ArticlePDF Available

Abstract

The effect of nutrient supply on the caffeine content of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) leaves was investigated. Seeds were germinated in nutrient-agar media lacking N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Zn, B or Mo. The control treatment contained all essential nutrients. The caffeine concentration was determined seven months after seed sowing when the seedlings have 3 to 4 pair of leaves. The omission of K induced the highest caffeine content in the leaves (24.5 g.kg-1). Caffeine in the control treatment was 21.9 g.kg -1. Absence of P induced the lowest content, 17.5 g.kg-1.
MINERAL NUTRITION AND CAFFEINE CONTENT IN COFFEE LEAVES 387
Bragantia, Campinas, 58(2):387-391, 1999
NOTA
MINERAL NUTRITION AND CAFFEINE CONTENT
IN COFFEE LEAVES
(1)
PAULO MAZZAFERA(2)
ABSTRACT
The effect of nutrient supply on the caffeine content of coffee (Coffea arabica L.)
leaves was investigated. Seeds were germinated in nutrient-agar media lacking N, P, K, Ca,
Mg, S, Zn, B or Mo. The control treatment contained all essential nutrients. The caffeine
concentration was determined seven months after seed sowing when the seedlings have 3 to
4 pair of leaves. The omission of K induced the highest caffeine content in the leaves (24.5
g.kg-1). Caffeine in the control treatment was 21.9 g.kg -1. Absence of P induced the lowest
content, 17.5 g.kg-1.
Index terms: caffeine, Coffea arabica L., mineral nutrition.
RESUMO
NUTRIÇÃO MINERAL E CONTEÚDO DE CAFEÍNA EM FOLHAS DE CAFÉ
O efeito do suprimento de nutrientes sobre o conteúdo de cafeína em folhas de café
(Coffea arabica L.) foi estudado. Sementes foram germinadas em meios nutrientes de ágar
deficientes em N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Zn, B ou Mo. O meio-controle continha todos os nutrien-
tes essenciais. A concentração de cafeína foi determinada sete meses após a colocação das
sementes nos meios, quando três a quatro pares de folhas haviam sido emitidos. A omissão
de K induziu o maior conteúdo de cafeína nas folhas (24,5 g.kg-1). O conteúdo do alcalóide
no tratamento-controle foi de 21,9 g.kg-1. A ausência de P induziu maior redução, sendo o
conteúdo de 17,5 g.kg-1.
Termos de indexação: cafeína, Coffea arabica L., nutrição mineral.
(1) Received for publication in January 27th 1999 and approved in July 7th, 1999.
(2) Departamento de Fisiologia Vegetal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Caixa Postal 6.109, 13083-970 Campinas
(SP). E-mail: pmazza@obelix.unicamp.br
P. MAZZAFERA388
Bragantia, Campinas, 58(2):387-391, 1999
Caffeine is the most abundant and important
alkaloid in coffee. Despite its taste, this alkaloid does
not contribute for more than 10% of the coffee bitter-
ness (Clifford, 1985). The importance of caffeine in
the coffee beverage seems to be solely as a stimulant,
which is the main reason for its popularity over the
centuries.
Although there is thousands of alkaloids in
nature some have economic importance because of
their physiological effects on humans. Consequently,
in view of commercial interests, many studies have
been carried out to investigate the factors that would
increase their contents in plant tissues and, especially,
in cell suspensions. For this purpose different types
of stress have been used such as osmotic stress
(Godoy-Hernández & Loyola-Vargas, 1991; Saenz et
al., 1993), salt stress (Brachet & Cosson, 1983) and
fungal elicitors (Baumert et al., 1991; Godoy-
Hernández & Loyola-Vargas, 1991).
Few studies have been carried out with caffeine
from coffee plants. Light, in amounts of 400 µmol.m-2.s-1,
induced caffeine accumulation in coffee cell suspen-
sions (Frischknecht & Baumann, 1985). Depending
on the size of the cell aggregate, NaCl can also cause
an increase on caffeine contents (Frischknecht &
Baumann, 1985). However, as often to most alkaloids,
coffee tissue culture or cell suspension does not ac-
cumulate caffeine in amounts comparable to those
found in plant tissues (Waller et al., 1983;
Frischknecht & Baumann, 1985). Therefore, it would
be interesting to learn more about the environmental
and agricultural influences on the caffeine contents
of coffee beans and leaves.
A coffee shrub usually takes 2 to 3 years to
produce the first fruits, fact that is quite inconvenient
for studying the effect of mineral deficiencies on the
caffeine contents of beans. Carelli et al. (1989) have
demonstrated the difficulties of growing coffee un-
der hydroponics untill a stage were the plant is pro-
ductive. On the other hand field experiments would
not permit full control of nutrient deficiencies. There-
fore, it would be interesting to evaluate caffeine varia-
tion in leaves as a response to mineral supply in seed-
lings growing in nutrient-agar medium.
