into early and later stages, finding that later apologies are more effective in improving communication satisfaction, service satisfaction, and emotional responses (Ebesu Hubbard et al., 2013;Frantz & Bennigson, 2005;Min et al., 2021). However, these studies have primarily focused on alleviating negative feelings rather than addressing the more complex process of trust repair (Kim, 2018). ...
... Moreover, this study extends the universal role of emotional expression in relationship repair through a cross-cultural perspective. Previous related research has primarily focused on scenarios within Western cultural contexts, including service failures (Im et al., 2021), romantic conflicts (Ebesu Hubbard et al., 2013), and friendship breakdowns (Frantz & Bennigson, 2005). These studies have shown that later apologies are more effective in alleviating negative feelings, emphasizing the importance of allowing victims to express their emotions before an apology is delivered (Ebesu Hubbard et al., 2013;Frantz & Bennigson, 2005;Im et al., 2021;Min et al., 2020). ...
... Previous related research has primarily focused on scenarios within Western cultural contexts, including service failures (Im et al., 2021), romantic conflicts (Ebesu Hubbard et al., 2013), and friendship breakdowns (Frantz & Bennigson, 2005). These studies have shown that later apologies are more effective in alleviating negative feelings, emphasizing the importance of allowing victims to express their emotions before an apology is delivered (Ebesu Hubbard et al., 2013;Frantz & Bennigson, 2005;Im et al., 2021;Min et al., 2020). By revealing the critical role of emotional expression in Eastern cultural contexts and confirming it as a vital prerequisite for trust repair, this study expands upon these conclusions. ...
Trust is a critical yet fragile component of interpersonal interactions, often leading to significant consequences when compromised. This has propelled trust repair to the forefront of academic research. Despite extensive investigations, effective strategies and optimal timing for trust repair have remained poorly understood. This study aimed to identify the most effective timing for trust repair and to evaluate how different apology attribution modes impact its effectiveness at various timings. In Study 1, our research explored the dynamics between trust repair timing and apologies through scenario simulation. We found that later apologies were more effective. However, a further decline in trust occurred if victims did not receive an apology after they had expressed their emotions and thoughts. In Study 2, we divided apologies into distinct attribution modes and observed a significant interaction with trust repair timing. In early trust repair, the apology attribution modes demonstrated comparable effectiveness, but during the later trust repair, internally attributed apologies significantly outperformed externally attributed ones. Study 3 reinforced these findings by altering the types of interpersonal relationship and the consequence of trust breach in a trust game, thereby solidifying our conclusions. This research provides empirical support for how to make more targeted apologies in real-life situations.
... We encourage parent couples, and couples who hope to become parents, to teach their children about apology and forgiveness, particularly about the benefits associated with seeking and conveying forgiveness. However, we encourage parents to also teach their children that giving an apology will not always lead to positive outcomes, such as when the apology is perceived as insincere by the recipient (Hubbard et al., 2013;Jeter & Brannon, 2018;Lewicki et al., 2016;Schumann, 2012), and if the apology is given after repeated transgressions or consistent negative behavior. ...
... In these cases, perhaps it may help for a therapist to assist a partner who is consistently engaging in transgressions to change their behavior (Russell et al., 2018). Nevertheless, if practicing communicating apologies and forgiveness may help a couple repair their relationship, it may help partners to practice giving sincere apologies to one another (Jeter & Brannon, 2018;Lewicki et al., 2016;Schumann, 2012), and to practice listening to each other during conflict discussions (Hubbard et al., 2013). Regarding apology prompting, it may be beneficial for parents to practice apology prompting in an effective manner that teaches their children to give sincere apologies when they commit a transgression. ...
