Content uploaded by Andrew Norton
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Andrew Norton on Nov 10, 2014
Content may be subject to copyright.
PERSPECTIVE ON PRACTICE
Delivering training for highly
demanding information systems
Andrew Lawrence Norton
Durham Business School, Durham University, Durham, UK
Yvette May Coulson-Thomas
Universidade Federal de Sa
˜
o Paulo, Sa
˜
o Paulo, Brazil and
University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
Colin Joseph Coulson-Thomas
University of Greenwich, London, UK, and
Colin Ashurst
Durham Business School, Durham University, Durham, UK
Abstract
Purpose – There is a lack of research covering the training requirements of organisations
implementing highly demanding information systems (HDISs). The aim of this paper is to help in the
understanding of appropriate training requirements for such systems.
Design/methodology/approach – This research investigates the training delivery within a
customer-facing organisation that successfully implemented an HDIS. A case study was undertaken to
identify resource allocation during the implementation lifecycle and training guidelines were prepared
following in-depth interviews with client and supplier consultant practitioners.
Findings – Organisations implementing HDISs should invest in training throughout the
implementation lifecycle. Two areas of training were found to be of importance: end-user training
to avoid technical-isomorphism and post-implementation training to avoid system atrophy.
Practical implications – Literature shows that training attracts the smallest proportion of the
implementation resources. This research shows, however, the critical role training plays in delivering a
successful HDIS implementation.
Originality/value – The phasing of training requirements allows training resources to be allocated
more effectively into end-user and post-implementation training, which is necessary for the full
benefits of HDIS to be realised.
Keywords Post-implementation training, End-user training, Knowledge workers, ERPII,
Benefits realization, Phasing of training CSF, Information systems, Training methods,
Training evaluation
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
In today’s knowledge driven economy, customer-facing organisations (CFO) are
relying more heavily on highly demanding information systems (HDIS) in order to
manage growing customer expectations. HDIS, such as enterprise resource planning
(ERP), offer end users the ability to use information for both pro-active and re-active
interaction with the customer (Pan and Lee, 2003).
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/2046-9012.htm
EJTD
36,6
646
Received 5 October 2011
Revised 30 January 2012
Accepted 20 April 2012
European Journal of Training and
Development
Vol. 36 No. 6, 2012
pp. 646-662
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
2046-9012
DOI 10.1108/03090591211245530
ERP is a software system that operates through a centralised relational database.
These commercial investments are considered to be “configurable information systems
packages that integrate information and information-based processes within and
across functional areas in an organisation” (Kumar and Van Hillegersberg, 2000,
p. 210). ERPII is the next generation of enterprise systems which align organisational
processes with the external environment (Møller, 2005; Beatty et al., 2006). CFO design
their business infrastructure around their customers’ needs (Galbraith, 2005) and can
benefit from these types of systems as they increase the organisation’s capability to
interact with customers.
The demand for ERPII is strong, even despite the current economic climate of
austerity. A recent report by Forrester Research showed that 25 per cent of European
and Asian organisations intended to invest in their existing ERP systems in 2011
(Hamerman et al., 2011). However, implementing any type of HDIS is not an easy task;
a report by the Standish Group shows that of all successfully implemented systems,
only about 30 per cent deliver the full benefits initially outlined (Krumbholz et al.,
2000). Given the high failure rate, research has focused on in identifying Critical
Success Factors (CSF) for improving implementation success (Somers and Nelson,
2001; Finney and Corbett, 2007). Recently, research has introduced the idea of
developing critical pathway steps for CFO implementing HDIS (Norton et al., 2011).
Even when the technical implementation itself has been a success, there can be
difficulties in achieving competitive advantage (MacAfee and Brynjolfsson, 2008). This
has been termed technical isomorphism (Benders et al., 2006), which is based upon the
concept of institutional isomorphism, in which external pressures cause organisations
to standardise their processes (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983). ERPII attempts to combat
this by optimising the customer facing processes of organisations (Ragowsky and
Somers, 2002; Utagikar, 2009) by aligning the technology with the user environment
(Ho et al., 2004). Maintaining HDIS post implementation can also be problematic and if
not carried out can lead to system atrophy, which occurs when the customer facing
processes (system capabilities) are not utilised to their full potential (Sharif and Irani,
2005; Ward et al., 2005).
HDIS implementations are extremely disruptive as they rely heavily upon end-user
adaptation (Elie-Dit-Cosaque and Straub, 2011). Training staff to a level at which they
feel comfortable in utilising the system and indoctrinating them into new ways of the
system has been shown to be critical for delivering benefits realisation (Gardiner et al.,
2002). The lack of adequate training has been identified as a key reason for inefficiency
in system usage (Henriksen and Andersen, 2008). The current research looks to
understand the training requirements for delivering successful HDIS implementations.
Since the dawn of complex systems, such as ERP, there has been an imperative to
improve end-user training (Olfman and Mandviwalla, 1994). For a successful HDIS
implementation, it was initially thought that 15 per cent of the overall budget should be
invested in training (Volwer, 1999; Vincent et al., 2001). However, more recently it has
been recognised that there is widespread underestimation of the overall level of
training required to implement these systems successfully (Umble et al., 2003).
End-user training, which is introduced to educate users of the system before go-live,
has been shown to have a direct influence on system usefulness (Igbaria et al., 1995). In
addition, following the go-live date, training for software solutions should also
incorporate any post-training requirements (Compeau et al., 1995).