Material and Methods
Ripe fruits of C. arabica cv. Catuaí Vermelho
were collected from a shrub growing outdoors in the
experimental plots of Universidade Estadual de
Campinas, State of São Paulo, Brazil. Under aseptic
conditions, they were surface-sterilized by immersion
in 80% ethanol for 5 min followed by washing with
sterile H2O and immersion in commercial NaOCl so-
lution (2% Cl) for 30 min. After extensive washing
with sterile H2O the fruits were manually depulped
and seeds were treated with 0.5 N NaOH for 30 min,
to remove the adhered mucilage. The fruits were
washed 10 times with sterile H2O and the excess H2O
was removed by laying the seeds on sterile paper filter.
Variations of the complete Hoagland solution
(Hoagland & Arnon, 1950) were used to induce defi-
ciencies. Solutions lacking N, K, P, Ca, Mg, S, B, Zn
or Mo were prepared with deionized H2O. As con-
trol, a complete Hoagland nutrient-agar was prepared.
The nutrient-agar media were prepared by boiling the
nutrient solutions containing 1% agar in a microwave
oven. Before the addition of agar and boiling, all nu-
trient solutions were passed through 0.2 µm filters.
The nutrient-agar media were distributed in 500 mL
flasks (100 mL per flask) in an aseptic chamber. When
NH4 was included, it was added as a filtered solution
concentrated 10 times after the agar temperature had
dropped to approximately 50oC.
Three selected seeds were placed in each flask
with the flat face down. The flasks were sealed with
parafilm and left in a growth chamber (temperature
20-25oC and photon flux density of ca 250 µmol.m-2.s-1)
until most of the seedlings produced 3 to 4 pair of
leaves. Five replicates were prepared for each treat-
ment and control.
For caffeine analyses, the leaves of the three
seedlings of each flask were collected and dried at
80oC. This occurred 210 days after transfer of the
seeds to the flasks. The leaves finely ground in
a mortar with pestle, extracted and analyzed by
reversed-phase high-performance chromatography
according to Mazzafera et al. (1994).
MINERAL NUTRITION AND CAFFEINE CONTENT IN COFFEE LEAVES 389
Bragantia, Campinas, 58(2):387-391, 1999
Results and Discussion
Two months elapsed before the emergence of
the radicles. Probably, this long period occurred be-
cause the endocarp was not removed (Válio, 1980),
and also because of the sterile conditions, which pre-
vented microbial action on this physical barrier. Usu-
ally radicle emergence in germinating coffee seeds
takes 15 to 20 days under non-sterile conditions.
At harvesting time, the leaves were smaller than
usually found on seedlings of the same age growing
in greenhouse or nursery. This might have occurred
because of the low light intensity of the growth cham-
ber compared to natural day light. On the other hand,
the light intensity of the growth chamber (250 µmol.
m-2.s-1) might have not interfered with caffeine bio-
synthesis. Frischknecht & Baumann (1985) observed
that a similar light intensity (400 µmol.m-2.s-1) induced
caffeine accumulation in coffee cell suspensions com-
pared to cells grown in the dark.
Except for the leaves of seedlings from the
treatment -N, which were slightly chlorotic, no typi-
cal visible symptoms of deficiency were observed.
This might have happened because there was not
enough time for the development of typical deficiency
symptoms. Because N in coffee is required in higher
amounts compared to other nutrients (Moraes &
Catani, 1964), it became limiting in the -N treatment,
and leaf chlorosis could be observed in young leaves.
The leaves did not differ in dry matter.
The caffeine content found in the leaves (Table
1) was higher than values reported in the literature
for C. arabica (Mazzafera & Magalhães, 1991). How-
ever, this would be expected since it has been dem-
onstrated that younger leaves have higher alkaloid
contents than older leaves (Frischknecht et al., 1986).
Although statistically similar to the control
treatment, omission of K induced the greatest increase
(12%) of caffeine contents in leaves. Except for Mo,
all other nutrient omissions led to lower values than
the control. Treatments -N and -P showed the lowest
contents.
There is no report in the literature regarding
the influence of mineral deficiencies on the caffeine
metabolism. Regarding the methyltransferases in-
volved in the caffeine biosynthesis it is not of our
knowledge any study indicating that these enzymes
are dependent on a specific ion. However, the oppo-
site occurs with the biodegradation route. Caffeine
degradation in fruits and leaves of coffee follows the
sequence: caffeine theophylline(1,3-dimethylxan-
thine) 3-methylxanthine xanthine uric acid
000allantoin -> allantoic acid -> urea + glyoxylic acid
-> NH4 + CO2. Urease, responsible for urea degrada-
tion, is dependent on nickel (Stebbins & Polacco,
1995), has very low activity in coffee fruits and leaves
(Vitória & Mazzafera, 1999), and is positioned in
the very end of the caffeine catabolism (Suzuki et al.,
1992). Vitória & Mazzafera (1999) observed that the
activity of xanthine oxidase in vitro assays with pro-
tein extracts from coffee fruits and leaves of C.
arabica was improved by addition of Mo in the reac-
tion mixture. However, here it was observed that the
accumulation of caffeine due to Mo deficiency did
not differ from the control treatment.
