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Perception of firefighters’ turnout ensemble and level of satisfaction by body movement
Abstract
This study investigates firefighters’ perception of the protective turnout ensemble, more specifically, the level of satisfaction for a set of commonly performed body movements. Five hundred sixteen male and female firefighters completed our online survey. The current study identifies (1) the level of satisfaction with the fit of the turnout ensemble, (2) perceived reasons for discomfort and movement restriction in areas with low satisfaction, and (3) gender-specific fit issues. Female firefighters showed significantly lower satisfaction with the fit and functionality of the turnout ensemble in multiple areas than males. Common fit issues such as a stiff or oversized neckline and inappropriate location of knee pads, tightness in the lower pant leg, and inaccessibility of pockets that affect male and female firefighters are addressed. This study offers important implications to industry and academia involved in the study of protective clothing to increase the mobility, safety, and comfort of today's firefighters.
... This is of particular concern for female firefighters as female turnout coats are often smaller, shortened versions of jackets made from patterns designed for men. Women in the fire service have reported lower satisfaction with the fit and functionality of their turnout ensemble in multiple areas as compared to their male counterparts (Park & Hahn, 2014). Specifically, female firefighters have reported oversized necklines and sleeve cuffs with too wide of openings (Jahnke et al., 2012;Park and Hahn, 2014). ...
... Women in the fire service have reported lower satisfaction with the fit and functionality of their turnout ensemble in multiple areas as compared to their male counterparts (Park & Hahn, 2014). Specifically, female firefighters have reported oversized necklines and sleeve cuffs with too wide of openings (Jahnke et al., 2012;Park and Hahn, 2014). ...
... Once a category was established within the context of the question and conversation theme, alpha and/or an alphanumeric code was assigned. This method was adopted given its common use in previous firefighter user needs studies (Boorady, Barker, Lee, et al., 2013;Boorady, Barker, Lin, et al., 2013;Park and Hahn, 2014). An example of a question from a single focus group session, a participant's response, and its corresponding code can be seen in Table 2. Once each focus group session was coded individually, a full synthesis of all focus group sessions occurred, identifying holistic themes and categories from the qualitative data. ...
Despite the growing female firefighter population, firefighting gear was originally designed with only the male human form in mind. As a result, women in the fire service experience issues of improper fit and injuries at rates exponentially higher than their male counterparts. Areas of ill-fit, specifically in interfaces, can increase the risk of occupational exposure for women in the fire service. The purpose of this research was to determine fit and sizing issues of personal protective clothing (PPC) to improve female firefighters' comfort, mobility, and safety. A mixed methods approach was adopted including a nationwide questionnaire, end-user focus groups, and remote three-dimensional body scanning of 189 female structural and wildland firefighters. Between 15%-21% of female firefighters were found to intentionally leave off a part of their PPC at least "sometimes," if not "nearly always," with the coat and pants being the primary items not donned. 100% of participants had wrist and ankle circumferences smaller than the smallest size garment's wrist and pant leg openings per the wildland sizing system, indicating interface areas and wildland PPC have the greatest opportunities for design and fit improvement. This study gathered and created the first and largest U.S. female firefighter anthropometric database. Overall results indicate female firefighters are wearing PPC with significant fit issues that not only reduce their comfort and restrict their mobility but pose increased safety risks related to occupational exposure.
... All rights reserved. turnout coats and pants than their male counterparts [5][6][7][8][9]. Nearly 40% of firewomen surveyed have problems with ill-fitting turnout coats and pants [5]. ...
... Nearly 40% of firewomen surveyed have problems with ill-fitting turnout coats and pants [5]. Appropriate fit is essential to the safety, protection, mobility, and comfort of turnout ensembles [6,7,10]. Turnout gear that is too tight can restrict movement, while gear that is too loose inhibits firefighter's mobility and make them more likely to sustain injuries [3,[6][7][8]. ...
... Appropriate fit is essential to the safety, protection, mobility, and comfort of turnout ensembles [6,7,10]. Turnout gear that is too tight can restrict movement, while gear that is too loose inhibits firefighter's mobility and make them more likely to sustain injuries [3,[6][7][8]. There has been minimal in-depth research into the specific fit problems and consequences of these problems on the workplace health of firewomen [9,11]. ...
Background:
Inadequately fitting turnout coats and pants hamper mobility and safety of firewomen. Previous research has established that firewomen are dissatisfied with their turnout coats and pants. Yet, there has been minimal in-depth research into the specific fit problems and consequences of these problems on the workplace health of firewomen.
Objective:
The researchers sought to uncover common fit problems firewomen have with turnout coats and pants, and their impact on mobility and safety while performing work.
Methods:
The researchers performed a qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews of 35 firewomenRESULTS:The study illuminated specific fit problems firewomen have with their turnout coats and pants. These fit challenges include challenges with the overall proportions of the turnout coats and pants as well as issues of length and how the turnout coats and pants fit around their body (circumference), leading to concerns about mobility and safety.
Conclusions:
This study builds an understanding of specific fit problems on the ability of firewomen to do their challenging work in a safe and stress-free manner. Firewomen's protective apparel should protect and empower all firewomen. To adequately protect firewomen, manufactures should prioritize the implementation of these findings to improve the safety and mobility that firewomen's turnout coats and pants offer them.
... Firefighters also carry a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) that provides an external air supply to protect against toxic gases, hot steam, and debris. 4,5 Considering that the PPE is the main protection for firefighters, wearing properly fitting PPE is critical not only to firefighters' safety but also to their occupational performance 5 and should provide minimal limitations 2 and allow easy locomotion. 3 1 Protective coat and pants. 2 Also called bunker boots or turnout boots. ...
... Firefighters also carry a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) that provides an external air supply to protect against toxic gases, hot steam, and debris. 4,5 Considering that the PPE is the main protection for firefighters, wearing properly fitting PPE is critical not only to firefighters' safety but also to their occupational performance 5 and should provide minimal limitations 2 and allow easy locomotion. 3 1 Protective coat and pants. 2 Also called bunker boots or turnout boots. ...
... However, some other participants, despite having responded not having any fit issue, reported the difficulty in finding and reaching the boot straps because of the bulkiness of the pants, especially when they are folded and inserted in the boots. 5 The boots are inserted through the bottom of the turnout pants to put on both items in unison and allow a faster donning when called to duty. ...
... e to male-centered design (Boorady et al., 2013a,b;Park et al., 2014a,b;Shuster, 2000;Sinden et al., 2013). According to, "A National Report Card on Women in Firefighting," 80% of female firefighters experience issues with ill-fitting PPE, which is four times greater than their male counterpart's self-reported poor fit (20.9%) (Hulett et al., 2008;H. Park & Hahn, 2014;Park et al., 2014a,b). and 62 kg (Tilley, 2002). While the average female appears to be a smaller version of the average male per the 50th percentile statistics, previous research has demonstrated significantly larger measurements in hip breadth (while seated) for women than men (Fullenkamp et al., 2008). Sizing data has also demonstrate ...