Delivering
training for
HDISs
647
Training is an extremely important aspect of HDIS implementations; the end users
must fully understand the system and how to use it to perform their roles. However,
although the importance of training has been previously highlighted, there is a gap in
literature concerning the training requirements for HDIS implementations. Our
research provides nine recommendations that CFO should follow when implementing
HDIS. These need to be applied at specific points in the implementation lifecycle if the
problems of technical isomorphism and system atrophy are to be avoided.
Methodology
The current research has evaluated the training needs for HDIS through a case study.
Case study
The case study was based on a CFO that successfully implemented an ERPII system in
2007. The organisation was a large UK Local Authority serving a population of
477,770, with a staffing capacity of 6,000. The ERPII system was seen as a strategic
tool to support a customer focused vision and £170m was invested into this project. As
a result of the implementation, customer access to council services was improved and
customer satisfaction increased by 25 per cent (IBM, 2007, 2010). The training
delivered played an important role in the successful outcome of this implementation
(Marshall, 2008).
Many training variables needed monitoring during this research and as such, a case
study was the most appropriate approach, enabling simultaneous evaluations of these
variables (Benbasat et al., 1987; Yin, 1989). A detailed single case study was best
suited, as it allowed for more in-depth evaluation of individual training issues (Franz
and Robey, 1984). Case study analysis allowed for the conversion of observations of
complex issues, and assisted greatly in addressing the qualitative issues that arose
(Bonoma, 1985).
The method of conducting research within an organisation has been successfully
used in previous ERP implementation research, the author undertaking the role of
“neutral observer” (Akkermans and Van Helden, 2002, p. 37). This approach was
undertaken in the current research, with the primary investigator undertaking a
five-month placement as Training Officer within the project implementation team. The
six sources of evidence listed by Yin (1994) were incorporated into the research
methodology, which formed the participant observations (Easterby-Smith et al., 1993).
Observational research enabled behavioural patterns relating to the training issues to
be recorded in their natural environment (Hunt et al., 1982).
The Benefits Realisation Capability model of Ashurst et al. (2008) was used to locate
training issues at appropriate stages within the implementation lifecycle; planning,
delivery, review and exploitation.
Interviews
Validation of the observations made regarding training-related issues during the
project team placement was undertaken by means of face-to-face interviews (Hodgson,
1987). To fully understand the critical training requirements during the
implementation process, initially, in-depth interviews were held with the Head of
Training from the case-study organisation two years post-implementation. The
observations made during the implementation and the client’s perspectives towards
EJTD
36,6
648
these were subsequently presented to seven consultants from ERPII supplier
organisations. Each supplier organisation practitioner interviewed had over 20 years
experience working within the field of ERPII implementation, having tackled over 500
implementations between them. Comparing client project team consultants’
perspectives with supplier consultants’ perspectives, has been shown to be an
effective methodology for this type of research (Markus et al., 2000).
The seven stages of interview design described by Kvale (1996) were incorporated
for reliability. The questionnaire prepared for the Head of Training was structured
around specific issues identified during the work placement. A funnel approach was
used (Bickart, 1993), whereby a general open (non-bias) question regarding each
specific variable was followed by a leading question if the respondent had not raised
the point at the outset. Special attention was paid to the terminology (O’Brien, 1984;
Couper, 1996; Edmondson, 1996) to avoid ambiguity (Abramson and Ostrom, 1994;
Stout, 1994; Bollinger, 2001). Compared with other research methods, face-to-face
interviews offer little chance of misinterpretation (Hodgson, 1987) and this two-way
dialogue offered the best way to reveal valuable personal opinions from interviewees.
The interviews were written up within a week of being carried out. Once a
transcribed version of the audio recording of the interview had been prepared, this was
e-mailed back to the respondent to give them the opportunity to verify any points
made.
Data analysis
The criticality of training issues was derived from a combination of all interviewee
perspectives and graphically represented by means of a heat map. In total, eight
respondents participated in this research; the Head of Training within the project team
and seven consultants from ERPII supplier organisations.
The heat map was broken down into four classifications:
(1) strongly supported;
(2) medially supported;
(3) weakly supported; and
(4) unsupported.
The factors classified as being critical were those that were strongly supported (at least
seven of the eight respondents identifying the training aspect as a critical factor).
Detailed statistical analysis was not adopted since in single case study research
richness of data has been outlined as being key (Meredith, 1998).
Results
Our results highlight nine CSF that apply to the training aspects of a successful HDIS
implementation. These training requirements were allocated into four stages of the
implementation lifecycle using the Benefits Realisation Capability model;
(1) planning;
(2) delivery;
(3) review; and
(4) exploitation.
Delivering
training for
HDISs
649
These training requirements were also categorised into two areas of training, end-user
and post-implementation training, based on the timing of the CSF in relation to the
go-live date (Figure 1). A recommendation has been outlined for each of the nine
training requirements.
Develop a holistic training strategy
Preparing a training strategy that incorporated the views of many stakeholders was an
approach used by the case-study organisation. An integrated team with representation
from five key functional departments within the organisation and from two key
supplier organisations involved in the implementation approved the final draft of the
training strategy document. This multidisciplinary team looked specifically into three
key issues:
(1) the end-user training requirements;
(2) the post-implementation training requirements; and
(3) the provision of training resources.
In terms of delivering a holistic training strategy, the Head of Training (Respondent
one) commented:
So the strategy had already been written by the IBM training manager. I had a lot of leeway
to implement my own vision when I took on the role. I put in a more detailed training plan. I
had more influence within that training plan, but it had to still link back to the training
strategy.
This view was reinforced by the consultant practitioners. Indeed, the General Manager
of one of the supplier organisations (Respondent two) commented that “We try to get
involved in that because if the customer gets that wrong and the project failed, it will
still be our fault”.