Table 1. Caffeine content in leaves of coffee seedlings
grown in nutrient agar media deficient in nutrients
-K................................ 24.5 + 0.1a 112
-Mo ............................. 22.5 + 0.3ab 103
Complete (control).... 21.9 + 0.3abc 100
-B ................................ 21.6 + 0.5a-d 98
-S ................................ 20.2 + 0.2bcd 92
-Zn .............................. 20.0 + 0.2bcd 91
-Ca .............................. 18.5 + 0.3bcd 84
-Mg ............................. 18.2 + 0.3cd 83
-N................................ 17.9 + 0.2cd 82
-P ................................ 17.5 + 0.3d 80
Treatments Caffeine(1) Increase/
/Decrease
g.kg-1 dry weight %
(1) Different letters indicate statistical significance by Duncan test (p
< 0.05).
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
P. MAZZAFERA390
Bragantia, Campinas, 58(2):387-391, 1999
Lukaszewski et al. (1992) observed that boric
acid inhibited allantoate amidohydrolase in soybean
leaves, causing accumulation of allantoic acid. This
enzyme is involved in caffeine catabolism (Suzuki et
al., 1992). If the opposite is true, B deficiency would
cause decrease of allantoate and therefore, in caffeine.
However, the alkaloid level in the leaves of -B treat-
ment was similar to the control. At the same time,
allantoate amidohydrolase is dependent on manga-
nese, but this nutrient was not tested in the present
work.
Since alkaloids are N-containing compounds,
low caffeine content might be expected in the plants
of -N treatment. Although there is few exceptions,
several reports have shown an increase in alkaloid
content due to N fertilization (Waller & Nowacki,
1978). On the other hand, the response may vary de-
pending on the nutrient source (nitrate, ammonium
or urea) and the alkaloid type.
Regarding other nutrients, Cu amendments en-
hanced and Zn depressed nicotine contents in Nico-
tiana tabacum (Tso et al., 1973). B, Mo, Mn and Cu
amendments caused a decrease on alkaloid contents
in Lupinus species (Mironenko, 1965). In most cases,
depletion of potassium reduces alkaloid contents in
plants (Waller & Nowacki, 1978). However, in all
such cases it is not known the mechanisms leading to
alkaloid accumulation.
Recently, Yun et al. (1999) showed that K and
Mg fertilizer application increased caffeine in tea
leaves (Camellia sinensis). However, the experiment
was carried out in the field in a soil with low pH and
low organic matter, which may have also interfered
with the results.
To our knowledge only one investigation re-
ports on the effect of mineral nutrition on caffeine
contents of leaves and seeds of coffee (Rodriguez,
1961). The omission of Fe, Mn, B, Zn and Mo was
tested throughout one year in three-year old coffee
shrubs (C. arabica cv. Bourbon) by spray or soil fer-
tilization associated or not with gypsum or lime ap-
plication in the soil. Reduction in caffeine contents
(3.2%), although not statistically significant, was
observed in the seeds with gypsum omission and an
increase (17.5%) with Zn omission. The control plants
were sprayed with these micronutrients. The author
did not report any nutritional deficiency symptoms
probably because the experiment was carried out
during a short period and also because the nutritional
conditions of the soil may have interfered with the
results.
It is very likely that these interferences did not
occur in the present work. From our data it is not pos-
sible to speculate the way each nutrient affected caf-
feine metabolism. However, it is clear that caffeine
contents in coffee is leveled by a balanced mineral
nutrition. Considering that the metabolism of caffeine
is very similar in fruits and leaves of C. arabica
(Suzuki & Waller, 1984; Mazzafera et al., 1994;
Ashihara et al., 1996) it is possible that the responses
observed here might be observed also in fruits.
References
ASHIHARA, H.; MONTEIRO, A.M.; MORITZ, T.; GILLIES,
F.M. & CROZIER, A. Catabolism of caffeine and related
purine alkaloids in leaves of Coffea arabica L. Planta,
Heidelberg, 198: 334-339, 1996.
BAUMERT, A.; MAIER, W.; SCHUMANN, B. & GROGER,
D. Increased accumulation of acridone alkaloids by cell
suspension cultures of Ruta graveolens in response to
elicitors. Journal of Plant Physiology, Jena, 139:224-228,
1991.
BRACHET, J. & COSSON, L. Changes in the total alkaloid
content of Datura inoxia Mill. subjected to salt stress.
Journal of Experimental Botany, Oxford, 37:650-656,
1983.
CARELLI, M.L.C.; FAHL, J.I. & MAGALHÃES, A.C. Assi-
milação de nitrato durante o desenvolvimento reprodutivo
de plantas de café. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo,
Campinas, 13:59-64, 1989.