The willingness to apologize and forgive is robustly associated with relational and personal wellbeing, and thus, it may be worthwhile for children to be taught about the importance of apologies and forgiveness through apology prompting from their parents. However, there is limited research on parental apology prompting, as well as on parental attitudes on the developmental importance of child apologies. Guided by Family System Theory, we investigated whether the proclivity to apologize to and forgive a romantic partner is associated with positive parental attitudes on apologies and parental apology prompting. We also examined the role of childhood experiences with apologies, and moderators of these associations. We recruited a sample of parents of 3–10-year-olds. Parents’ proclivity to apologize to their romantic partner and their childhood experiences with apologies were positively associated with positive parental attitudes on apologies and parental apology prompting. The association between the proclivity to apologize to the romantic partner and parental apology prompting was mediated by positive parental attitudes on the developmental importance of child apologies. The proclivity to retaliate against the romantic partner was negatively associated with positive parental attitudes on apologies and parental apology prompting. Political conservatism and romantic relationship satisfaction moderated the association between the proclivity to apologize to the romantic partner and parental apology prompting. Further, we share measures of childhood experiences with apologies and parental attitudes on apologies that may be useful for future research. Results suggest that it may be advantageous for parent couples to prompt apologies from their children.
... Although several works exist e.g. [67][68][69] that talk about the process of mapping these animations based on psychological rules like nodding on agreement [70] or sad emotion for apology [71], only a few studies [72] have focused on automatically mapping these animations to their corresponding intent. ...
Virtual human heads are digital representations of existing or synthetic human heads, capable of exhibiting realistic behavior. They are generated, modelled, animated and rendered using a combination of computer vision, computer graphics, and AI methodologies. Virtual human heads are a crucial component in applications and research on fields such as healthcare, human-computer interactions, gaming, VFX, AR & VR,social studies and data privacy. Recent advancements in generative vision models have progressed the generation and manipulation of realistic and effective virtual human heads. Despite the growing interest in these topics, there are limitations and research gaps in the current body of work, that require innovative and effective solutions.
In our work, we address some of the relevant research questions in the realm of virtual human heads, leveraging the capabilities of some of the latest generative vision models. First, we perform an extensive review of some of the traditional and modern approaches in generating realistic behavior and appearance in virtual humans, and perform a comparative study among them. We address the challenges and open research questions in the domain of virtual human heads, and thus lay the foundation for our subsequent contributions. One such contribution involves proposing a method to perform manipulation of semantic features on albedo UV map of 3D virtual heads. We discuss the effectivity of this approach and show its potential significance in creating and editing diverse appearances of virtual humans in fields such as gaming, and AR/VR. Finally, we address the critical task of face de-identification in videos. We investigate some of v the key requirements of successful privacy preserving de-identified videos, and propose a novel pipeline to achieve the results, and also evaluate them on suitable quantified metrics.
Through this thesis, we investigate, discuss and address some of the relevant and important problem statements persisting in the realm of virtual human heads using generative vision models. We aim to advance the understanding and practical applications in this area, and pave the way for future research work for safe, realistic and diverse digital human representations and interactions.
... One consideration from the broader apology literature for what might make apologies acceptable to victims in victim-offender mediation is that there must be a "ripeness" for conflict resolution (Coleman, 1997) or victims must feel a readiness for an apology. Empirical research highlights the importance of how the timing of the apology factors into how ready a victim feels for an apology (Hubbard et al., 2013). For example, Frantz and Bennigson (2005) conducted a study that asked participants to imagine a hypothetical wrongdoing and a discussion with the offender that resulted in receiving a delayed apology, an early apology, or no apology. ...