Recommendation 1: A holistic training strategy should be developed, incorporating
the views of both the client and supplier, ensuring resources are adequately allocated
throughout the implementation lifecycle.
Incorporate customer management training
The case-study organisation integrated an element of customer management training
into the training material delivered, which was specific for each functional department
to ensure that end users could perform their roles. User acceptance testing was
Figure 1.
Training requirements for
HDIS and their allocation
throughout the
implementation lifecycle
EJTD
36,6
650
performed by the trainers, who were all internal staff, since they had a cultural
understanding of the organisation and how the system would be used in delivering the
customer facing services. The training feedback confirmed this as when trainees were
asked “The course objectives were clearly explained at the beginning of the course”,
98.6 per cent either agreed or strongly agreed. In addition, when asked “The course
content was relevant to my job”, 87.5 per cent either agreed or strongly agreed.
Regarding the customer management training, respondent one commented that
“Trainers were involved in user acceptance testing. The trainers were all council staff
... the trainers worked alongside the subject matter experts”. From the supplier
consultants’ perspective, the Sales Director of one supplier organisation (Respondent
three) commented that:
Education and training are about delivering specifics to [the client]. The education is about
showing different ways [the client] can do things, but the bespoke training is then based on an
intermediate step of extensive consultancy, to agree exactly how [the client is] going to use
the software.
The Head of Sales and Marketing of another supplier organisation (Respondent four)
pointed out that:
We would learn about the business in terms of business process mapping and then we would
map their business processes to our software. That would then identify how the system
would need to be set up, and it would also identify what training was required, and then the
training is purely bespoke. So, every training is different to every customer.
Recommendation 2: An element of customer management should be incorporated into
training material for each functional department to ensure the end users achieve a
sense of personal ownership and understand how to use the HDIS in performing their
specific roles.
Timing of training delivery
The case-study organisation ensured that training activities were coordinated so that
they were delivered to each department in a timely manner. Training milestones were
prepared for each department, outlining when their training curriculum needed to be
signed off, when their training needs analysis needed signing off, and when their
training materials were required. This departmental approach to training allowed all
end-user training to be simultaneously delivered just prior to go-live, and ensured that
end users had sufficient time to learn and practice. The training feedback confirmed
this as 62 per cent of the course attendees said their training was delivered on time,
with only 15 per cent stating that it was delivered too late.
In regards to the coordination of training activities prior to go-live, respondent one
commented:
The go-live dates were key. We had no say over this at all. We delivered the training no later
than eight weeks prior to a release, so it was fresh in their memories.
From the supplier consultants’ perspective, the timing of the training is very important.
The Team Leader of Global IS Solutions of one of the supplier organisations
(Respondent five) commented that “Training is usually in the last two weeks prior to
go-live and to be quite honest, the later the better”. In addition, respondent three
pointed out that “It needs to be close enough to the go-live for them to remember what
Delivering
training for
HDISs
651
they were shown” whilst the Founding Director of another of the supplier
organisations (Respondent six) raised the point that “There must be enough time for
them to practice”.
Recommendation 3: End-user training should be as close to the go-live date as
possible, so that they remember what they were shown, whilst being flexible enough to
allow for refresher training and practice sessions.
Undertake skills based training
The case-study organisation singled out core users from standard users just after
go-live, so that they could be supported with additional, more detailed training. An
evaluation began with a quantification of all core users and all general business users.
Approximately 10 per cent of the people in each department were considered to be core
users and designated key project users, several of whom became champions of their
particular area. This approach ensured that key end users could disseminate more
advanced features departmentally.
Highlighting the importance of undertaking skills based training, respondent one
commented: “We were training for the role mapping that had been undertaken. We
were really targeting who needed to be trained”. From the supplier consultants’
perspective, respondent three outlined that “[Core users] all have different jobs to do
and they require education in different aspects of the system”. The Project Team
Manager of another of the supplier organisations (Respondent seven) emphasised that
this was necessary at this point in the implementation lifecycle, commenting that “It
tends to come down to key project users ... we identify champions of a particular area,
so they’re the ones who get all of the training, all of the key training in that area”.
Recommendation 4: Staff members should be segregated into core users and
standard users. Training for core users must be in line with the role mapping for their
specific roles ensuring that they can deliver the advanced benefits in their new job
roles.
Undertake training course evaluations
The case-study organisation was able to ascertain if the training material prepared had
been appropriate and if the training delivered had been effective by means of training
course evaluations. The course feedback was mandatory and all 6,000 end users
answered post-training questionnaires concerning end-user training, refresher training
and practice sessions. The feedback collected showed that 70 per cent of the attendees
found the handouts useful, with 8 per cent not finding them helpful at all; 89 per cent of
attendees found the refresher training useful, with only 11 per cent saying it was not
useful; and 76 per cent of attendees said they found the practice system useful, with
only 15 per cent stating that it was not useful.
In addressing the issue of training course evaluations, respondent one commented
that “We used Kirkpatrick, this is level 1 to 4, level 1 is the evaluation, what we call the
smiley faces sheet, level 2 takes place within the training, so it’s where they do
exercises to cheque understanding”. From the supplier consultants’ perspective,
training course evaluations are beneficial to them as they can serve an important
second purpose of self-appraisal. The Founding Director of a supplier organisation
(Respondent eight) poignantly highlighted this issue, commenting that “A supplier is
actually judged on that training course by the evaluation”.
EJTD
36,6
652
Recommendation 5: Training course evaluations should be undertaken to verify if
the training has been effective and determine if refresher courses are necessary. In
addition, feedback can indicate if the consultants themselves need more training and
ultimately improve training for future implementations.