CLIFFORD, M. N. Chemical and physical aspects of green
coffee and coffee products. In: CLIFFORD, M. N. &
WILLSON, K.C., eds. Coffee: botany; biochemistry and
production of beans and beverage. Westport, Connecticut,
AVI Publishing, 1985. p.305-374.
MINERAL NUTRITION AND CAFFEINE CONTENT IN COFFEE LEAVES 391
Bragantia, Campinas, 58(2):387-391, 1999
FRISCHKNECHT, P.M. & BAUMANN, T.W. Stress induced
formation of purine alkaloids in plant tissue culture of
Coffea arabica. Phytochemistry, Oxford, 24:2255-2257,
1985.
FRISCHKNECHT, P.M.; ULMER-DUFEK, J. & BAUMANN,
T.W. Purine alkaloid formation in buds and developing
leaflets of Coffea arabica: expression of an optimal
defence strategy? Phytochemistry, Oxford, 25:613-616,
1986.
GODOY-HERNÁNDEZ, G. & LOYOLA-VARGAS, V.M.
Effect of fungal homogenate, enzyme inhibitors and
osmotic stress on alkaloid content of Catharanthus roseus
cell suspension cultures. Plant Cell Reports, Heidelberg,
10:537-540, 1991.
HOAGLAND, D.R. & ARNON, D.I. The water: culture
method for growing plants whithout soil. Berkeley,
California Agriculture Experimental Station, 1950. 39p.
(Circular 347)
LUKASZEWSKI, K.M.; BLEVINS, D.G. & RANDALL, D.D.
Asparagine and boric acid cause allantoate accumulation
in soybean leaves inhibiting manganese-dependent
allantoate amidohydrolase. Plant Physiology, Bethesda,
99: 1670-1676, 1992.
MAZZAFERA, P.; CROZIER, A. & MAGALHÃES, A.C.
Caffeine metabolism in Coffea arabica and other species
of coffee. Phytochemistry, Oxford, 30:3913-3916, 1991.
MAZZAFERA, P.; CROZIER, A. & SANDBERG, G. Studies
on the metabolic control of caffeine turnover in developing
endosperms and leaves of Coffea arabica and Coffea
dewevrei. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry,
Washington, 42:1423, 1994.
MAZZAFERA, P. & MAGALHÃES, A.C. Cafeína em folhas
e sementes de Coffea e Paracoffea. Revista Brasileira de
Botânica, São Paulo, 14:157-160, 1991.
MORAES, F.R.P. & CATANI, R.A. A absorção de elementos
minerais pelo fruto do cafeeiro durante sua formação.
Bragantia, Campinas, 23:331-336, 1964.
MIRONENKO, A.V. Fiziologya I Biokhimiya Lupina. Minsk,
Nauka i Tekhnika, 1965. 325p.
RODRIGUEZ, S.J. The chemical composition of green coffee
beans and coffee leaves as related to soil and foliar
applications of secondary and minor elements. East
Lansing, 1961. 121p. Ph.D. Thesis - Michigan State
University, 1961.
SAENZ, L.; SANTAMARÍA, J.M.; VILLANUEVA, M.A.;
LOYOLA-VARGAS, V.M. & OROPEZA, C. Changes
in the alkaloid content of plants of Catharanthus roseus
L. (Don). as a result of water stress and treatment with
abscisic acid. Journal of Plant Physiology, Jena,
142:244-247, 1993.
STEBBINS, N.E. & POLACCO, J.C. Urease is not essential
for ureide degradation in soybean. Plant Physiology,
Bethesda, 109: 169-175, 1995.
SUZUKI, T.; ASHIHARA, H. & WALLER, G.R. Purine and
purine alkaloids metabolism in Cammelia and Coffea
plants. Phytochemistry, Oxford, 31: 2575-2584, 1992.
SUZUKI, T. & WALLER, G.R. Biosynthesis and bio-
degradation of caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline
in Coffea arabica L. fruits. Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry, Washington, 32:845-848, 1984.
TSO, T.C.; SOROKIN, T.P. & ENGELHAUPT, M.E. Effects
of some rare elements on nicotine content of the tobacco
plant. Plant Physiology, Bethesda, 51:805-806, 1973.
VÁLIO, I.F.M. Inhibition of germination of coffee seeds
(Coffea arabica L. cv. Mundo Novo) by the endocarp.
Journal of Seed Technology, East Lansing, 5:32-39, 1980.
VITÓRIA, A.P. & MAZZAFERA, P. Xanthine degradation
and related enzymes activities in leaves and fruits of two
Coffea species differing in caffeine catabolism. Journal
of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Washington,
47:1851-1855, 1999.
WALLER, G.R.; MACVEAN, C.D. & SUZUKI, T. High
production of caffeine and related activities in callus
cultures of Coffea arabica L. Plant Cell Reports,
Heidelberg, 2:109-112, 1983.
WALLER, G.R. & NOWACKI, E.K. Alkaloid biology and
metabolism in plants. New York, Plenum Press, 1978.
293p.