... For firefighters who wear heavy, bulky, and burdensome turnout gear, the fit and mobility of their PPE is essential for their safety and protection. A survey by Park and Hahn (2014) of 314 female firefighters concluded that women wearing ill-fitting turnout ensembles experience discomfort due to tightness in the hip area and poor leg motion caused by extremely low crotches (H. Park and Hahn, 2014). This study found the majority of female firefighters were wearing turnout suits designed with a male-centered sizing system that does not consider gender body proportion differences in the torso, limb length, chest, and hips. ...
... A survey by Park and Hahn (2014) of 314 female firefighters concluded that women wearing ill-fitting turnout ensembles experience discomfort due to tightness in the hip area and poor leg motion caused by extremely low crotches (H. Park and Hahn, 2014). This study found the majority of female firefighters were wearing turnout suits designed with a male-centered sizing system that does not consider gender body proportion differences in the torso, limb length, chest, and hips. ...
The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of fit on female versus male firefighter range of motion (ROM) when donning a structural turnout ensemble. Three test ensembles were evaluated: base layers (BL), turnout suit (TS), and turnout ensemble (TE). Sixteen career firefighters (10 males; 6 females) completed a user needs survey on fit and mobility restrictions, were measured in a three-dimensional body scanner, performed a static ROM protocol, and recorded ease of movement and comfort perceptions for each ensemble. Average body measurements and absolute ROM values were calculated for each test ensemble and analyzed by gender. Results demonstrated multiple significant differences in body measurements between male and female firefighters when wearing the BL and TS test ensembles. Mobility was significantly reduced when donning the TS and TE, regardless of gender. Significant differences in trunk and shoulder flexion when wearing turnout suits were identified according to participant gender.
... For this, firefighters are required to wear turnout gear 1 consisting of a protective coat and pants, and other equipment such as a hood, helmet, fire gloves, and bunker boots. Firefighters also carry a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) that provides an external air supply to protect against toxic gases, hot steam, and debris [5,6]. It is thus critical that personal protective equipment allows firefighters to perform their duties with minimal limitations and maximum safety [2]. ...
... Over the years, the nature of firefighting and the role of firefighters have shifted [6]. Firefighters' PPE has evolved [2,6], but important trade-offs between protection and comfort remain. ...
... Over the years, the nature of firefighting and the role of firefighters have shifted [6]. Firefighters' PPE has evolved [2,6], but important trade-offs between protection and comfort remain. ...
Firefighter’s job tasks require intensive physical work and involve a range of movements in a wide variety of hazardous environments and thermal conditions. It is thus critical that personal protective equipment allows firefighters to perform their duties with minimal limitations and maximum safety. However, many studies have shown concerns regarding turnout gear fit and comfort. This paper presents preliminary results of an in-progress study, for which the main goal is to develop design solutions to Portuguese firefighters’ protective equipment. With the aim of identifying specific needs from this population, a pilot study was conducted in northern Portugal. Data were collected through an online survey and a semi-structured interview, which allowed a deeper understanding of issues encountered. Findings from this pilot study served as a guide to adjust the study and provided insights to recommend an ergonomic redesign of firefighters’ gear.
... Assessments to measure specific body motions including walking, extreme limb movement and reaching overhead, revealed lower satisfaction and comfort ratings for women (Park and Hahn, 2014). Some female firefighters in this study reported that the female-cut turnout coat, with a shorter length ending above the hips, provided more comfortable movement around the hips; however, the shorter coat length increases the potential for burn injuries in the interface area (Park and Hahn, 2014). ...
... Assessments to measure specific body motions including walking, extreme limb movement and reaching overhead, revealed lower satisfaction and comfort ratings for women (Park and Hahn, 2014). Some female firefighters in this study reported that the female-cut turnout coat, with a shorter length ending above the hips, provided more comfortable movement around the hips; however, the shorter coat length increases the potential for burn injuries in the interface area (Park and Hahn, 2014). This concern is particularly relevant when performing such activities as lifting overhead during pike-pull overhaul operations or bending over while kneeling and crawling. ...
... This concern is particularly relevant when performing such activities as lifting overhead during pike-pull overhaul operations or bending over while kneeling and crawling. Twenty female firefighters reported that the sleeve length was too long (nine responses) or the cuffs were too wide (five responses) or bulk in the upper arm caused folds in the extra fabric and lining that resulted in discomfort and restricted arm movement (Park and Hahn, 2014). Similar to the research conducted by Boorady et al. the Park et al. study was also limited by its small sample size of female firefighter participants. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to identify the challenging barriers faced by female firefighters, which limit workplace entrance and performance.
Design/methodology/approach
Occupational barriers from both psychological and physiological viewpoints were explored based on previous literature and the reported experiences of female firefighters.
Findings
A comprehensive review of literature synthesizes previous studies pertaining to gender anthropometric differences, female firefighters’ experiences in the work environment and protective clothing issues. The physical capabilities of men and women in specific relation to performing firefighting activities are also examined. Issues of greatest concern are identified for personal protective clothing (PPC) and equipment, which have traditionally been designed for the male human form. This leads to a lack of protection, an increased risk of onsite injury, reduction in mobility and poorer comfort for female firefighters.
Originality/value
This review provides an original overview of the critical workplace challenges faced by female firefighters. The need for female-specific PPC and equipment is specifically addressed to retain the growing number of women entering the male-dominated firefighting profession.
... Researchers have discovered that wearing heavy and bulky PPE, consisting of turnout garments, helmet, gloves, self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), and fire boots, adds a significant physical burden during firefighting, leading to restricted mobility, early fatigue, and musculoskeletal injuries (Chiou, Turner, Zwiener, Weaver, & Haskell, 2012;Park & Hahn, 2014;Smith, 2008). According to the National Fire Protection Association's (NFPA) U.S. Firefighter Injuries-2012 report (Karter & Molis, 2013a), of an estimated 69,400 firefighter injuries that occurred in the line of duty in 2012, 45.4% occurred during fireground operations (Karter & Molis, 2013b). ...
... In particular, several researchers (Park & Hahn, 2014;Park, Hur, Rosengren, Horn, & Hsiao-Wecksler, 2010;Park, Park, Lin, & Boorady, 2014;Park, Trejo, et al., 2015) have recently indicated, through a series of biomechanical tests with firefighters, that SCBA and fire boots are the two major contributors to musculoskeletal fireground injuries (e.g., lower back pain, trips, slips, and falls) that result in loss of work as well as increased medical costs. showed that wearing inflexible fire boots significantly restricts firefighters' natural foot pronation, alters gait, and slows down their response time as they negotiate with the fireground. ...