Promote the benefits of the system
The case-study organisation recruited transition champions to promote the benefits of
the system. These individuals were internal staff so that the values of the organisation
could be upheld. This was realised to its full potential post-implementation, where they
conveyed the benefits to end users in on-the-job training. The transition champions
were recruited on a voluntary basis, but the recruitment criteria included the following
key qualities: leadership, power, influence and posture, as primarily these individuals
were most likely to be routinely questioned and opposed by resistant personnel, or
those who have encountered problems. A list of all appointed transition champions
was proactively advertised to all staff members.
Regarding the significance of the transition champions post-implementation,
respondent one commented that “It was absolutely critical for the transition champions
to promote the benefits to the end users”. This view was shared by the supplier
consultants, and respondent three commented that “You often do not identify early
doors who that transition champion is, because it might not come from their job titles
... some people just see the big picture”. In addition, respondent eight stressed that the
“Transition champions have to be internal staff”.
Recommendation 6: Transition champions should be appointed in order to promote
the benefits of the HDIS. Transition champions form a two-way feedback system,
which facilitates the promotion of the right messages, at the right time, to the end
users.
Ensure knowledge transfer from the vendor
In order to ensure the supplier organisation (IBM) provided adequate training, it was
under contract to deliver a series of training sessions throughout the implementation.
The case-study organisation ensured that both the trainers and the transition
champions were trained, as these individuals needed to be prepared to answer difficult
questions regarding the new system, once it had gone live. This approach ensured that
end users were continually informed on how to use advanced and newly developed
system features.
In terms of ensuring knowledge transfer from the vendor post-implementation,
respondent one commented:
Our Council staff worked alongside IBM on the ERP development. This is where the transfer
happened, and this was passed to the trainers. That’s where the knowledge transfer
happened.
Ensuring knowledge transfer is a very important issue facing the supplier, and
respondent three encapsulated this sentiment by commenting that “[The client] has to
take ownership of the system, lock, stock and barrel and train-the-trainer is essential to
that”. The necessity for organisations integrating HDIS to achieve this was best
expressed by the view of respondent two, who commented that “The difference is we
[the supplier] get to go home, they [the client] get left with the system”.
Delivering
training for
HDISs
653
Recommendation 7: Transfer of knowledge from the supplier should continue
post-go-live. This can be supported in two ways: First, it is in the interest of the
supplier to arrange annual site visits to ensure the system is running smoothly and the
features are being used correctly. Second, the software providers may need to provide
system updates to keep their software solutions up to date and in line with the fast
moving software industry, and as part of this service, offer system upgrade training.
Treat as knowledge workers
The case-study organisation outlined a strategy to maintain and update all end-user
training records. This strategy was set out in order to achieve a corporate
understanding of their “knowledge worker” resource base and improve their ability to
plan and deliver future training requirements. The organisation maintained records of
training delivered during the implementation. In addition, to manage post-go-live
training requirements, two options were outlined, departmental and HR managed
training. In order to ensure the end users were fully supported a post-go-live training
programme was conceptualised to build upon existing learning.
Unfortunately, no post-go-live training programme was delivered in the case study
organisation, as highlighted by respondent one, who commented:
Ultimately no long-term training was accepted, neither the corporate centralised or
departmental training scheme. They wouldn’t keep a centralised team because I don’t think
they were willing to support any more from the program ... they didn’t have the resources to
handle this.
However, this factor was considered to be critical for HDIS in the current research, as
there was unanimous consensus from all the supplier consultants interviewed. Each
supplier consultant outlined that it is critical to develop knowledge workers through
post-implementation training in order to ensure the future benefits of the system are
delivered. For example, in regards to the case-study organisation not setting in place
post-implementation training, respondent two commented “That’s why they atrophy,
because you don’t do this”.
Recommendation 8: Organisations must treat end users as knowledge workers and
this can be achieved by ensuring a post-implementation training programme is in
place. Two main options are available for delivering post-implementation training:
First, the client organisation can set up a centralised training department to which all
IS-related training is undertaken and staff records are kept for review and appraisal
purposes. A second option is for functional departments to maintain their own formal
training procedures for individual staff members. This would allow for departmental
ownership of the training materials and ensure they are used appropriately for training
support and development.
Internally disseminate knowledge
The case-study organisation established a network of 52 super users in order to
provide continual assistance to fellow system users by delivering on-the-job training as
required. The super users were kept in place post-implementation to ensure that
system knowledge was continually disseminated throughout the organisation, and
also to enable system knowledge to be passed to new employees joining the
organisation.
EJTD
36,6
654
In terms of the critical nature of super users in disseminating knowledge,
respondent one commented that “The super users played a really critical role”.
Suppliers also advocate this during go-live, as highlighted by respondent eight, who
commented “When a system goes live you need the support of the people who are
running that system and the only way you can provide that support, which we call
floor walking ... are super users”. It is also clear to see why supplier organisations
advocate the use of super users to internally disseminate knowledge
post-implementation, as highlighted by respondent two, who commented that:
You find that Fred learnt it and he left and he told Bert, well he told Bert a percentage of what
he knew and Bert left and he told Alf and Alf only knows a percentage of what Bert knew,
then he told Betty and so on ... so super users are important and keeping super users current
is also a difficult thing to do. We always tell customers to keep super users active.
Recommendation 9: Organisations implementing HDIS should set up an internal
support network of super users. These individuals should see this as a long-term job
and provide on-the-job training to current and newly recruited members of staff.