YUN, R.J; WU, X.; HARDTER, R. & XUN, W. Effects of
potassium and magnesium nutrition on the quality
components of different types of tea. Journal of the
Science of Food and Agriculture, New York, 79:47-52,
1999.
... Coffee leaves contain many compounds, such as mangiferin, chlorogenic acid, hydrocinnamic acid, trigonelline, rutin, and caffeine [3][4] [5][6] [7]. Researchers [4] have reported the effects of some processing methods on the phytochemical profiles of coffee leaves. ...
... The organoleptic test of beverages was carried out using six hedonic scales. The rating scales consist of dislike (1), rather dislike (2), neutral (3), somewhat like (4), like (5), and really like (6). The organoleptic test involved 30 semi-trained panelists. ...
... Cytokinins regulate cell division in shoots and roots and promote movement of nutrients (Taiz and Zeiger, 2002;Hopkins and Hüner, 2009). A study conducted in Brazil by Mazzafera (1999) to investigate the influence of mineral nutrition of coffee on its caffeine contents showed that the omission of P induced the lowest caffeine content. ...
... Trigonelline was inversely correlated with most soil parameters. But chlorogenic acid was less influenced by ble reason for low caffeine content under P limited ecosystem or positive correlation of caffeine with available P status of soil and its negative correlation with nitrogen could be due to nutrient interaction or antagonism between N and P. In P limited osystem, N uptake is reduced and subsequently N The decrease in N concentration with increasing P limitation may be mediated by a decrease in leaf cytokinin levels (de Groot et ytokinins regulate cell division in shoots and roots and promote movement of nutrients (Taiz and Zeiger, A study conducted in Brazil by Mazzafera (1999) to investigate the influence of feine contents showed that the omission of P induced the lowest caffeine content. ...
Article
Full-text available
Coffee quality is a complex trait involving sensory and bean characteristics as well as biochemical contents. The objective of this study was to assess the major factors influencing the quality of wild Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) in the natural coffee forests of southwest and southeast Ethiopia. Results revealed that both natural (soil, aspect, elevation, climate, geographic location) and human factors (cherry harvesting/ handing, theft, forest management) considerably influenced the quality of wild Arabica coffee. The soil factor affected every component of coffee quality (cup quality, bean characteristics and biochemical contents). The cup quality of coffee varied with soil properties, especially with available P and soil texture. The bean size distribution was also affected by soil properties; there was significant positive relationship between soil pH, sand or Mn and the proportion of bold beans (retained on screen 17). Soil organic matter, total N and sand content were inversely correlated with caffeine content, but available P and clay content were positively correlated with caffeine. Increase in elevation led to increase in bean size up to the elevation of about 1600 m above sea level, but thereafter no more increase in bean size (hump-shaped relationship, not monotonic). Bean size increased with increase in longitude, but it decreased with increase in latitude. Cup quality was also significantly influenced by coffee harvesting and handling, but its influence was not noticed on bean size and biochemical contents. Coffee quality is therefore the resultant of an interaction of different natural and human factors prevailing in the respective area.
... -Phosphorus removal leads to the lowest caffeine content. (Mazzafera, 1999) Spectroscopic studies on caffeine and isocaffeine -Unique differences in the electronic structures of 7-and 9-alkyl substituted xanthines -Self-association of caffeine and isocaffeine is explained by orbital interactions. -Unique differences in the electronic structures of 7and 9-alkyl substituted xanthines -Self-association of caffeine and isocaffeine explained by orbital interactions (Yanuka and Bergmann, 1986) F I G U R E 3 Optical, dielectric, and electron loss functions (a), band analysis based on FTIR (b) and wave number shift against chemical bonds as a result of leaves transformation to caffeine form (c and d). ...
Article
Full-text available
Caffeine extracted from callus cultures by in vitro technique induced from typica coffee (Coffea arabica L. var. typica) leaves was successfully carried out by a simple Soxhlet method. Analysis of X‐ray diffraction patterns showed an increase in crystallinity fraction from leaves (13.56%) to callus (14.46%) and then to caffeine (39.18%). Crystallite size also varied, with average sizes of 18 ± 6, 69 ± 51, and 32.5 ± 17 nm for leaves, callus, and caffeine, respectively. Fourier transmission infrared absorption data confirmed the presence of hydroxyl (OH) groups bound to carbon (C─COH), indicating caffeine content. The high stability of the C─COH is indicated by the broad optical phonon vibrations Δ(LO−TO)Δ(LOTO)\Delta ( {LO - TO} ) of the leaves: 247 cm⁻¹ to caffeine: 963 cm⁻¹. Quantitative analysis of dielectric function and electron loss function intensity peaks of each sample showed that leaves efficiently capture and store light energy while caffeine has less potency. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed irregular shapes of leaves, oval round shapes for callus, and rectangular crystals for caffeine due to crystal orientation during transformation and had a strong correlation with crystallinity fraction. Finally, the structure‐based identification, chemistry, optical‐dielectric function, and micro‐surface properties have been fully studied, thus unmasking the phenomenon of slow transformation from leaves to caffeine form. Practical Application The result of this study can be applied to uncover new methodologies related to the classification, and biotechnological utilization of callus culture based on structural properties, optical‐dielectric function, and micro‐surface analysis. Methodologically, the resulting callus culture provides a sustainable and controllable supply of plant material for caffeine extraction, thereby reducing traditional methods involving field‐grown plants and avoiding the use of pesticides.
... For example, Campa et al. (2012) reported the presence of the phenolic compound mangiferin in Arabica coffee leaves. Mondolot et al. (2006) and Mazzafera (1999) found that Coffea canephora leaves contain caffeoylquinicacid and 21.9 g/kg caffeine. Chen et al. (2018) also found mangiferin, iso-mangiferin, trigonelline, 3-caffeoylquinic acid (3-CQA), and 5-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA) in samples dried using certain methods. ...
Article
In this study, we described ways to improve the antioxidant properties of coffee-leaf tea by adding areca nut powder and stevia leaves. A non-factorial completely randomized design (RALF) was used in this study. We included five treatment formulations with five repetitions per formulation, which included F1 (100% coffee leaves: 0% areca nut: 0% stevia), F2 (95% coffee leaves: 1.5% areca nut: 3.5% stevia), F3 (90% coffee leaves: 3% areca nut: 7% stevia), F4 (85% coffee leaves: 4.5% areca nut: 10.5% stevia), and F5 (80% coffee leaves: 6% areca nut: 14% stevia). The results showed that adding areca nut powder and stevia leaves significantly improved the antioxidant properties of coffee-leaf tea. The IC50 value of the tea decreased by 67.96%, and its total phenol content increased by 38.85%. The water content and ash content of coffee-leaf tea produced in this study met the SNI standards. The results of the organoleptic tests showed whether the panelists accepted the color and taste of the samples. Key words: Antioxidant; areca nut; coffee leaves; stevia leaves; total phenolics.
... However, very few studies have characterized the bioactive properties of the phytochemical compounds derived from coffee leaves. The most abundant bioactive compound in coffee leaves is caffeine, with a concentration of approximately 24.5 g/kg of dried leaves [31,32]. In fact, due to their high caffeine content, old coffee leaves may harm the soil and the beneficial microorganisms living in the soil and coffee roots, particularly in large-scale coffee farming areas. ...
Article
Full-text available
Coffee waste is often viewed as a problem, but it can be converted into value-added products if managed with clean technologies and long-term waste management strategies. Several compounds, including lipids, lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses, tannins, antioxidants, caffeine, polyphenols, carotenoids, flavonoids, and biofuel can be extracted or produced through recycling, recovery, or energy valorization. In this review, we will discuss the potential uses of by-products generated from the waste derived from coffee production, including coffee leaves and flowers from cultivation; coffee pulps, husks, and silverskin from coffee processing; and spent coffee grounds (SCGs) from post-consumption. The full utilization of these coffee by-products can be achieved by establishing suitable infrastructure and building networks between scientists, business organizations, and policymakers, thus reducing the economic and environmental burdens of coffee processing in a sustainable manner.
... Low potassium resulted in a 10% increase in leaf caffeine concentration in 7-monthold coffee seedlings [126], but any consequence of this finding for bean quality remains unknown. Clemente et al. (2015) reported that a N:K fertilizer ratio of 1:1.56 in hydroponic culture resulted in the greatest cup quality (higher caffeine, color index and sugars, and lower titratable acidity and EC), but the results were based on only four applied K levels [127]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The terroir of coffee is defined as the unique sensory experience derived from a single origin roasted coffee that embodies its source. Environmental conditions such as temperature, altitude, shade cover, rainfall, and agronomy are considered the major parameters that define coffee terroir. However, many other parameters such as post-harvest processing, roasting, grinding, and brewing can combine to influence the perception of terroir. In this review, we discuss the contribution of these parameters and their influence on coffee terroir. Assessment of terroir requires defined sensory descriptors, as provided by the World Coffee Research Lexicon, and standardized roast level, grind size, and brew method. The choice of the post-harvest processing method is often environmentally dependent, suggesting that an inclusion into the coffee terroir definition is warranted. Coffee terroir is often not intentionally created but results from the contributions of the Coffea species and variety planted, environmental and agricultural parameters, and both the harvest and post-harvest method used. The unique combination of these parameters gives the consumer a unique cup of coffee, reminiscent of the place the coffee was produced.