... A few researchers pointed out that both fire boots and SCBA had significant negative impacts on firefighters' physical mobility and injury risk (Park et al., 2010;Park & Hahn, 2014). Recently, several researchers have also emphasized the need for ergonomic design of fire gear with an understanding of human factors (Boorady et al., 2013;. ...
The authors conducted biomechanical tests with 21 firefighters and found that there is a significant correlation between boot height and lower body mobility and that using a fixed boot height mandated by National Fire Protection Association 1971 standard decreased lower body ranges of motion during various firefighters’ job-related tasks. Statistical analysis of large anthropometric data also shows a fixed boot height cannot accommodate a wide range of firefighters’ leg length. These findings indicate that shorter firefighters are likely to have limited lower body mobility due to reduced clearance between the knee and top of the boot and thus decreased space causing greater mechanical binding between multiple layers of turnout pants. The authors discovered a greater negative impact of fixed length of self-contained breathing apparatus cylinder on short firefighters on their upper body mobility, evidenced by limited range of motion in neck extension and lumbopelvic flexion while carrying fire gear compared to without any fire gear.
... Mobility and body movement are closely connected to fit in an analysis of functional apparel. Functional apparel should be designed for a specific task or activity, as each has its own requirements for body movement (Bye & Hakala, 2005;Huck et al., 1997;Jin & Black, 2012;Park & Hahn, 2014;Stokes & Black, 2012;Watkins & Dunne, 2015). These researchers found that improperly fitted or designed functional garments restrict movement, impact performance, adversely affect the wearer's level of protection, and even contribute to bodily pain and/or injury. ...
... They indicated some level of dissatisfaction with every pants area, resulting in an overall rating of only mildly satisfied. Other functional apparel researchers have found that participants considered pants satisfaction important, yet gave various pant areas low satisfaction ratings, or reported that overall pant fit was poor (Black & Cloud, 2008;Bye & Hakala, 2005;Jin & Black, 2012;Mitchka et al., 2009;Park & Hahn, 2014). The underlying causes or problems contributing to rock climbers' dissatisfaction with pant fit were verbalized in their open-ended responses. ...
... Other researchers of functional apparel have reported similar findings. In one study, firefighters reported problems in the leg fit, pant length, crotch, hip, and waist fit of turnout gear when bending or performing extreme movements (Park & Hahn, 2014). In another, dancers expressed similar problems with garments being too short; more than 50% reported length problems (Mitchka et al., 2009). ...
Researchers assessed climbers’ pants by investigating whether a pants’ style or brand preference exists among rock climbers, along with looking at fit, mobility, comfort, protection, and donning/doffing expectations for climbing pants using a mixed-methods design study. Active adult rock climbers, aged 19 or older, were conveniently sampled at two U.S. rock-climbing events and completed a questionnaire. The researchers found that rock climbers needed improvements in their pants’ fit, sizing options, and design in relation to the functions of mobility, comfort, protection, and durability. Additionally, climbers wanted pants that would not interfere with their rock-climbing techniques or equipment. Last, their pants should be affordable. Outdoor apparel manufacturers could improve their climbing pants’ designs by integrating this study’s results, leading to better protection of climbers’ bodies and fulfillment of their needs and expectations.
... These statistical data indicate that firefighters are particularly vulnerable to slips, trips, and falls on uneven or slippery surfaces, which are probable consequences of lack of lower body motion. In previous studies (Hulett et al., 2008;Broorady et al., 2013b;Park and Hahn, 2014;Sinden et al., 2013), female firefighters have mentioned turnout pants as a specific PPE item that often causes mobility problems while performing firefighting tasks such as climbing ladders, dragging hoses, entering/exiting emergency vehicles, etc. (Guidotti, 1992). For example, in Broorady et al.'s (2013b) focus group study, female firefighters commented on the uniform pants, saying the length was too long and the waist was too large. ...
... In another qualitative study (Sinden et al., 2013) based on phone interviews with four female firefighters, it was acknowledged that the critical elements of the firefighting PPE, especially pants, were too large, fitted loosely, and better suited for males. Furthermore, according to Park & Hahn (2014), which conducted online surveys with 516 US and Canadian firefighters, female firefighters showed significantly lower satisfaction with the pants' length while walking and bending, and reported significantly lower satisfaction with the pants' fit around the crotch, hips, and waist, relative to their male counterparts. These findings from the previous studies lend a strong justification to the selection of uniform pants, including turnout and station pants, as the focus of this study. ...
... Although research and standards have been dedicated to improving PPE, the low satisfaction ratings suggested the need to further develop uniform designs and fit for female firefighters. The turnout ensemble is especially critical to the firefighter, as it is his or her main protection against heat stress, hazardous chemicals, gas, and physical collision (Coca et al., 2011;Park and Hahn, 2014). In addition, they are required to perform physically demanding tasks. ...
This study identified anthropometric fit issues associated with a female firefighter's uniform pants. Eighteen firefighters (nine females and nine males) participated in a multidimensional fit assessment protocol, consisting of a subjective comfort survey, 3D body scanning, and exit interview. Mann–Whitney U tests were performed to compare sex differences in the survey and 3D scan data, along with descriptive and qualitative analyses. Female firefighters showed significantly lower survey ratings on overall satisfaction, perceived comfort, and performance of their turnout pants. Three-dimensional body scan data affirmed anatomical sex differences in baseline body measurements, and determined specific landmark areas that caused discomfort in female firefighters while wearing station and turnout pants. Interview data supported the findings from the quantitative measures. Results demonstrated that female firefighters experienced poorer fit and a higher level of discomfort with their uniform pants than male firefighters. The outcomes of this study suggest scientific evidence of the anthropometric fit problems associated with firefighter PPE, which is anticipated to help policymakers and the manufacturing industry enhance occupational safety regulations and improve fit and sizing systems especially for female firefighters who wear uniforms designed based on the male physique.
... A number of studies have been conducted over the years to assess physiological responses to PPE, including increased cardiovascular strain [13][14][15][16] , fluctuation of thermal responses 17,18) during simulated firefighting activities (SFA), and decreased work performance 19) . Other studies have focused on firefighters' mobility related to wearing PPE and their movements at the fireground 1,4,9,20) . ...
... A high level of physical performance involving aerobic capacity, muscular strength, and endurance is required by the firefighters who work in extreme environments 20,32,33) . In order to evaluate physiological responses with PPE, a treadmill or ergometer exercise is often used to simulate a workload that applies to firefighting 15,18,34) . ...