Discussion
Two problems have been highlighted in literature in delivering successful HDIS;
getting the system set up and running but not achieving competitive advantage
(technical-isomorphism) (Batenburg et al., 2008; MacAfee and Brynjolfsson, 2008), and
failing to maintain the system post-implementation (system atrophy) (Sharif and Irani,
2005; Ward et al., 2005). Our research suggests that by investing in end-user training
and post-implementation training, sufficient human resource development (HRD) can
be delivered to alleviate the problems of technical isomorphism and system atrophy
(Figure 2).
End-user training for HDIS
CFO implementing HDIS need to embrace a new philosophical approach towards their
end-user training programme. To align the technology with the user interface, our
research shows that in planning end-user training, it is necessary to prepare a holistic
training strategy. It has been shown that the training and learning process should
incorporate all aspects of the training from preparation and delivery of end-user
training to post-training requirements (Compeau et al., 1995). Furthermore, key
stakeholders should be part of the decision making process and should be used to
identify expected benefits (Guerci and Vinante, 2010).
Our research shows that in planning the training for HDIS, an element of customer
management should be incorporated into the training material so that end users are
able to realise the new capabilities of the new customer facing processes. Preparing
training materials for specific skill-based requirements has been found to improve
training receptivity (Chow et al., 2008), and the customisation and personalisation of
Figure 2.
Training for HDIS for
benefits realisation
Delivering
training for
HDISs
655
training is important for the development of talent staff (Garavan et al., 2012).
Historically, training has revolved around ensuring users can perform their individual
tasks (Kang and Santhanam, 2003). However, we show that training should be based
around developing the new system capabilities.
In delivering the necessary end-user training, establishing when training should
occur is critical (Muscatello et al., 2003). Our research supports this finding and shows
that training schedules should be as close to the go-live date as possible, whilst giving
enough time for end users to practice. It has been identified that spaced training,
incorporating different contextual training applications works best for transferring
knowledge (Kauffeld and Lehmann-Willenbrock, 2010). In addition, there is a need for
time to practice, as training transfer is a two-way process interlinking theoretical
understanding and work application (Vermeulen and Admiraal, 2009).
Our research shows that employees should be segregated at the point of go-live and
skills-based training should be delivered for the full benefits to be realised. End users
of HDIS all have different roles to play and it has been found that segregating end
users during the post-implementation phase is essential in being able to appropriately
support each user type (Liu et al., 2011). Training needs analysis is increasingly
playing an important role in understanding the full training requirements in order to
deliver effective end-user training programmes (Iqbal and Khan, 2011).
Reviewing the end-user training delivered is critical in understanding the
effectiveness of the training programme, which is reflected in job performance (Devaraj
and Babu, 2004). There are many different ways training can be evaluated and one
popular approach is through the use of Kirkpatrick (1994). However, very few
organisations carry out effective evaluations (Griffin, 2010). Our research highlights
that training course evaluations provide critical information, both to the client, and also
to the supplier. The client is rewarded with the reassurance that knowledge transfer
has occurred whilst the supplier is provided with a repertoire of quality assurance
references, if their solution is delivered effectively.
Post-implementation training for HDIS
To ensure system features are utilised post-implementation and there is full
engagement from end users, our research shows that CFO must promote the benefits of
the system post go-live. It has already been shown to be critical to train the end user
about the concept of ERP at the outset of the implementation (Yu, 2005). One approach
for promoting the benefits is the appointment of transition champions. Having a
project champion has been widely cited as being a CSF in ERP implementations
(Willcocks and Sykes, 2000; Nah et al., 2001; Finney and Corbett, 2007; King and
Burgess, 2008). These individuals have been shown to play a critical role in performing
effective internal marketing (Akkermans and Van Helden, 2002).
Our research shows that the CFO’s absorptive capacity heightens
post-implementation, which is when the supplier organisation’s expertise should be
drawn upon. For the full benefits of the HDIS to be realised, the relationship between
the client and supplier should continue to be developed post-implementation. Research
has shown that having positive relations with external partners is critical during the
implementation (Willcocks and Sykes, 2000; Somers and Nelson, 2001). HDIS are
complex and supplier organisations fill gaps in expertise by transferring their
knowledge to the client organisation (Brown and Vessey, 2003). There has been found
EJTD
36,6
656
to be a positive correlation between the client’s absorptive capacity and the supplier’s
competence in transferring knowledge (Wang et al., 2007).
To ensure that trained staff continued to operate the system it is important that the
CFO manage their knowledge assets. During the exploitation phase, our research
suggests that it is critical to develop knowledge workers (high-knowledge individuals
or experienced users). The development of employees is an important element of
workplace environment changes, particularly those occurring in knowledge-based and
services-driven environments (Tome
´
, 2011). A knowledge value chain can assist in
understanding the requirements of knowledge workers (Shah et al., 2007). Rodgers and
Negash (2007) highlights that knowledge transfer is increased by developing
knowledge workers. In addition, organisations investing in training programmes have
been shown to have a higher than average retention of key employees (Kucherov and
Zavyalova, 2012).
Processes must be in place to ensure that organisational knowledge is maintained
and information on how to use the system is widely available both to existing and new
staff members. Our research shows that super users are an effective solution to
disseminating knowledge to end users post-implementation. Literature shows the
appointment of super users to be critical during ERP implementations (Muscatello et al.,
2003), and our research highlights the importance of these individuals during the
exploitation phase. Introducing “IT savvy” users or “super users” has been shown to
increase the overall satisfaction level of the implementation (Davis et al., 2009). In
addition, super users provide on-the-job training, which has been identified as the most
effective method for delivering technical training (Hooi, 2010). Scenistic (on-the-job)
training methods have been shown to be the most effective approach in knowledge
transfer (Lyons, 2011).
Conclusion
Literature shows that training attracts the smallest proportion of resources in HDIS
implementations, and widespread underestimation of the training requirements has
been acknowledged. Our research highlights the critical role training plays in
delivering successful HDIS. It shows that resources should be invested in both end-user
and post-implementation training activities to ensure sufficient HRD and benefits
realisation. As such, it is essential to ensure that an adequate training strategy
incorporates both of these elements and that the training budget takes account for
these activities.
A second key contribution from this research is that the phasing of training
requirements into the different stages of the implementation lifecycle allows resources
to be allocated more effectively into end-user and post-implementation training. This
contribution has allowed the formulation of a critical training pathway that CFO are
suggested to follow in order to achieve sufficient HRD for benefits realisation. Previous
studies have simply provided a list of CSF for HDIS implementations and this is the
first time that training related CSF have been allocated to different stages of the
implementation lifecycle. The introduction of the “phasing” of CSF may have wider
consequences within the field of IS research. There is certainly feasibility in applying
this technique to assist with wider aspects of IS implementation projects.
Delivering
training for
HDISs
657
References
Abramson, P.R. and Ostrom, C.W. (1994), “Question wording and partisanship”, Public Opinion
Quarterly, Vol. 58 No. 1, pp. 21-48.
Akkermans, H. and Van Helden, K. (2002), “Vicious and virtuous cycles in ERP implementation:
a case study of interrelations between critical success factors”, European Journal of
Information Systems, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 35-46.
Ashurst, C., Doherty, N.F. and Peppard, J. (2008), “Improving the impact of IT development
projects: the benefits realization capability model”, European Journal of Information
Systems, Vol. 17 No. 4, pp. 352-70.
Batenburg, R., Benders, J. and van der Blonk, H. (2008), “Technical isomorphism at work:
ERP-embedded similarity-enhancing mechanisms”, Industrial Management & Data
Systems, Vol. 108 No. 1, pp. 60-9.
Beatty, R.C. and Williams, C.D. (2006), “ERP II: best practices for successfully implementing an
ERP upgrade”, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 49 No. 3, pp. 105-9.
Benbasat, I., Goldstein, D.K. and Mead, M. (1987), “The case research strategy in studies of
information systems”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 369-85.
Benders, J., Batenburg, R. and van der Blonk, H. (2006), “Sticking to standards. technical and
other isomorphic pressures in deploying ERP-systems”, Information & Management,
Vol. 43 No. 2, pp. 194-203.
Bickart, B. (1993), “Carryover and backfire effects in marketing research”, Journal of Marketing
Research, Vol. 30 No. 1, pp. 52-62.
Bollinger, C.R. (2001), “Estimation with response error and nonresponse: food-stamp
participation in the SIPP”, Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, Vol. 19 No. 2,
pp. 129-41.
Bonoma, T.V. (1985), “Case research in marketing: opportunities, problems, and a process”,
Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 199-208.
Brown, C.V. and Vessey, I. (2003), “Managing the next wave of enterprise systems – leveraging
lessons from ERP”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 65-77.
Chow, A., Woodford, K.C. and Showers-Chow, J. (2008), “Utilization of needs-based customer
training”, Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 40 No. 6, pp. 320-7.
Compeau, D., Olfman, L., Sei, M. and Webster, J. (1995), “End-user training and learning”,
Communications of the ACM, Vol. 38 No. 7, pp. 24-6.
Couper, P. (1996), “Web surveys: a review of issues and approaches”, Public Opinion Quarterly,
Vol. 64 No. 4, pp. 464-94.
Davis, J.M., Kettinger, W.J. and Kunev, D.G. (2009), “When users are IT experts too: the effects of
joint IT competence and partnership on satisfaction with enterprise-level systems
implementation”, European Journal of Information Systems, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 26-37.
Devaraj, S. and Babu, S.R. (2004), “How to measure the relationship between training and job
performance”, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 47 No. 5, pp. 62-7.
DiMaggio, P.J. and Powell, W.W. (1983), “The iron cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and
collective rationality in organizational fields”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 48 No. 2,
pp. 147-60.
Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. (1993), Management Research: An Introduction,
Sage, London.
Edmondson, B. (1996), “How to spot a bogus poll”, American Demographics, Vol. 8 No. 10,
pp. 10-15.
EJTD
36,6
658
Elie-Dit-Cosaque, C.M. and Straub, D.W. (2011), “Opening the black box of system usage: user
adaptation to disruptive IT”, European Journal of Information Systems, Vol. 20 No. 5,
pp. 589-607.
Finney, S. and Corbett, M. (2007), “ERP implementation: a compilation and analysis of critical
success factors”, Business Process Management Journal, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 329-47.
Franz, C.R. and Robey, D. (1984), “An investigation of user-led system design: rational and
political perspectives”, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 27 No. 12, pp. 1202-17.
Galbraith, J.R. (2005), Designing the Customer-Centric Organisation: A Guide to Strategy,
Structure, and Process, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Garavan, T.N., Carbery, R. and Rock, A. (2012), “Mapping talent development: definition, scope
and architecture”, European Journal of Training and Development, Vol. 36 No. 1, pp. 5-24.
Gardiner, S.C., Hanna, J.B. and LaTour, M.S. (2002), “ERP and the reengineering of industrial
marketing processes – a prescriptive overview for the new-age marketing manager”,
Industrial Marketing Management, Vol. 31 No. 4, pp. 357-65.
Griffin, R.P. (2010), “Means and ends: effective training evaluation”, Industrial and Commercial
Training, Vol. 42 No. 4, pp. 220-5.