Objective: We conducted three preregistered studies to examine whether victims of crime are more receptive to apologies in victim–offender mediation if they feel they know the “whole” truth about a crime. Hypotheses: We predicted that making salient the completeness (vs. incompleteness) of knowledge about a crime would lead victims to (a) have a greater sense of truth knowing and (b) view an apology more favorably. Method: Participants in Study 1 (N = 380; Mage = 41.2 years; 51% men; 78% White) and Study 2 (N = 550; Mage = 41.0 years; 65% women; 72% White) imagined being the victim of cybercrime. Participants in Study 3 (N = 670; Mage = 42.7 years; 52% men; 72% White) were real crime victims. Participants imagined taking part in victim–offender mediation during which the offender apologized, and then they evaluated the apology after answering questions that made salient what they either knew or did not know about the crime (complete knowledge salience vs. incomplete knowledge salience). Participants in Study 2 received additional information about the crime from either the offender or the police to test whether truth source acts as a moderator. Results: Participants in the complete (vs. incomplete) knowledge salience condition reported greater truth knowing (Study 1 d = 1.40, Study 2 d = 1.26, Study 3 d = 0.58), readiness for an apology (Study 1 d = 0.25; Study 2 d = 0.23; Study 3 d = 0.09, nonsignificant), perceived completeness of an apology (Study 1 d = 0.26, Study 2 d = 0.31, Study 3 d = 0.19), and acceptance of an apology (Study 1 d = 0.22; Study 2 d = 0.21; Study 3 d = 0.10, nonsignificant). In Study 2, truth source moderated the effect only on apology acceptance (η² = .009). Across the three studies, complete (vs. incomplete) knowledge salience was indirectly positively related to apology readiness, apology completeness, and apology acceptance (nonsignificant in Study 3), via truth knowing. Conclusions: Instances of victim–offender mediation should ensure that victims’ need for truth is satisfied because this may increase the effectiveness of apologies.
... Apology is recognized as a common and often potent conciliatory device following the infliction of severe injury, thus playing a significant role in the forgiveness process (Ebesu Huberd et al., 2013;Hu et al., 2019). They typically include the offender's expression of remorse, acknowledging an injury, taking responsibility for its infliction, recognition of its negative impact, a promise that it will not reoccur and a clear request for forgiveness (Morse & Metts, 2011;Roschk & Kaiser, 2012). ...
... However, one can also argue that revealing negative information late in a process might be perceived as being less than truthful (even if legally sanctioned) and might lead to negative ascriptions about candidate character (Hebl & Skorinko, 2005). Research on apologies has consistently showed that if apologies are perceived as untimely or artificially delayed, they are less effective in trust repair (Ebesu Hubbard et al, 2013;Jehle et al., 2012;Wirtz & Mattila, 2004). Flake (2019) also suggested that later timing might not make much of a difference, noting that Ban-the-Box laws do not directly prohibit discrimination against ex-offenders but perhaps just delay the point at which discrimination takes place. ...
Despite the large number of individuals with criminal records in the United States, research on their employment transitions and hiring challenges remains scarce. Further, given the over-representation of people of color in the US justice system, investigations incorporating the potential effects of race/ethnicity are crucial. In the present study, we examine the effects of different reparative impression management tactics for ex-offender applicants of various races/ethnicities in both a prehire and postoffer context and the mechanisms underlying those effects. Using an experimental design, we link specific reparative impression management tactics to employment outcomes through perceived remorse (Studies 1 and 2) and trustworthiness (Study 2), finding that Latino and Black candidates’ engagement in reparative impression management tactics had greater impact on perceptions of remorse, trustworthiness, and hiring evaluations than did the use of such tactics by White candidates. Disclosure timing did not have large impacts on evaluations. Our findings contribute to research on reparative impression management in hiring contexts more broadly, as well as informing ex-offender job seekers which tactics are most useful when disclosing a criminal record, how demographics may impact these impression management techniques, and potential optimal disclosure timing relevant to current legislative contexts.
This study explored the key components of effective apologies in couple relationships and their role in repair and communication. Seven experienced family and couples’ therapists were interviewed, sharing insights from their clinical practice. Thematic analysis revealed five main areas: (a) apology content—including the themes of experiencing genuine remorse and understanding, honest acceptance of responsibility for causing hurt, and making amends and mending the heart; (b) timing and delivery—emphasizing the themes of neither too late nor too soon, and words and gestures in harmony; (c) motivations for apology—which include striving for beneficial results, and avoiding negative consequences; (d) typology of apology—featuring the theme of the continuum of apologies: from superficial to sincere; and (e) contextual factors—highlighting the theme of the cultural and educational mosaics shaping apology. Findings emphasize that empathy, genuine remorse, and reparative actions are essential for rebuilding trust. Cultural and gender differences, shaped by societal norms, were discussed, particularly in how men and women approach apologies in romantic relationships. This study provides valuable insights for both therapists and couples, emphasizing the apology’s crucial role in fostering reconciliation and healthy relationships.