This review aimed to suggest useful, potential measurements as standard test methods for evaluating the mobility of structural firefighters wearing personal protective equipment (PPE). Based on our previous research on Japanese firefighters’ activities related to mobility as well as previous literature results, the findings were categorized (e.g., simulated firefighting activities, test method for mobility assessment, and participants groups), and discussed. We identified four categories that can be used to test and evaluate mobility: (1) simulated firefighting activities consisting of step-ups, obstacle strides, crawling, dragging, and jumping; (2) in terms of balance ability, the postural sway and functional balance tests (functional reach and timed up and go) were useful measurements; (3) range of motion can be used to estimate the mobility associated with the various designs of PPE, as well as the effect of wearing the PPE itself; and (4) subjective evaluations of individuals wearing PPE were available for the mobility assessments. Professional firefighters who were familiar with wearing PPE were suitable for the suggested test method. This review provides useful information for firefighters, researchers, and PPE manufacturers that can be used to develop more comfortable and safer PPE.
... The questionnaire was developed based on the published functional apparel studies and the FEA model. 30,[39][40][41][42][43] The FEA model was developed by Lamb and Kallal (1992) to assess functional, expressive and aesthetic considerations to identify the consumer needs. 44 The FEA model has been widely used in functional garment studies such as sailing apparel, tennis wear, climbers' pants and clothing needs of adolescent girls with disabilities. ...
... 30,[39][40][41] To analyze the satisfaction of comfort, the questionnaire included the following: (a) ability to retain warmth; (b) stiffness of garment; (c) overall comfort; and (d) level of confidence while swimming in water with the buoyant swimwear. 39,42,43 Satisfaction regarding the displacement of the vest from the shoulder due to buoyancy was also evaluated. 30 The evaluation of mobility included the freedom of arm movement, waist movement and swim movement, as well as the ease of donning and doffing after swimming. ...
The use of children’s buoyant swimwear has become more common. However, its bulkiness and hardness restrict the wearer’s movement. For better fit, comfort and mobility, a knitted buoyant swimming vest is developed. It is compared with two market samples using subjective evaluation according to the Functional, Expressive and Aesthetic (FEA) Consumer Needs Model and laboratory tests of objective measurements. The results of a paired-sample t-test show that a tightly fitting buoyant swimming vest should be worn out of water, as the vest becomes a perfect fit in water. Tests on the knitted buoyant swimming vest demonstrate improved functionality and higher buoyancy than that of two market samples conforming to British Standard EN13138-1:2014. The results of repeated measures analysis of variance show an overall significant higher satisfaction level in the knitted buoyant swimming vest than two market samples in terms of fit, comfort and mobility. The results of this study are significant for both the textile industry and the fast-growing sportswear industry.
... O uso de EPIs de combate a incêndios requer do bombeiro um esforço suplementar devido ao peso, à dificuldade de movimentação e, em alguns casos, à falta de visibilidade (Guerra, 2005). Um correto ajuste dos EPIs é crítico não somente para a proteção, mas, também, para o desempenho operacional dos bombeiros (Park e Hahn, 2014). ...
... However, Study 2 is more balanced in gender, including a relatively equal number of participating male (54%) and female firefighters. While the sample of Study 1 is representative of the firefighting population, which is often male-dominated (O'Neill & Rothbard, 2017;Wu et al., 2019), Study 2 and the pilot study do not represent the actual gender ratio in the fire service population (Park & Hahn, 2014). Thus, questions of generalizability arise concerning Study 2 and the pilot study. ...
Drawing from the theory of met expectations, this study aims to create new knowledge on the antecedents of follower trust in leaders in the context of high-reliability organizations. We hypothesize that highly self-controlled leaders instill more trust than leaders with less self-control, as the former tend to meet follower expectations. This work combines data from a field survey (N = 256) and a multi-wave field study (N = 106), using samples of professional firefighters to support our hypotheses that met follower expectations mediate the relationship between leader trait self-control and follower trust in the leader. Our research highlights the importance of met expectations in high-reliability contexts and demonstrates the value of leader trait self-control in building trustful relationships.
... When appropriate firefighters' comments from the ''other'' text input questions were coded by three independent researchers using an interpretive thematic analysis method [24]. This method groups responses into overarching themes and has been used in similar studies [25][26][27]. The overall goal of the questionnaire was to determine how wildland firefighters in the U.S. today are cleaning their wildland PPC, specifically their response jacket and shirt. ...
The cleaning practices of U.S. wildland firefighter personal protective clothing (PPC) are widely unregulated and unknown. Failure to regularly and effec- tively clean soiled and contaminated PPC may lead to severe health impacts, espe- cially in the long term, as documented in the structural fire service. This study aimed to investigate the current cleaning practices of wildland firefighting gear and to deter- mine the laundering resources wildland firefighters have access to while deployed in the field. This study is the first of its kind to collect such end-user feedback on wild- land firefighter PPC cleaning. Findings indicate the majority of wildland firefighters do not isolate their contaminated gear, wash their PPC at home, and frequently transport their gear in personal vehicles, all of which are significant departures from the recommendations of the National Fire Protection Association 1877 Standard on Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Wildland Firefighting Protective Clothing and Equipment. Considerations of practicality and feasibility specific to the wildland fire service should be adopted in the standard.
... Fire Technology 2020 method allows grouping of the responses into overarching themes with related issues and has been used in similar firefighter user needs studies [40][41][42]. Coding categories were established for each free response question with subcategories, where appropriate, for identifying specific issues. The overall goal of the questionnaire was to evaluate the broad impact of NFPA 1975 certified versus non-certified station wear garments in relation to firefighter burns and heat injuries while worn under a certified NFPA 1971 structural firefighting protective ensemble. ...
Structural turnout gear is essential for the safety of firefighters. The station wear, or clothing worn underneath the structural turnout suit, contributes to the thermal protection and performance of the overall ensemble. Depending on the fiber content and material fabrication, base layer garments may increase the risk of potential burn injuries. The purpose of this research was to evaluate National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1975 certified, certified flame resistant, and non-certified station wear garments in relation to firefighter burn injuries while worn under a NFPA 1971 structural firefighting ensemble. An information-gathering questionnaire was distributed nationwide with over 1,800 active-duty United States firefighting personnel responding to questions regarding the selection and use of their station wear. Responses concerning the thermoplastic nature of base layer materials, the design and configuration of how base layers are worn, and the overall satisfaction with the performance of certified versus non-certified station wear were gathered. Questionnaire responses determined 80% of participants were aware of the overall risk of wearing non-certified base layer garments (i.e. synthetics that will melt or drip); however, 45% of career firefighters indicated they were not required to wear certified or flame resistant station wear. Regional analysis of the responses was performed. Findings of this research will educate the fire service and inform NFPA standards committees. Further, this study supports the need for future research to develop station wear garments with improved burn injury protection, thermal comfort, and ergonomic mobility.
... The satisfaction with the fit of trousers among female and male firefighters was studied. Female firefighters scored significantly lower in satisfaction with the crotch while walking and in case of extreme limb movements [3]. More than 10% of participants of this survey reported that the crotch is too low and bulky, which causes impaired mobility in lower body movements for many job-related tasks such as ladder operations, walking and climbing. ...