Guerci, M. and Vinante, M. (2010), “Training evaluation: an analysis of the stakeholders’
evaluation needs”, Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 385-410.
Hamerman, P.D., Moore, C. and Margarie, A. (2011), "Trends 2011: ERP customers demand
better flexibility, cost transparency, and mobility", available at: www.forrester.com/rb/
Research/trends_2011_erp_customers_demand_better_flexibility%2C/q/id/58390/t/2
(accessed 25 February 2011).
Henriksen, H.Z. and Andersen, K.V. (2008), “Electronic records management systems
implementation in the Pakistani local government”, Records Management Journal,
Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 40-52.
Ho, C.-F., Wu, W.-H. and Tai, Y.-M. (2004), “Strategies for the adoption of ERP systems”,
Industrial Management & Data Systems, Vol. 104 No. 3, pp. 234-51.
Hodgson, P. (1987), A Practical Guide to Successful Interviewing, McGraw-Hill, London.
Hooi, L.W. (2010), “Technical training in the MNCs in Malaysia: a case study analysis of the
petrochemical industry”, Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 34 No. 4, pp. 317-43.
Hunt, S.D., Sparkman, R.D.J. and Wilcox, J.B. (1982), “The pretest in survey research: issues and
preliminary findings”, Journal of Market Research, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 269-73.
IBM (2007), "Bradford Council begins major transformation to improve customer service and
efficiency", available at: www-304.ibm.com/easyaccess/fileserve?contentid¼79910
(accessed 18 March 2012).
IBM (2010), "Bradford Council transforms internal processes with IBM and SAP", available at:
www-01.ibm.com/software/success/cssdb.nsf/CS/STRD-7ZEGHQ?OpenDocument&
Site¼default&cty¼en_us (accessed 16 February 2010).
Igbaria, M., Guimaraes, T. and Davis, G.B. (1995), “Testing the determinants of microcomputer
usage via a structural equation model”, Journal of Management Information Systems,
Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 87-114.
Iqbal, M.Z. and Khan, R.A. (2011), “The growing concept and uses of training needs assessment”,
Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 35 No. 5, pp. 439-66.
Kang, D. and Santhanam, R. (2003), “A longitudinal field study of training practices in a
collaborative application environment”, Journal of Management Information Systems,
Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 275-81.
Delivering
training for
HDISs
659
Kauffeld, S. and Lehmann-Willenbrock, N. (2010), “Sales training: effects of spaced practice on
training transfer”, Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 34 No. 1, pp. 23-37.
King, S.F. and Burgess, T.F. (2008), “Understanding success and failure in customer relationship
management”, Industrial Marketing Management, Vol. 37 No. 4, pp. 421-31.
Kirkpatrick, D. (1994), Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels, Berrett-Koehler
Publishers, San Francisco, CA.
Krumbholz, M., Galliers, J., Coulianos, N. and Maiden, N.A.M. (2000), “Implementing enterprise
resource planning packages in different corporate and national cultures”, Journal of
Information Technology, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 267-79.
Kucherov, D. and Zavyalova, E. (2012), “HRD practices and talent management in the companies
with the employer brand”, European Journal of Training and Development, Vol. 36 No. 1,
pp. 86-104.
Kumar, K. and Van Hillegersberg, J. (2000), “ERP experiences and evolution”, Communications of
the ACM, Vol. 43 No. 4, pp. 22-6.
Kvale, S. (1996), InterViews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing, Sage,
Thousand Oaks, CA.
Liu, L., Feng, Y., Hu, Q. and Huang, X. (2011), “From transactional user to VIP: how
organizational and cognitive factors affect ERP assimilation at individual level”, European
Journal of Information Systems, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 186-200.
Lyons, P.R. (2011), “Scenistic methods for training: applications and practice”, Journal of
European Industrial Training, Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 368-84.
MacAfee, A. and Brynjolfsson, E. (2008), “Investing in the IT that makes a competitive
difference”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 86 No. 4, pp. 99-107.
Markus, M.L., Axline, S., Petrie, D. and Tanis, C. (2000), “Learning from adopters’ experiences
with ERP: problems encountered and successes achieved”, Journal of Information
Technology, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 245-65.
Marshall, R. (2008), "The secrets of SAP success", available at: www.computing.co.uk/
computing/analysis/2228337/secrets-sap-success-4284805 (accessed 12 June 2010).
Meredith, J. (1998), “Building operations management theory through case and field research”,
Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 414-54.
Møller, C. (2005), “ERP II: a conceptual framework for next-generation enterprise systems?”,
Journal of Enterprise Information Management, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 483-97.
Muscatello, J.R., Small, M.H. and Chen, I.J. (2003), “Implementing enterprise resource planning
(ERP) systems in small and midsize manufacturing firms”, International Journal of
Operations & Production Management, Vol. 23 No. 8, pp. 850-71.
Nah, F., Lau, J. and Kuang, J. (2001), “Critical factors for successful implementation of enterprise
systems”, Business Process Management Journal, Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 258-96.
Norton, A., Coulson-Thomas, Y.M., Coulson-Thomas, C.J. and Ashurst, C. (2011), “Establishing a
critical ERP II implementation pathway for customer facing organisations”, Proceedings of
UK Academy for Information Systems (UKAIS), 11-13 April, Oxford, UK, available on CD
ROM.
O’Brien, J. (1984), “How do market researchers ask questions?”, Journal of the Market Research
Society, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 93-107.
Olfman, L. and Mandviwalla, M. (1994), “Conceptual versus procedural software training for
graphical user interfaces: a longitudinal field experiment”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 18 No. 4,
pp. 405-26.