Purpose
The present study examines the nexus between workplace relationship conflict, perceived sincere apology, interpersonal forgiveness, trust restoration and future cooperation at work after a trust violation episode has occurred.
Design/methodology/approach
The data for the analysis were collected from 226 employees using scenarios and survey methods and quantitative techniques were applied to analyze the data.
Findings
The results show that perceived sincerity of apology serves as a mediating variable in the link between workplace relationship conflict and interpersonal forgiveness. Interpersonal forgiveness is found to be positively related to future cooperation at work with the mediating role of trust restoration.
Practical implications
The findings of the study have practical implications for strategy makers, human resource managers and practitioners interested in stimulating future cooperation at work after a trust violation episode has occurred. The study advocates that sincere apology and interpersonal forgiveness serve as an important link to recovering from trust violation damages and cultivating future cooperation at work after a relationship conflict has occurred.
Originality/value
The findings of the present study bring new insights on the role played by sincere apology and interpersonal forgiveness in facilitating trust restoration and future cooperation at work after a relationship conflict episode has occurred.
Nothing is perfect and robots can make as many mistakes as any human, which can lead to a decrease in trust in them. However, it is possible, for robots to repair a human’s trust in them after they have made mistakes through various trust repair strategies such as apologies, denials, and promises. Presently, the efficacy of these trust repairs in the human–robot interaction literature has been mixed. One reason for this might be that humans have different perceptions of a robot’s mind. For example, some repairs may be more effective when humans believe that robots are capable of experiencing emotion. Likewise, other repairs might be more effective when humans believe robots possess intentionality. A key element that determines these beliefs is mind perception. Therefore understanding how mind perception impacts trust repair may be vital to understanding trust repair in human–robot interaction. To investigate this, we conducted a study involving 400 participants recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk to determine whether mind perception influenced the effectiveness of three distinct repair strategies. The study employed an online platform where the robot and participant worked in a warehouse to pick and load 10 boxes. The robot made three mistakes over the course of the task and employed either a promise, denial, or apology after each mistake. Participants then rated their trust in the robot before and after it made the mistake. Results of this study indicated that overall, individual differences in mind perception are vital considerations when seeking to implement effective apologies and denials between humans and robots.
This investigation speaks to the intersection of interpersonal communication (IPC) research and social etiquette literature in constructing an apology over computer mediated communication (CMC). As individuals are engaging more in interpersonal interaction over CMC, apologies are being issued through this communication channel. Brown and Levinson's (1987) politeness theory guided this work as this has the possibility to anticipate the way language might be interpreted in conversation to achieve the goal they desire (Goldsmith & Normand, 2015). This research found that throughout social etiquette literature, IPC literature, and politeness theory; the five common themes that emerged with suggested features of apologies were: (1) expressing remorse, (2) offering an explanation, (3) acknowledging responsibility, (4) asking for forgiveness, and (5) asking for permission to apologize. A content analysis was conducted on Tweets (n=226) that revealed implications on the frequency and usage of these features within apologies posted on the platform.
There are those who feel science is above politics, but nothing is above politics. Science is influenced by politics as much as is art, the media, religion, or any other aspect of human activity. It is not being aware of those influences that can undermine the value of the scientific enterprise. There has been much resistance to the concept of peaceful societies. In the first part of this chapter, Douglas Fry looks at that resistance and attempts to redress an imbalance and promote scientific debate. In the second part, Fry reviews conflict management in the peaceful societies discussed in this book, examining common themes in the creation and maintenance of peace. He finishes by exploring some lessons that peaceful societies might offer for developing and maintaining peace.
Awards: Sue DeWine Distinguished Book of the Year Communicating Forgiveness is the first book to take a truly communicative look at the process of forgiveness. Authors Vincent R. Waldron and Douglas L. Kelley provide a synthesis of the literature on forgiveness in relationships. Grounded in real-life forgiveness narratives, this interdisciplinary text (pulling from such related fields as psychology, counseling, family studies, peace studies, conflict management, religious studies, and organizational behavior) offers a hopeful framework for negotiating healthy and just responses to relational disappointments. Key Features Conceptualizes forgiveness as communication: Offering an alternative to predominant psychological approaches, this is the first book to focus on specific communication behaviors associated with forgiveness.; Provides an emotional connection: Real- life narratives from long-term couples, friends, family members, and coworkers make the text readable and relevant to today's relationships.; Includes a chapter on the practice of forgiveness: Practical advice and specific guidelines resonate well with readers as they apply to genuine friendships, romances, families, and workplaces.; Offers path-breaking theory development: The book organizes existing forgiveness research around a descriptive communication framework, demonstrating how existing psychological research can be enriched through the application of communication theories.; Presents a highly personal closing chapter: In the final chapter the authors provide a personal account of their experiences as researchers through “On the Drive Home” vignettes that convey key lessons learned. Intended Audience This is an excellent supplemental text for a variety of advanced undergraduate and graduate courses such as Conflict Management, Interpersonal Communication, Family Communication, Communication in Personal Relationships, Psychology of Personal Relationships, Counseling, and Peace Studies in the departments of Communication, Psychology, Family Studies, and Counseling.
Our review summarizes and integrates existing research on interpersonal conflicts that are difficult to resolve. Research indicates that interpersonal conflicts can adversely impact families, individual health, team functioning, and intercultural relations. Hence, we need to better understand protracted disputes. We focus on two research programs directly related to interpersonal conflict (serial arguments and perpetual problems) and a third area of research that takes a macro approach to studying intractable conflict. We combine elements of the three approaches into an integrative framework that suggests nine questions worthy of future research.
While most scholars view interactional argument as a single conversational event, the phenomenon can also be seen as a serial episode that occurs and recurs in everyday life. This essay presents a model of serial argument with supporting data.
Since it is not clear in what contexts perceived understanding is important in the development of relationships, the present study addressed whether perceived understanding is as important initially in the development of a relationship as in later stages. Analysis indicated that perceived understanding is less important in this study where subjects were in an initial stage of development of a relationship than in an earlier study where subjects were in a later stage. Perhaps perceived understanding may index intensity since it appears to be more important later.
A series of studies investigating cultural differences in apology usage in unsolicited email advertising messages (i.e., SPAM) are reported. Study 1 documented that in comparison to American SPAM, a greater percentage of Korean SPAM included apologies. The next five studies (Ns= 516, 3132, 662, 524, 536) tested various explanations for cross-cultural differences in uses of, and responses to, apologies. Findings indicated that advertising messages containing apologies were not necessarily more effective than advertising messages without apologies. Koreans, however, considered advertising messages with apologies as more credible and normal and exhibited a greater tendency to model other people's apology use than did Americans. Thus, the frequent presence of apologies in Korean unsolicited email advertising is likely to be based on Koreans' modeling behavior (i.e., a greater tendency to follow social norms).
120 undergraduates were asked to imagine themselves as the central character in a scenario in which they inadvertently bumped into another person in a public place. The actor's responsibility for the incident and the amount of harm done to the "victim" were systematically manipulated. As hypothesized, apologies were used in a perfunctory manner (saying "Pardon me" and then going about one's business) when the consequences of the event were minor. As the consequences became more negative, Ss employed an increased number of apology components, such as saying they were sorry, expressing remorse, and offering to help the victim. When high responsibility and high consequences coexisted, Ss were most likely to employ self-castigation and explicitly request forgiveness. Results support the hypothesis that as the severity of a social predicament increases, so does both the use of nonperfunctory apologies and the number of components employed in apologies. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)