The aim of this paper was to analyse several measurements of soldiers to provide a reference for trousers sizes of military combat clothing. For sizing and fitting of military clothing, information on the body dimensions of the user population is a precondition. More than 400 soldiers in the Estonian and Latvian Defence Forces and the military personnel were measured using Human Solution 3-D scanner. It focused on collating basic human body measurement data for the revision of size charts by STANAG 2335. Fit and comfort of trousers mainly relate to the following dimensions: waist girth, leg inseam, leg length and waistband. Present parameters play a significant role in the quality of trousers, to ensure the wearer’s mobility in all situations, particularly concerning the activities of soldiers. Correlating measurements and existing sizing systems are made to offer recommendations for a manufacturer. In addition, this paper helps to provide sizing and fitting criteria of military combat clothing to STANREC document, compiled by NATO RTO HFM-266 Group.
... To improve the design of firefighting clothing for female firefighters, it is important to understand the differences between men and women in perception related to performance. Based on an online survey of 202 male firefighters and 314 female firefighters, Park et al [6]. reported that female firefighters showed significantly lower satisfaction with fit and functionality of the turnout ensemble in multiple areas (e.g., shoulder, chest, armhole, coat length, crotch, hip) than males. ...
In this study, a new set of firefighting protective clothing for Chinese female firefighters was designed. The two most important physical parameters (i.e., thermal insulation and evaporative resistance) to quantify clothing thermal comfort were determined using a thermal manikin under a variety of conditions (i.e. two levels air velocity: 0.4 m/s and 1.0 m/s; two walking speeds: 0 and 0.96 m/s). The existing firefighting clothing was used as a control. Results demonstrated that both the existing firefighting clothing and the new female firefighting clothing had a similar total thermal insulation. The total evaporative resistance of the newly designed female firefighting clothing determined on the standing manikin under the 0.4 m/s air velocity was 18.6% lower than that of the existing firefighting clothing. It was concluded that the moisture transfer ability of the newly designed female firefighting protective clothing has been much improved without compromise of thermal protection.
... Female firefighters wear exactly the same protective clothing that was pattern designed for male firefighters. Documented studies (1,2) revealed that female fighter clothing should be sized specifically for female wearers, and reconstruction design was urgent especially in terms of suspender function and the placement of radio pockets because of the structure of women's breasts. Recently we designed a new prototype female firefighting clothing ensemble based on the average body dimension of adult Chinese females. ...
... Correct length of sleeves and pant legs, is essential to provide protection to the wrists and ankles. The FFPPC should be tested for correct fit for the fire fighter before going to the real firefighting (Park and Hahn 2014). During the design and sizing, certain type of fit test should be performed to avoid the fitproblem, which is generally detected only after the final ensembles are manufactured. ...
Fire-fighters’ personal protective clothing is the only source of protection for fire-fighters during fire-fighting. The protective clothing should provide adequate protection as well as should be comfortable to wear. The protection and comfort requirements are always the contradicting fact in several protective clothing including fire-fighters’. Appropriate material selection, clothing design and final evaluation of the results play a critical role in predicting the clothing performance and comfort. Several researches have been done on the performance and comfort improvement of fire-fighter’s protective clothing. However, detailed review related to these parameters is not being reported in recent years. In this perspective review, we report the recent trends in the performance and comfort properties of the fire-fighters protective clothing. The clothing design and different materials used to achieve a balance between performance and comfort is illustrated. Various test standards related to the performance and comfort is also being discussed. In addition, the future scopes and challenges while designing tomorrows advanced protective clothing are cited. This would provide a guideline in terms of comfort and performance while developing and designing the fire-fighter protective clothing for different climatic conditions.
Keywords: Fire-fighters’ protective clothing; Test standards; Heat stress; Performance; Comfort
Background
Posture mechanics during fire suppression tasks are associated with musculoskeletal injuries in firefighters.
Methods
This study uses the Ovako Working Posture Analyzing System (OWAS) ergonomics tool to describe and evaluate the postures of 48 firefighters during 3 simulated tasks: (a) hose drag, (b) hose pull, and (c) high-rise pack lift. Ergonomics intervention prioritizations based on the OWAS action classification (AC) scores were identified using Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. Chi-square analyses identified associations between firefighter characteristics and OWAS AC scores.
Findings
The initial hose pick-up phase of each task was identified as a high priority for ergonomics intervention (OWAS AC = 4) in 45.8%, 54.2%, and 45.8% of cases for Tasks 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Lower BMI was associated with higher AC scores for the initial hose pick-up during Task 3 (likelihood ratio = 9.20, p value = .01).
Conclusion
The results inform ergonomics priorities for firefighter training based on the tasks analyzed. Application to Practice: This study evaluates the posture mechanics of three commonly performed firefighting tasks. The results help inform an ergonomics training intervention focused on posture mechanics during occupational activities for firefighters.
This proceedings book contains the extended abstracts from the 10th European Conference on Protective Clothing, May 9-12, 2023, Arnhem, The Netherlands.
The aim of the European Conference on Protective Clothing series is to promote research and cooperation in the area of personal protection. Functional and comfortable protective clothing is a key element for successful implementation of preventive and protective measures at the workplaces. The 10th ECPC covers a broad spectrum of the subject protective clothing, and has turned into an internationally qualified source of new, valuable, and useful information for the advancement of knowledge and the application of protective clothing. The conference has become a platform to disseminate, exchange and discuss the results of research, project developments and implementation programmes related to protective clothing, with a strong focus on user protection and well-being. Ergonomics is still a strong component of the conference within the new challenges related to climate change, pandemics, and development of digital technology with new smart functions being an integrated part of textiles and modern PPE. Issues related to sustainability, durability of the products and consideration of the full life cycle of PPE is high up on the agenda today. The changing business needs support from legislation and work with standardization must keep up the pace so that the innovative and safe products can reach the market.
This conference acts as a forum for industries, public authorities and academic organizations – researchers, designers, manufacturers, purchasers, health and safety experts, human factors experts and procurement specialists and end-users to exchange and discuss research and project development for personal protective clothing (PPC) and equipment (PPE).
In firefighting, fit and sizing of personal protective equipment are directly related with the protection level, work performance, and comfort of firefighters. Furthermore, proper fit and sizing depend on appropriate sizing systems and the validity of the data from which they were constructed. Thus, anthropometric data are paramount for personal protective equipment design. Despite recent studies, anthropometric databases on firefighters are still very limited. Aiming to fulfill this shortcoming as well as to understand if Portuguese firefighters’ protective equipment is adjusted to their anthropometrics, a study designated as Size FF Portugal – Anthropometric Study of Portuguese Firefighters is currently underway. This paper presents a preliminary comparison of anthropometric data of firefighters from two different fire brigades: a mixed brigade and a professional brigade. Results of an initial analysis show that participants from the professional brigade were on average 29 mm taller than participants from the mixed brigade. Moreover, participants from the mixed brigade were on average 6.93 kg heavier. Further, results of inferential ANOVA test at a 95% confidence level revealed statistically significant differences of the stature and weight between career-volunteer firefighters from the mixed brigade and career firefighters from the professional brigade. Furthermore, an examination of Body Mass Index revealed that 71.88% of all participants from the mixed brigade as well as 41.58% of participants from the professional brigade were considered above the normal weight range. Differences of anthropometric measurements between the two fire brigades reveal the relevance in developing a more comprehensive yet detailed anthropometric database of Portuguese firefighters.