EJTD
36,6
660
Pan, S.L. and Lee, J.N. (2003), “Using e-CRM for a unified view of the customer”, Communications
of the ACM, Vol. 46 No. 4, pp. 95-9.
Ragowsky, A. and Somers, T.M. (2002), “Special section: enterprise resource planning”, Journal
of Management Information Systems, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 11-15.
Rodgers, W. and Negash, S. (2007), “The effects of web-based technologies on knowledge
transfer”, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 50 No. 7, pp. 117-22.
Shah, H., Eardley, A. and Wood-Harper, T. (2007), “ALTAR in action: knowledge management”,
European Journal of Information Systems, Vol. 19 No. 6, pp. 771-9.
Sharif, A.M. and Irani, Z. (2005), "Emergence of ERPII characteristics within an ERP integration
context”, Proceedings of the Eleventh Americas Conference on Information Systems
(AMCIS), August 11-14, Omaha, NE, USA, available on CD ROM.
Somers, T.M. and Nelson, K. (2001), "The impact of critical success factors across the stages of
enterprise resource planning implementation”, Proceedings of the 34th Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-3), 3-6 January, Maui, Hawaii,
available on CD ROM.
Stout, N.J. (1994), “Questionnaire design workshop helps market researchers build better
surveys”, Health Care Strategic Management, Vol. 12 No. 7, pp. 10-11.
Tome
´
, E. (2011), “Human resource development in the knowledge based and services driven
economy: an introduction”, Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 35 No. 6,
pp. 524-39.
Umble, E.J., Haft, R.R. and Umble, M.M. (2003), “Enterprise resource planning: implementation
procedures and critical success factors”, European Journal of Operational Research,
Vol. 146 No. 2, pp. 241-57.
Utagikar, A. (2009), Customer Facing Processes and Customer Experience: A Structured
Approach to Developing and Delivering Consistently Superior Customer Experience,
Infinity Publishing.Com, West Conshohocken, PA.
Vermeulen, R. and Admiraal, W. (2009), “Transfer as a two-way process: testing a model”,
Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 33 No. 1, pp. 52-68.
Vincent, A.M., Ashok, S. and Venkataramanan, M.A. (2001), “Enterprise resource planning:
common myths versus evolving reality”, Business Horizons, Vol. 54 No. 5, pp. 71-8.
Volwer, J. (1999), “Learning in the play pit”, Computer Weekly, Vol. 27, p. 34.
Wang, E.T.G., Lin, C.C., Jiang, J.J. and Klein, G. (2007), “Improving enterprise resource planning
(ERP) fit to organizational process through knowledge transfer”, International Journal of
Information Management, Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 200-12.
Ward, J., Hemmingway, C. and Daniel, E. (2005), “A framework for addressing the organisational
issues of enterprise systems implementation”, Journal of Strategic Information Systems,
Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 97-119.
Willcocks, L.P. and Sykes, R. (2000), “The role of the CIO and IT function in ERP”,
Communications of the ACM, Vol. 43 No. 4, pp. 32-8.
Yin, R.K. (1989), Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Sage, London.
Yin, R.K. (1994), Case Study Research, Design and Methods, 2nd ed., Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.
Yu, C.-S. (2005), “Causes influencing the effectiveness of the post-implementation ERP system”,
Industrial Management & Data Systems, Vol. 105 No. 1, pp. 115-32.
Delivering
training for
HDISs
661
About the authors
Andrew Lawrence Norton completed his DBA at Durham University in January 2012 and this
paper has been prepared as part of his DBA. He qualified as a Chartered Marketer in 2009 and
has been a member of the Chartered Institute of Marketing since 2001. He has experience in
delivering training for IS implementations and undertaking CRM marketing initiatives. He also
has an MBA, MSc in Marketing and BSc (Hons) in Environmental Analysis. He has published
two conference papers at the UKAIS. His research interest is in realising benefits from IS
implementations. Andrew Lawrence Norton is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
andrewlnorton@yahoo.co.uk
Yvette May Coulson-Thomas is a Director of Adaptation Ltd, which specializes in business
development consultancy. She is also currently a Collaborative Visiting Fellow at the
Universidade Federal de Sa
˜
o Paulo, Brazil, and University of Lincoln. She obtained a degree in
Biomedical Sciences at the Universidade Federal de Sa
˜
o Paulo, followed by an MSc (2004) and a
PhD (2008). She has carried out post-doctoral research at Case Western Reserve University, USA,
the Universidade Federal de Sa
˜
o Paulo, and the University of Lincoln. She has seven academic
journal publications and two conference papers (UKAIS).
Colin Joseph Coulson-Thomas is Chairman of Bryok Systems, Cotoco, Adaptation and Policy
Publications, and a NED of NHS Peterborough and NHS Cambridgeshire. He was educated at the
London School of Economics, London Business School, Fundac¸a
˜
o Getulio Vargas (Brazil) and the
Universities of Aston, Chicago, South Africa and Southern California. He is a member of the
business school team at the University of Greenwich. He has been the process vision holder of
major and complex transformation programmes (UK and Austria). He has published over 40
books and reports. His research interests include corporate governance and transformation and
change, knowledge and talent management.
Colin Ashurst is currently Programme Director for the Management Masters Programmes
(Full-Time) at Durham Business School. Colin is a qualified Chartered Accountant and has
extensive practical experience working in the field of information systems. He has held senior IT
leadership roles with Asda and Microsoft. His research interests include realising benefits from
IS and exploiting IT to improve knowledge worker productivity. He has recently published two
books and has several academic journal publications. He has a passion for enabling individuals
and organisations to realize benefits from IT and to exploit IT to enable business innovation.
EJTD
36,6
662
To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com
Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