... It is known that coffee contains caffeine at different levels, depending on the seeds, cultivation area, and process. For example, robusta coffee contains 1.7-4.0% of caffeine, which is almost twice the content of Arabica coffee (0.8-1.4%) [9][10][11][12]. Caffeine is reported to cause side effects, such as insomnia, palpitations, an increase in the frequency of urination, headaches, and other symptoms-this is in addition to its main pharmacological effect as a stimulant [13][14][15][16][17]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Coffee has been studied for its health benefits, including prevention of several chronic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, cancer, Parkinson’s, and liver diseases. Chlorogenic acid (CGA), an important component in coffee beans, was shown to possess antiviral activity against viruses. However, the presence of caffeine in coffee beans may also cause insomnia and stomach irritation, and increase heart rate and respiration rate. These unwanted effects may be reduced by decaffeination of green bean Arabica coffee (GBAC) by treatment with dichloromethane, followed by solid-phase extraction using methanol. In this study, the caffeine and chlorogenic acid (CGA) level in the coffee bean from three different areas in West Java, before and after decaffeination, was determined and validated using HPLC. The results showed that the levels of caffeine were reduced significantly, with an order as follows: Tasikmalaya (2.28% to 0.097% (97 ppm), Pangalengan (1.57% to 0.049% (495 ppm), and Garut (1.45% to 0.00002% (0.2 ppm). The CGA levels in the GBAC were also reduced as follows: Tasikmalaya (0.54% to 0.001% (118 ppm), Pangalengan (0.97% to 0.0047% (388 ppm)), and Garut (0.81% to 0.029% (282 ppm). The decaffeinated samples were then subjected to the H5N1 neuraminidase (NA) binding assay to determine its bioactivity as an anti-influenza agent. The results show that samples from Tasikmalaya, Pangalengan, and Garut possess NA inhibitory activity with IC50 of 69.70, 75.23, and 55.74 μg/mL, respectively. The low level of caffeine with a higher level of CGA correlates with their higher levels of NA inhibitory, as shown in the Garut samples. Therefore, the level of caffeine and CGA influenced the level of NA inhibitory activity. This is supported by the validation of CGA-NA binding interaction via molecular docking and pharmacophore modeling; hence, CGA could potentially serve as a bioactive compound for neuraminidase activity in GBAC.
... Results showed increase capsaicin content determined in pepper fruits at treatment K deficiency, corroborate the results reported by Mazzafera (1999), who verified a 12% increase in caffeine (alkaloid) contents of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) leaves when plants where grown under K deficiency, as well as the findings reported by Freitas et al. (2016), who observed 19% increased ajmalicine contents in roots periwinkle under K deficiency. ...
Article
Full-text available
The aim of the present study was to verify the effect of the nutritional stress caused by macronutrient and boron deficiencies on the biosynthesis of capsaicinoids and the mineral nutrient contents of dry Capsicum annuum fruits. The experiments were carried out in a shade house at Campos dos Goytacazes/RJ, Brazil, in sand fertigated with a nutrient solution, in randomized blocks applying an 8x2 bifactorial scheme, with eight treatments [Complete treatment and applying the element omission technique for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S) and boron (B)], and two fruit harvesting dates, with four replications. Pepper fruits produced under potassium deficiency displayed increased capsaicin contents, whereas sulfur deficiency decreased capsaicin contents. Capsaicin contents were different depending on the harvesting dates, ranging from 0.369 to 1.224 mg g⁻¹.
Article
We reported on sustainable, one-pot synthesized caffeine-based compounds as effective, bifunctional, heterogenous, hydrogen-bond-donor organocatalysts for the cycloaddition of CO 2 with several epoxides, supported by a mechanistic study and verified by density functional theory calculations. Two reaction intermediates were isolated during the catalytic cycle: the first involving hydrogen bonding between caffeinium bromide and epichlorohydrin upon exchanging Br À with PF 6 À , and the second comprising of the nucleophilic attack of Br À followed by ring opening, as deduced from the appearance of a peak corresponding to the C-Br bond in the ATR-FTIR spectrum in the absence of CO2. In this respect, most of the literature is based on postulated mechanisms, racing to achieve lower working conditions, urging us to dig deeper to understand the aforementioned reaction.
Article
Full-text available
São apresentados dados da variação na concentração de nitrogênio, fósforo, potássio, cálcio e magnésio no fruto do cafeeiro durante a sua formação, bem como das quantidades dos elementos absorvidos pelo fruto e da acumulação de matéria sêca em diversos estágios de seu desenvolvimento. A concentração dos elementos dosados foi sempre maior na flor que em qualquer outro estágio da maturação. O inverso ocorreu com a concentração de matéria sêca, em conseqüência da redução progressiva do teor de água no fruto. A acumulação de matéria sêca no fruto intensificou-se a partir do início do 4.° mês após o florescimento. O mesmo ocorreu com a absorção de nitrogênio, fósforo e potássio. Nôvo incremento na absorção de nitrogênio e potássio e no aumento do pêso sêco foi observado no 6º e no 7º mês após o florescimento. Nos dois meses que antecedem o estado final de maturação, o fruto do cafeeiro acumula ou elabora 43% do seu pêso sêco, absorvendo 49% do nitrogênio, 36% do fósforo e 39% do potássio, relativamente às quantidades que contém quando da maturação completa.
Article
Full-text available
High performance liquid chromatography has been used to measure the quantities of caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline in aqueous extracts of endosperm from immature and mature fruits of Coffea arabica and six other species of Coffea. Caffeine was the alkaloid present in largest amounts and, with one exception, in concentrations that were broadly similar in immature and mature fruit. The highest concentrations of caffeine were found in C. canephora at 35.1 and 24.5 mg g−1, respectively, in immature and mature endosperm. The lowest concentrations were in C. bengalensis, where caffeine was not detected in extracts from mature fruit. [8-3H]Caffeine was metabolised relatively slowly by immature endosperm of C. arabica and C. canephora. In contrast, C. dewevrei, C. eugenioides, C. stenophylla, C. salvatrix and C. bengalensis all appeared to metabolise [8-3H]caffeine much more rapidly, as the percentage recovery of the applied label was much lower and there was more extensive incorporation of radioactivity into theobromine, theophylline, 3-methylxanthine and two unidentified polar metabolites. The endogenous caffeine concentrations and the metabolism data indicate that there may be marked differences in the rate of turnover of caffeine in the various species of Coffea. Potential sources of material for the production of naturally decaffeinated coffee are discussed.
Chapter
This chapter summarises the vast literature on the composition* of green coffee beans paying particular attention to those components which are peculiar to coffee. The corresponding data are given for roasted beans and where possible for soluble powders. Attention is focused on compositional factors that might be determinants of acceptability, and situations where the data are incomplete or contradictory with the intention of provoking thought, comment and further investigation.
Article
Callus tissue culture of Coffea arabica L. cv Hybrido de Timor prepared from apical portions of orthotropic branches produced 49 to 92 times as much caffeine per unit weight of tissue as did the original explant. Cell-free extracts made from 42 to 54-day-old callus cultures in which active biosynthesis was occurring exhibited N-methyl-N 9-nucleoside hydrolase and N-methyltransferase enzyme activities. Similar cell-free extracts exhibited selective biodegradative activity in forming urea from xanthine. Biosynthetic substrate specificities are similar to those of the enzyme obtained from green coffee fruit and tea leaves, suggesting that callus cultures of C. arabica form caffeine in the same way as the coffee fruit and tea leaves.
Article
The addition of Aspergillus niger homogenate to Catharanthus roseus cell suspension cultures produced an increment of more than 60% in the alkaloid content of two different cell lines. The use of an inhibitor of phenylalanine ammonia lyase, i. e. cinnamic acid, along with the homogenate, resulted in an appearance of 90% of the alkaloids in the medium. Furthermore, even in the absence of fungal homogenate, there was a marked increase in the alkaloid content. The exposure of the cells to an osmotic stress produced a marked increment (320%) in the total alkaloid content. When both stress treatments were applied sequentially, an additive effect on alkaloid accumulation was observed. It was 300% higher than in cells cultured without treatment, the majority of the alkaloids found in the medium.
Article
Two dark-grown cell suspension cultures of Ruta graveolens L. were challenged with fungal elicitors. The treatment of cell line R-4 resulted in increased accumulation of hydroxy rutacridone epoxide, rutacridone epoxide and gravacridontriol. The latter alkaloid was not detectable in non-elicited cells. Another response was observed in cell line R-15. Besides rutacridone epoxide, for the first time rutacridone accumulation was stimulated either by a yeast, Phytophthora or Colletotrichum elicitor. Using cell line R-15, an elicitor-mediated induction of 5-adenosyl-L-methionine: anthranilic acid N-methyltransferase, N-methylanthranilic acid «activating» enzyme and rutacridone synthase was recorded. Enzyme activities were influenced by incubation time and amount of elicitor.
Article
Reports that environmental stress may enhance the accumulation of secondary substances in plants led to the idea of introducing stress into tissue cultures with the aim of improving the in vitro production of pharmaceutically active compounds. The test was made with low- and high-producing cell suspension cultures of Coffea arabica. The production of the purine alkaloid caffeine was shown to be stimulated by stressors such as high light intensity and—depending on the culture type—high NACl concentration.
Article
In buds and emergent leaflets of Coffea arabica formation of the purine alkaloids caffeine and theobromine was studied with the aim of characterizing the chemical defence strategy of a tissue with a high risk of predation. As long as the leaflets are fully covered by a resin layer and by two stipules, their alkaloid content varies between 1 and 3% dry wt. With leaflet emergence, the alkaloid formation increases and the variation decreases. Maximum content of about 4% is reached when the leaflets are fully open. In the subsequent developmental period alkaloid content decreases. A comparison between the investment in alkaloid formation with that in primary metabolic processes demonstrates that chemical defence is costly: influx of carbon atoms into caffeine is 15% of that into respiration. A defence strategy which is based on an antagonism between mechanical and chemical protection is discussed.
Article
Datura plants were grown on a clayed support and subjected to salinity stress (153.8 mol m−3 NaCl) at the 6-leaf stage. Salt treatment increased total alkaloid content in young leaves. The results indicated that at the organ level tropane alkaloid accumulation was related to plant growth.