This book presents the proceedings of the 8th International Ergonomics Conference (ERGONOMICS), held in Zagreb, Croatia on December 2-5, 2020. By highlighting the latest theories and models, as well as cutting-edge technologies and applications, and by combining findings from a range of disciplines including engineering, design, robotics, healthcare, management, computer science, human biology and behavioral science, it provides researchers and practitioners alike with a comprehensive, timely guide on human factors and ergonomics. It also offers an excellent source of innovative ideas to stimulate future discussions and developments aimed at applying knowledge and techniques to optimize system performance, while at the same time promoting the health, safety and wellbeing of individuals. The proceedings include papers from researchers and practitioners, scientists and physicians, institutional leaders, managers and policy makers that contribute to constructing the Human Factors and Ergonomics approach across a variety of methodologies, domains and productive sectors.
Personal protective equipment is of paramount importance in aiding and protecting firefighters against hazardous conditions. Personal protective equipment should be compatible to firefighters’ body dimensions. However, the lack of updated anthropometric data for this specific occupational group can lead to ill-fitting equipment, compromising work performance and the level of protection. To understand if Portuguese firefighters’ protective equipment is adjusted to their anthropometrics a study designated as Size FF Portugal is currently underway. A pilot study was conducted in a fire brigade located in the North of Portugal aiming to collect preliminary anthropometric data. Thirty-two male firefighters participated in the pilot study. This paper contrasts some preliminary anthropometric data of Portuguese firefighters with an anthropometric database of U.S. firefighters. The results show statistically significant differences between the stature and weight of Portuguese and U.S. firefighters. Conversely, crotch height and calf circumference measurements were not statistically different when comparing firefighters of both countries. Final considerations regarding the study limitations are presented.
Firefighting interventions lead to high psychophysiological stress in firefighters, which causes a significant increase in the risk of death from pathological causes. The current challenge is to preserve the health and safety of firefighters through better knowledge of their physiological and psychological responses at work. Thus, the objective of this doctoral work was to investigate the psychophysiological responses of firefighters during simulated firefighting interventions, in ecological conditions.
The main results of study 1 showed that in addition to the high physiological stress and the disruption of executive functions during the firefighting intervention, the post-intervention phase is marked by very low cardiac parasympathetic activity. However, although the breathing apparatus increased the duration of the intervention, as well as the cardiac stress and the perceived exertion, it did not influence the cardiac parasympathetic reactivation.
The next two studies were methodological. Study 2 has quantified the workload generated by a firefighting intervention. The results revealed that subjective quantification of the workload is the most sensitive method to discriminate different equipment conditions and therefore seems more suitable for monitoring the workload of firefighters. Then, study 3 tested the reliability and the sensitivity of post-exercise analysis of ultra-short-term heart rate variability in order to facilitate its use in ecological conditions. However, the results showed a low sensitivity of ultra-short-term heart rate variability analysis, and therefore suggest to keep a conventional short-term analysis.
After showing a psychophysiological stress and a significant parasympathetic disturbance during a simulated daytime intervention, we showed in study 4 that psychophysiological stress was greater at night than during the day, both during the alarm phase and the recovery phase. Finally, in study 5, the investigation of a more delayed phase of recovery, during the sleep of firefighters, showed that nocturnal cardiac autonomic activity was disturbed during nights when firefighters are on-call, with and without interventions.
This doctoral work provides new knowledge on the psychophysiological responses of firefighters during firefighting interventions, and in particular on nocturnal and post-intervention cardiac autonomic regulation. The results of this thesis provide recommendations on the use of firefighter monitoring tools and open up new research perspectives aimed at reducing their psychophysiological stress.
Key words: Firefighters, Firefighting, Recovery, Exercise physiology, Autonomic control of the heart, Heart rate variability, Executive functions
Firefighting is considered one of the most challenging professions. Personal protective equipment plays a crucial role in protecting firefighters against numerous occupational hazards. Despite the advances in materials technology, current firefighting personal protective clothing is considered heavy, bulk, stiff, and thick. Many studies evaluated firefighters’ perceptions of current equipment. Fit and sizing are frequently reported as issues in firefighting protective clothing. This paper provides a literature review with the objective of offering a better understanding of how fit and sizing of firefighting protective clothing have been addressed by researchers. A review of the main issues faced by firefighters as well as a synthesis of suggestions for improved design and better purchasing as reported in the literature are provided.
Over the years, the nature of firefighting and the role of firefighters has evolved including a demographic change, with an increasing number of women in this profession. Recent studies have specifically addressed the particular needs of female firefighters. Ill-fitting turnout gear, protective gloves, and other personal protective equipment make female firefighters’ tasks not only uncomfortable but also more difficult and dangerous. A pilot study comprising both male and female firefighters from a fire brigade located in the North of Portugal was conducted. The goal was to investigate the fit of the Portuguese firefighters’ personal protective equipment, its level of adjustment to their anthropometrics and to identify areas that need improvement. This paper focuses on gender differences and presents the preliminary results regarding size selection and purchasing of protective clothing as well as the level of protection experienced among participants.
In the scope of Branding projects, the (re) designing of the Visual Identity of Brands or in the scope of audits of Brand Image, we proceed to the research on Brand Marks. This analysis falls on the Brand Marks that will be intervened, but also on Brand Marks of competitors or cases considered as good practices. The research stage on Brand Marks is common in academic or professional projects and students and professionals have difficulty in giving meaning and usefulness to the information collected. The most widely used visual analysis tools allow for the characterization of samples made up of Brand Marks, but these do not help in the extraction of specific conclusions centered on meaning and design. This article describes the development of the competitors map, the Visual Research Tool which allows the objective analysis of Brand Marks, which allows for decision making about the design effectiveness of an isolated Brand Mark or about its (re) design by comparison to a sample of competing Brand Marks. This Visual Research Tool has been developed through literature review, analysis of other tools, the inclusion of a semantic, syntactic and pragmatic analysis, which also includes classifications such as the iconicity scale or the Vienna Classification, as well as principles of visual rhetoric. Using visual and symbolic data, this Visual Research Tool supports professionals and students to create strategic strategies for Brand Visual Identity. This article reports on the creation and evaluation of the Brand Marks’ competitor map.
Purpose. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of personal protective equipment (PPE) on firefighters’ perception of mobility and their experienced occupational injury risks between China and the United States. Materials and methods. An online survey was conducted and a total of 328 firefighters, including 203 Chinese firefighters and 125 U.S. firefighters, participated in the survey. Results. Both Chinese and U.S. firefighters ranked mobility restriction as the most dissatisfactory characteristic of the current PPE. The U.S. firefighters reported the upper body as the most restricted region and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) as the most dissatisfactory item. The Chinese firefighters ranked boots as the leading cause of dissatisfaction, however, they did not indicate any particular discomfort region. Moreover, musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) was the most prevalent occupational injury reported by both Chinese and U.S. firefighters. Restricted mobility while wearing the PPE was closely related to the risk of MSDs. Conclusions. The findings suggested that PPE design for U.S. firefighters should consider a balance in weight distribution of SCBA and overall interface of turnout gear and equipment. For Chinese firefighters’ PPE, flexibility of materials for boots should be emphasized to increase mobility and reduce the risks of MSDs.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to investigate the incremental impact of firefighter’s personal protective equipment (PPE) on lower body range of motion (ROM) while walking to suggest areas of design improvement for enhanced mobility and safety.
Design/methodology/approach
– Eight male and four female firefighters participated in the study. Lower body ROM was assessed while they walked in four different configurations of PPE, including turnout ensemble, a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) and boots. The impact of each added PPE item, and gender differences were statistically analyzed.
Findings
– Wearing firefighter turnout ensemble and SCBA reduced ROM in the lower body in the sagittal and transverse planes. A significant reduction in ROM for anterior-posterior movement at the ankle and the ball of the foot was found while wearing rubber boots with turnout ensemble and SCBA. This puts firefighters at higher risk of experiencing foot injuries and physical strains. A significant increase in medial-lateral movement of the foot while wearing rubber boots may increase risk of ankle sprains. A greater reduction in ROM at the ankle and the ball of the foot for female firefighters may imply greater risk for women compared to men, while wearing boots.
Practical implications
– Reducing the inflexibility and bulkiness of boots is critical to improve firefighter’s lower body mobility and safety.
Originality/value
– This study implemented 3-D motion capture technology to analyze how wearing firefighting gear impacted lower body motion. It provides quantitative evidence to recommend ergonomic boot re-design.
Firefighters serve as first responders and encounter a wide variety of hazards while performing their job tasks. They also perform an array of movements when responding to emergencies. It is thus critical that their personal protective equipment allow firefighters to perform their duties with minimal limitations and maximum safety. This research explored the issues firefighters experience when wearing their gear to identify areas needing improvement. Researchers conducted focus groups of male firefighters throughout the country to identify areas of concern for firefighters regarding their gear. Data were analyzed using an interpretive thematic analysis method that revealed three main problem areas: gear function, wearer comfort, and protection provided. Specific issues related to these problem areas are discussed, and suggestions are made for ways to improve firefighter gear to enhance the experience of the end user. Findings from this study serve as a guide for future researchers and manufacturers creating new gear, as well as developing enhanced education and training of firefighters regarding their gear.
Purpose:
Firefighters are exposed to high physical and psychological occupational factors while providing an essential service to our communities. Female firefighters represent a minority group in this male dominated occupation. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively determine the impact of a male dominated, physically demanding occupation on women's work health and job satisfaction through the experiences of female firefighters.
Methods:
A phenomenological approach was used to collect data through semi-structured, recorded interviews with female firefighters. The recorded interviews were transcribed into text and inductive thematic analysis was used to qualitatively analyze the transcripts.
Results:
Review and analysis of the participant responses identified seven themes: physical demands/difficulties, gender related physiological differences, compensatory strategies, equipment mal-adaptation, earning respect, negative attitudes of male counterparts: impact on social inclusion and health behaviors, recognition of injury risk.
Conclusion:
Female firefighters are exposed to increased risk of injury due to the psychological and physical occupational stressors in firefighting. Implications of this research are provided and include recommendations for future research to target the physical and psychosocial aspects of firefighting.
Each year, roughly 11,000 firefighters are injured as a result of slips, trips and falls, which account for over 25% of all fireground injuries. Wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) can increase risk of fall-related injuries due to its weight, restrictiveness, and increased heat stress. Modification of PPE may serve to mitigate firefighter injuries related to loss of balance and falls. We examined the effects of choosing 'enhanced' protective clothing (lightweight, breathable, and less restrictive compared to typical firefighting PPE) and simulated firefighting tasks (18-min bout over four activities) on subsequent gait performance. To assess the effect of wearing protective clothing and firefighting activity, seven gait parameters and three movement errors were assessed during level and obstacle-crossing walking tasks. Forty-four firefighters wore one of two types of PPE ('Standard', 'Enhanced') during three testing conditions (baseline in station uniform, pre-firefighting activity in PPE, and post-firefighting activity in PPE). The effect of donning any PPE was found to significantly impair gait performance. Fatigue may impact effective mobility since more movement errors were observed during post-activity than pre-activity assessments. Although the Enhanced PPE did not lead to any significant differences in gait parameters compared to Standard PPE, participants in Enhanced PPE made twice as many movement errors, potentially attributed to lack of familiarity with the gear. These results suggest that wearing firefighting PPE and heat-stress induced fatigue are associated with reduced gait performance and increased risk for tripping over obstacles.
The high visibility trim requirements for NFPA 1971 (2007 ed.) turnout gear are intended to provide the user conspicuity enhancements
in both daytime and nighttime environments. This study evaluated the reflectance, color and fluorescence properties of high
visibility trim on firefighters used turnout gear. Forty-four used garments, grouped in age categories from 2 to 10years
(retired), were visually evaluated according to the Section4 of the NFPA 1851—Advanced Inspection Checklist. Advanced inspection
identified damaged trim on 21 of the 46 garments. The damaged areas, located primarily at the cuffs and lower front hem, were
not as reflective but passed the subjective flashlight test. A data sampling plan for retroreflective values was constructed
for the coats and pants and the coefficients of retroreflection were collected to provide a measure of the nighttime conspicuity.
To characterize the fluorescent (daytime) properties of the trim on the used garments the values for fluorescence and color
box coordinates were measured. The measured coefficient of retroreflection (RA, cd/lux/m2) for all garments (average of all values in the sampling plan) was greater than 3× the minimum NFPA 1851 requirement. Therefore,
all used gear provided substantial nighttime conspicuity enhancement including the retired gear.
KeywordsVisibility trim–Turnout gear–NFPA 1851–NFPA 1971–Firefighter
Many studies have shown that fire fighter turnout gear and equipment may restrict mobility. The restriction of movement is usually due to a decrease in range of motion (ROM). It is important to know how much the decrease in ROM affects performance. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of fire fighter protective ensembles on mobility and performance by measuring static and dynamic range of motion (ROM) and job-related tasks. Eight healthy adults (5 males, 3 females), aged 20-40 years, participated in this study. The study consisted of measuring a battery of motions and fire fighter specific tasks while wearing a standard fire fighter ensemble (SE) or regular light clothing (baseline or BL). Several BL ROM tests were significantly (p < 0.05) different from the SE test, including a decrease in shoulder flexion, cervical rotation and flexion, trunk lateral flexion, and stand and reach. There was a significant decrease in time from SE to baseline performing the one-arm search task and object lift. These overall findings support the need for a comprehensive ergonomic evaluation of protective clothing systems to ascertain human factors issues. The development of a Standard Ergonomics Test Practice for further use in laboratories that conduct personal protective systems evaluations using human test subjects is recommended.
This study examined demographic, personality, and economic incentive correlates of workplace injuries suffered by 171 firefighters over a 12-year period. Results showed that female firefighters experienced more injuries than male firefighters. Several Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) scales (Conversion Hysteria, Psychopathic Deviate, and Social Introversion) were positively related to injury frequency. Regression analyses revealed that age, tenure, gender, marital status, type of injury, and wage variables were significant when predicting the duration of injuries as well as an interaction between marital status and gender. Two MMPI scales (Psychopathic Deviate and Schizophrenia) were also significantly related to injury duration. Indemnity cost estimates were calculated. The results underscore the importance of distinguishing the duration of injury from the occurrence of injury.
The purpose of this study was to determine if gender differences exist in the variability of various lower extremity (LE) segment and joint couplings during an unanticipated cutting maneuver. 3-D kinematics were collected on 24 college soccer players (12 M, 12 F) while each performed the cutting maneuver. The following intralimb couplings were studied: thigh rotation (rot)/leg rot; thigh abduction-adduction/leg abd-add; hip abd-add/knee rot; hip rot/knee abd-add; knee flexion-extension/knee rot; knee flx-ext/hip rot. A vector-coding technique applied to angle-angle plots was used to quantify the coordination of each coupling. The average between-trial standard deviation of the coordination pattern during the initial 40 % of stance was used to indicate the coordination variability. One-tailed t-tests were used to determine differences between genders in coordination variability for each coupling. Women had decreased variability in four couplings: 32 % less thigh rot/leg rot variability; 40 % less thigh abd-add/leg abd-add variability; 46 % less knee flx-ext/knee rot variability; and 44 % less knee flx-ext/hip rot variability. These gender differences in LE coordination variability may be associated with the increased incidence of ACL injury in women. If women exhibit less flexible coordination patterns during competition, they may be less able to adapt to the environmental perturbations experienced during sports. These perturbations applied to a less flexible system may result in ligament injury.
Providing comfort in clothing for the moving body is a complex task. Interactions among body sizes and shapes, physiological variations, material properties, design choices, environmental challenges, and activities are exponential in their number. In this chapter we will explore some of the problems, solutions, and research methods used to decipher these issues.
Fabrics used in firefighters' protective clothing were exposed to simulated sunlight from a xenon are Weather-Ometer and heat in a forced air circulating oven, and the resulting changes in properties were measured (color, tearing strength, flame resistance and thermal protective performance). The thermal shrinkage and weight loss associated with heat exposure were also noted. Outer shell fabrics of Nomex III, Zirpro flame resistant wool, and PBI/Kevlar were all susceptible to light and underwent marked reductions in tensile tearing strength as a result of light exposure. Heat exposure resulted in a significant reduction in the tearing strength of all outer shell fabrics while increasing the tearing strength of moisture barrier fabrics. A polyamid/flame resistant viscose blend was extremely sensitive to heat exposure, undergoing a substantial loss in tearing strength and appreciable thermal shrinkage. Zirpro flame resistant wool was particularly sensitive to temperatures greater than 230°C. Although both light and heat caused losses in physical strength, there was no noticeable reduction in the flame resistance or thermal protective performance of the individual fabrics and garment assemblies studied.
This paper presents a summary of documented research into protective clothing for firefighters. Particular emphasis is placed on research into estimating the useful life of this clothing and the development of test standards for evaluating its thermal protection. Other areas covered in this review include moisture transfer in clothing, heat stress, design criteria, chemical protective clothing, and heat transfer modeling of protective clothing. Recommendations for future protective clothing research are also presented.
The degree of comfort of personal protective equipment (PPE) was investigated in an automobile encapsulating plant. Up to 96.2% of employees used one or a combination of PPE. Only 8% of the workers felt their respirators were comfortable, 30% tolerated their respirators, and 62% rated them as uncomfortable. The percentage of employees who rated their PPE (other than a respirator) as comfortable ranged from 32 to 52%. For comfort factor, coveralls/aprons rated 52%, safety glasses 51%, rubber gloves 42%, and hearing protectors 36%. PPE was tolerable (just acceptable) for about 30% of the employees. To increase the effectiveness and safety of PPE, the human-factor aspects of PPE design should be emphasized more and quality improvement should cover the wearability of PPE.
Injuries by population and region -- Improving firefighter safety -- Footnote -- Incidents: Texas (trapped fire captain and rescuer burned); California (firefighter disoriented during flashover); Pennsylvania (fire chief shocked battling chimney fire); Dalaware (assistant fire chief injured evacuating); New York (blaze traps firefighter); California (firefighter suffers smoke inhalation)
Accurate correlations between a wide range of physical fitness measures and occupational demands are needed in order to identify specific fitness tests and training needs for firefighters. Twenty professional firefighters performed numerous fitness and job-related performance tests. Pearson product moment correlations were performed to identify the relationship between fitness components and job performance. Significant correlations (p <0.05) with job performance were identified for total fitness (r = -0.62), bench press strength (r = -0.66), hand grip strength (r = -0.71), bent-over row endurance (r = -0.61), bench press endurance (r = -0.73), shoulder press endurance (r = -0.71), bicep endurance (r = -0.69), squat endurance (r = -0.47), and 400-m sprint time (r = 0.79). It is apparent that firefighting taxes virtually all aspects of physical fitness. These data can help the exercise specialist choose appropriate tests and prescribe specific fitness programs for firefighters. Traditional firefighter exercise programs focusing mainly on cardiovascular fitness should be replaced with physical conditioning programs that address all components of fitness.
A national report card on women in firefighting
- D Hulett
- M Bendick
- S Thomas
- F Moccio
Hulett, D., Bendick, M., Thomas, S., & Moccio, F. (2008). A national report card on women in firefighting. Madi-son, WI: International Association of Women in Fire and Emergency Services.
Firefighter fatalities and injuries: The role of heat stress and PPE
- D L Smith
- G Horn
- E Goldstian
- S J Petruzzello
Smith, D. L., Horn, G., Goldstian, E., & Petruzzello, S. J. (2008). Firefighter fatalities and injuries: The role of heat stress and PPE. Urbana-Champaign: Firefighter Life Safety Research Center Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois.