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Bacterial contamination of door handles/knobs in selected public conveniences in Abuja metropolis, Nigeria: A public health threat.

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Ukpai A Eze at University of Chester
Ukpai A Eze
Amos Nworie at Ebonyi State University
Amos Nworie
Ayeni J. A.
Ayeni J. A.
Ayeni J. A.
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Azi Simon at Universiti Putra Malaysia
Azi Simon
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The increasing incidence of epidemic outbreaks of certain diseases and its rate of spread from one community to the other has become a major public health concern. Door handles/knobs of public conveniences of selected public offices, motor parks, and markets in Abuja metropolis were investigated for bacteria contamination. Out of the 180 swab samples cultured, 156 (86.7%) were positive. They were more positive samples from female toilet handles/knobs (41.7%) and bathroom door handles/knobs (11.5%) than males. The study also found that toilet door handles/knobs in markets, motor parks and restaurants had higher rate of contamination compared to Government offices, and banks. Contamination was also higher in toilet door handles/knobs (87.2%) than in bathroom door handles/knobs (85%). Most of the bacteria contaminants were Coliforms. The isolated bacterial contaminants were Staphylococcus aureus (30.1%), Klebsiella Pneumoniae (25.7%), Escherichia coli (16.1%), Enterobacter species (11.2%), Citrobacter species (7.1%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (5.9%), and Proteus Species (4.5%). This shows that the city’s convenient places habours highly pathogenic bacteria which have the potentials of causing epidemics in the near future. Therefore, community health superintendents, sanitary officers and Environmental Protection Board as well as private organizations should educate the populace on personal and environmental hygiene.
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7
Continental J. Medical Research 6 (1): 7 - 11, 2012 ISSN: 2141 – 4211
© Wilolud Journals, 2012 http://www.wiloludjournal.com
` Printed in Nigeria
BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF DOOR HANDLES/KNOBS IN SELECTED PUBLIC CONVENIENCES IN
ABUJA METROPOLIS, NIGERIA: A PUBLIC HEALTH THREAT
1
Nworie .A.,
2
Ayeni .J. A.,
1
Eze .U. A.,
1
Azi .S. O.
1
Department of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Health Sciences,
Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria.
2
Department of Medical Microbiology, Federal School of Medical
Laboratory Sciences, Jos University Teaching Hospital, Plateau State,
Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
The increasing incidence of epidemic outbreaks of certain diseases and its rate of spread from one community
to the other has become a major public health concern. Door handles/knobs of public conveniences of selected
public offices, motor parks, and markets in Abuja metropolis were investigated for bacteria contamination. Out
of the 180 swab samples cultured, 156 (86.7%) were positive. They were more positive samples from female
toilet handles/knobs (41.7%) and bathroom door handles/knobs (11.5%) than males. The study also found that
toilet door handles/knobs in markets, motor parks and restaurants had higher rate of contamination compared to
Government offices, and banks. Contamination was also higher in toilet door handles/knobs (87.2%) than in
bathroom door handles/knobs (85%). Most of the bacteria contaminants were Coliforms. The isolated bacterial
contaminants were Staphylococcus aureus (30.1%), Klebsiella Pneumoniae (25.7%), Escherichia coli (16
community health superintendents, sanitary officers and Environmental Protection Board as well as private
organizations to educate the populace on personal and environmental hygiene. 1%), Enterobacter species
(11.2%), Citrobacter species (7.1%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (5.9%), and Proteus Species (4.5%). This
shows that the city’s convenient places habours highly pathogenic bacteria which have the potentials of causing
epidemics in the near future. Therefore, community health superintendents, sanitary officers and Environmental
Protection Board as well as private organizations should educate the populace on personal and environmental
hygiene.
KEYWORDS: Public conveniences, Door handles/knobs, Bacterial contamination, Pathogenic bacteria,
Epidemics, Environmental hygiene.
INTRODUCTION
Microorganisms are found everywhere and constitute a major part of every ecosystem. In these environments, they live
either freely or as parasites (Sleigh and Timbury, 1998). In some cases, they live as transient contaminants in fomites or
hands where they constitute a major health hazards as sources of community and hospital-acquired infections (Pittet et
al., 1999). The increasing incidence of epidemic outbreaks of certain diseases and its rate of spread from one
community to the other has become a major public health concern (Scott et al., 1982; Galtelli et al., 2006).
Although it
is accepted that the infection risk in general community is less than that associated with patients in hospital, the yearly
increases in food poisoning cases in which household outbreaks are a major factor, requires an assessment of the
probable causes and sources (Scott et al., 1982).
Besides the day to day interaction of people, which constitute one way of spreading disease, the major source of and
spread of community acquired infections are formites (Prescott et al., 1993; Li et al., 2009). Formites when in constant
contact with humans or natural habitats of pathogenic organism constitute a major source of spread of infectious
diseases (Osterholm et al., 1995). Such formites include door handles of conveniences, showers, toilet seats and
faucets, sinks, lockers, chairs, and tables, especially those found in public offices, hospitals, hotels, restaurants and
restrooms (Bright et al., 2010). One of the most implicated probable sources of infections is door handles of toilets and
bathroom (Reynolds, 2005). Public toilets and bathrooms have large traffic of users who throng in with their own
microbial flora and other organisms they have picked elsewhere and deposit them on door handles/knobs while going
into the convenience and on their way out (Goldhammer et al., 2006).
However, the risk of disease transmission through formites is determined by the frequency of site contamination and
exposure; level of pathogen excreted by the host; likelihood of transfer of the infectious agent to a susceptible
individual; virulence of the organism; immuno-competence of the persons in contact; the practice of control measure
8
Nworie .A et al.,: Continental J. Medical Research 6 (1): 7 - 11, 2012
such as disinfectant use and personal hygiene (Reynolds, 2005). Unfortunately, majority of public toilets found in parks
and markets, especially Nigeria, lack water system and where they have such systems, water are never available.
Consequently, users can hardly wash their hands after usage, carrying them contaminants from such conveniences
(Giannini et al., 2009) and such could result to community-associated methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-
MRSA) outbreak in high prevalence areas and cholera outbreak Giannini et al., 2009).
This study was therefore designed to determine the level of bacterial contamination of door handles/knobs of public
toilets and bathrooms, as well as, identify the bacterial contaminants in selected public places in Abuja metropolis, the
capital of Nigeria in order to provide scientific information that would have policy relevance, and which will aid the
hand washing programmes in Nigeria.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Abuja is the capital territory of Nigeria. It is made up of civil servants, public servants and traders with a population of
776,298 (www.wikipedia.com). Samples were obtained from the toilet door handles/knobs in selected public places in
Abuja metropolis using full aseptic precaution. Samples were collected using the swab-rinse technique of the American
Public Health Association as described by Reynolds, (2005). Door handles/knobs were swabbed with sterile, cotton-
tipped applicator (swab stick) moistened with sterile peptone water. It was then introduced into bijou bottles containing
sterile peptone water, shaken, and loosely capped. The bijou bottles were covered with cellophane and transported in ice
pack from Abuja to Jos University Teaching Hospital where the samples were analysed. The peptone water, in which
the swab samples from door handles/knobs were rinsed into, were thawed, gently shaken and poured on MacConkey
agar, Blood agar, and Chocolate agar plates, and spread evenly over their entire surfaces using a sterile bent-glass rod.
This was to allow quick recovery of all organisms picked up in the swab. Then, the plates were incubated aerobically
for 24 hours at 37
o
C (Angelotti and Foter, 1958).
Identification and characterisation of bacterial contaminants
Bacterial isolates were first differentiated by macroscopic examination of the colonies. The colonies were differentiated
based on size, colour, pigmentation, elevation, surface texture, margin, haemolysis on blood and chocolate agar plates,
and lactose fermentation on MacConkey agar. Several biochemical tests were also carried out to further identify the
various bacterial isolates as described by Barrow and Feltham, (1993).
RESULTS
Both toilet and bathroom door handles/knobs of selected public places in Abuja metropolis were sampled for bacterial
contamination. One hundred and eighty (180) swab samples; 70 were from male toilets, 70 from female toilets, 20 from
male bathrooms, and 20 from female bathrooms respectively. Out of the 180 samples, 156 (86.7%) showed positive for
bacterial contamination (table 1). Out of the 140 samples collected from toilet door handles/knobs, 122 (87.1%) showed
bacterial contamination while 34 (85%) of the 40 samples collected from bathroom door handles/knobs showed
bacterial contamination (Table 2). Among the bacteria contaminants isolated, Staphylococcus aureus had the highest
prevalence 30.1%, followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae 25.7%, Escherichia coli 15.6%, Enterobacter species 11.2%,
Citrobacter species 7.1%, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa 5.9% while Proteus species had the least prevalence, 4.5% as
shown in table 4.
Table 1: Distribution and percentages of positive samples of male and female toilets and bathrooms door
handles/knobs.
Door handles/knobs Total samples
Examined Number positive % of positive samples
Male toilets 70 57 36.5
Female toilets 70 65 41.7
Male bathrooms 20 16 10.3
Female bathrooms 20 18 11.5
Total 180 156 86.7
Table 2: Distribution of bacterial contamination on toilets and bathroom door handles/knobs swabbed.
Toilets Bathrooms
Number of samples Culture positive (%) Number of samples Culture positive (%)
140 122 (87.1) 40 34 (85)
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Nworie .A et al.,: Continental J. Medical Research 6 (1): 7 - 11, 2012
Table 3: Distribution and percentage bacterial contamination of toilets and bathroom door handles/knobs in relation to
the establishments sampled.
Banks Markets/parks Churches Restaurants Government
establishments
Number of samples 8 80 4 4 84
Number of positive
samples 5 72 3 4 72
Percentage of positive
samples 62.5 90 75 100 85.7
Table 4: Prevalence and degree of growth of bacteria isolated from contaminated door handles/knobs.
Bacteria Number isolated Degree of growth Prevalence (%)
Staphylococcus aureus 81 ++++ 30.1
Klebsiella pneumoniae 69 +++ 25.7
Escherichia coli 42 ++++ 15.6
Enterobacter spp. 30 +++ 11.2
Citrobacter spp. 19 +++ 7.1
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16 ++ 5.9
Proteus spp. 12 +++ 4.5
Key:
+ One or few colonies
++ Scanty growth
+++ Medium growth
++++ Full and luxuriant growth
DISCUSSION
Bacterial, fungal, and viral contamination of door handles and knobs are well documented and these formites in turn
serve as vehicles for cross-infections and recontamination of washed hands (Monarca et al., 2000; Otter and French,
2009; Bright et al., 2010). Some of the contaminants can be highly pathogenic and can be transferred from one person
to another or may result in auto-inoculation (Kennedy et al., 2005; Li et al., 2009).
In this study, door handles and knobs of toilets and bathrooms in churches, markets/parks, banks, restaurants and
government establishments in Abuja metropolis, Nigeria were evaluated to determine the level of bacteria
contamination and to identify the bacteria contaminants. Out of the 180 samples assessed, 156 (86.7%) showed bacterial
contamination. This is slightly lower than that obtained by Otter and French, (2009) who reported 95% positive cultures
in similar environments. This may be attributed to the use of water system in these conveniences, especially in the
public offices examined. It could also be due to constant cleaning of these toilets by cleaning companies engaged by
these institutions.
This study also shows that the level of contamination of toilet door handles/knobs (87.1%) were slightly higher than on
bathrooms door handles/knobs (85%). This difference in the level of contamination of the two may be attributed to a
larger population usage of toilets than bathrooms. It is a common knowledge that fewer people take their baths in public
bathrooms as compared to those that walk into the toilets to ease themselves. Furthermore, this work shows that female
toilets and bathroom door handles/knobs had higher bacterial contamination (41.7% and 11.5% respectively) compared
to male toilet and bathroom door handles/knobs (36.5% and 10.3% respectively). This is similar to the findings of
Kennedy et al., (2005). This may be due to certain habits of women which tend to enhance contamination. For instance,
women carry a lot of artifact of beauty (hand creams and lotions, eye pencils, papers, mirrors, make-ups, and a lot more)
in their bags which they use each time they enter public conveniences. The consequences of this life style are that
contaminants from those items are left on doors, a situation rarely seen in male lavatories.
In this study, it was also discovered that toilet and bathroom door handles/knobs of markets/parks and restaurants were
highly contaminated (90% and 100% respectively) compared to banks, churches and government establishments
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Nworie .A et al.,: Continental J. Medical Research 6 (1): 7 - 11, 2012
(62.5%, 75% and 85.7% respectively). This is in tandem with findings of Boone and Gerba, (2010) who reported that
the levels of contamination of conveniences vary depending on traffic, exposure and environment. The traffic level in
the use of lavatories in the later group is quite higher than in the former comprising banks, churches and public
establishments. In the former, usage is often restricted to staff and/or is constantly cleaned by contract staff who clean
and wipe the door handles/knobs after few usages thereby reducing bacterial contaminants on the surfaces while in the
later, the traffic to their toilets and bathrooms are always higher, but there are few of these facilities in such places. This
is similar to the report of Kennedy et al., (2005) who reported that there was more contamination in high traffic
restrooms such as airports, bus terminals, educational institutions, and restrooms with one or fewer urinals. Apart from
these, restaurants, motor parks and markets lack cleaners and a few that are available are neither trained nor have the
equipments and disinfectants to do their job resulting to high level of contamination in these places.
Previous works have shown that frequently or heavily used formites are most likely contaminated and therefore carry
higher heterotrophic bacterial loads (Bright et al., 2010). In this study, the most common bacterial contaminants are
Staphylococcus aureus (30.1%), followed by Klebsiella Pneumoniae (25.7%), and Escherichia coli (15.6%).
Pseudomonas aeruginosa was also isolated (5.9%) which portends a great health hazard to the ever growing population
of Abuja metropolis. This report is similar to that of Kennedy et al., (2005) and Rusin et al., (2002). Most of the
positive samples examined had more than one type of bacterial isolate, but majority of the cases are from the samples
collected from parks and markets. The fact that these contaminants were at high level in these environments is of great
concern, especially with the increasing number of immuno-compromised patients and transplantation cases.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, it is important to note that there is high level of bacterial contamination as well as high level of
prevalence of the bacterial contaminants. This may lie as a time bomb because of its potential to cause epidemics.
Forestalling this will require community health superintendents, sanitary officers and Environmental Protection Board
as well as private organizations to educate the populace on personal and environmental hygiene.
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Received for Publication: 24/02/2012
Accepted for Publication: 01/04/2012
Corresponding author
Nworie .A.
Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Ebonyi State University, P.M.B. 053,
Abakaliki, Nigeria.
E-mail: nworieamos@yahoo.com
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Full-text available
  • Dec 2024
High bacterial load and the presence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) on high-touch surfaces in congregate settings like schools is a major public health problem. This study sought to determine the bacterial load, prevalence, and antimicrobial-resistant patterns of MRSA on classroom and toilet door handles at the University of Buea. A total of 306 swabs were collected from surfaces of classroom and toilet door handles in this cross-sectional study. Bacterial count, isolation, identification, and antibiotic susceptibility testing of MRSA were performed following standard microbiological methods. Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA were confirmed by PCR, using the nuc and mecA genes, respectively. Bacterial contamination of sampled surfaces was 100%, with bacterial counts ranging from 4.1 x 104 - 7.2 x 107cfu/swab for classrooms and 1.2 x 104 - 4.82 x 108 cfu/swab for toilets. There was a significant difference (p=0.004) between Staphylococcus aureus contamination of classroom door handles (77.6 %, 152/196) and toilets (90.9 %, 100/110). The difference between MRSA contamination for classroom (7.7%, 15/196) and toilet (21.8%, 24/110) surfaces was also significant (p=0.003). Similarly, MRSA contamination rates for staff toilets (10.4%, 5/48) and student toilets (30.6%, 19/62) showed a significant difference (p=0.003). The MRSA were resistant to penicillin (100%), ceftriaxone (100%), tetracycline (94.9%), clindamycin (87.2%) and gentamycin (76.9%). There was high susceptibility to amikacin (100%), kanamycin (97.4%) and vancomycin (94.9%). All 39 MRSA were multidrug resistant, and a total of 11 antibiotypes were identified. Results of this study expand our knowledge of the environmental reservoirs of MRSA and highlight the need to implement infection control measures in the study site. La charge bactérienne élevée et la présence de Staphylococcus aureus résistant à la méthicilline (SARM) sur les surfaces à fort contact dans les lieux de rassemblement tels que les écoles constituent un problème majeur de santé publique. Cette étude visait à déterminer la charge bactérienne, la prévalence et les profils de résistance aux antimicrobiens du SARM sur les poignées de porte des salles de classe et des toilettes à l’université de Buea. Au total, 306 écouvillons ont été prélevés sur les surfaces des poignées de porte des salles de classe et des toilettes dans le cadre de cette étude transversale. La numération bactérienne, l’isolement, l’identification et l’antibiogramme des SARM ont été réalisés selon des méthodes microbiologiques standard. La presence de S. aureus et de SARM a été confirmée par PCR, en utilisant les gènes nuc et mecA, respectivement. La contamination bactérienne des surfaces échantillonnées était de 100 %, avec des numérations bactériennes allant de 4,1 x 104 - 7,2 x 107cfu/swab pour les salles de classe et de 1,2 x 104 - 4,82 x 108 cfu/swab pour les toilettes. Il existe une différence significative (p=0,004) entre la contamination par Staphylococcus aureus des poignées de porte des salles de classe (77,6 %, 152/ 196) et des toilettes (90,9 %, 100/110). La différence entre la contamination par le SARM des surfaces des salles de classe (7,7 %, 15/196) et des toilettes (21,8 %, 24/110) était également significative (p=0,003). De même, les taux de contamination par les SARM des toilettes du personnel (10,4 %, 5/48) et des toilettes des étudiants (30,6 %, 19/62) ont montré une différence significative (p=0,003). Les SARM étaient résistants à la pénicilline (100 %), à la ceftriaxone (100 %), à la tétracycline (94,9 %), à la clindamycine (87,2 %) et à la gentamycine (76,9 %). La sensibilité à l’amikacine (100 %), à la kanamycine (97,4 %) et à la vancomycine (94,9 %) était élevée. Les 39 SARM étaient multirésistants et 11 antibiotypes au total ont été identifiés. Les résultats de cette étude élargissent nos connaissances sur les réservoirs environnementaux de SARM et soulignent la nécessité de mettre en œuvre des mesures de contrôle des infections sur le site de l’étude.
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... As a result, it promotes the development of numerous infections and vectors, contaminates other municipal waste that isn't poisonous or dangerous, and jeopardizes attempts to manage municipal waste as a whole [1,2] Hospital solid waste (SW) can have extremely high levels of disease-causing pathogenic organisms. (Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board [3,4] When trying to rescue products for sale or reuse, waste pickers and employees are frequently the ones that suffer the most. They sift through a variety of dangerous materials. ...
... It is important for public health that these bacteria isolates were found in the waste samples from the three hospitals that were chosen. Since the majority of these organisms are linked to a number of illness problems, they could seriously endanger both the public and hospital patients' health [3]. ...
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... Apart from people's day-to-day interactions, which is one way disease spreads, the other main cause and spread of population acquired infections is fomites (Li et al., 2009). If fomites come into contact with humans or the natural environment of pathogenic organisms, they become a significant source of infectious disease transmission (Nworie et al., 2012). Fomites, such as convenience door handles, toilets, toilet seats and faucets, sinks, lockers, benches, and tables, are particularly important in public offices, hospitals, hotels, restaurants, and restrooms (Bright et al., 2010). ...
... The bacteria isolated were: Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus sp., Klebsiella sp., Bacillus sp., Proteus vulgaris, Proteus mirabilis, Micrococcus sp., Serratia sp., Salmonella sp., Enterobacter sp., Citrobacter freundii and Streptococcus sp. The significant degree of contamination of the toilet door handles in this investigation agrees withNworie et al. (2012). Furthermore, one of the five most prominent genera represented is Staphylococcus sp, Streptococcus sp, and Bacillus sp(Al-Harmoosh et al., 2018;Alonge et al., 2019). ...
Characterization of Bacteria from Toilet Door Handles in some Selected Buildings at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2024
Fomite is a non-living material capable of transporting infectious organisms, and it is one of the most common ways for bacterial diseases to spread. In this study, characterization of bacteria from door handles of forty public toilets of some selected buildings at Obafemi Awolowo University campus was carried out. The selected toilet door handles were swabbed with sterile, cotton-tipped applicators (swab stick) and moistened with sterile distilled water. Biochemical examination of bacterial isolates and antibiotic sensitivity pattern were evaluated. The result of biochemical examination of bacterial isolates revealed widespread contamination by twelve bacterial species in the following order: Staphylococcus aureus (33. freundii (3.1%) and Streptococcus sp. (0.8%). Results of antibiotic sensitivity pattern showed that 81.25% of the Gram-positive bacteria isolates were susceptible to Cipfloxacin while 87.5% of them were resistant to Chloramphenicol. Gram-negative bacteria isolates were 85.71% susceptible to Ofloxacin and 100% resistant to Augmentin, Ceftriazone and Tetracycline. The bacteria transmitted through toilet door-handles were mostly human pathogens (e.g. Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella species, Proteus species and Salmonella species) and opportunistic pathogen (e.g. Staphylococcus species and Citrobacter species). The findings of this study are important for public health and safety since they demonstrate the presence of bacterial pathogens on toilet door handles, which is important in reducing the transmission of infectious disease.
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... This frequent handling provides ample opportunity for the transfer of bacteria, including pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant strains, between individuals and surfaces. Consequently, door handles in crowded settings such as schools, hospitals, restaurants, transportation hubs, and other commercial establishments serve as potential reservoirs for a diverse array of bacteria, including those harbouring resistance to multiple antibiotics (Odigie et al., 2017) In various studies conducted in Nigeria, door handles are revealed to have a potential association with a broad spectrum of pathogens (Nworie et al., 2012;Onwubiko and Chinyeaka, 2015;Omoruyi and Ekhaise, 2017;Odigie et al., 2017;Akinrotoye et al., 2018;Alonge et al., 2019;Katzenberger and Vonberg, 2022). The link between door handles and bacteria that can tolerate antibiotics has been explored by various studies (Lincy et al., 2016;Omoruyi and Ekhaise, 2017;Abiose 2019). ...
ISOLATION AND CHARACTERISATION OF MULTI-DRUG RESISTANT (Enterobacteriaceae) FROM SELECTED DOOR HANDLES
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2024
Door handles and knobs serve as pathways for the transmission and re-introduction of opportunistic pathogenic bacteria to cleaned hands. These pathogens which can be highly virulent also harbour the ability to resist various antibiotics and can be transferred between individuals or may result in auto-inoculation. The study aimed at isolating and identifying Multi-drug resistant bacteria isolates from selected door handles. Bacterial isolates were obtained using sterile swab sticks from Eighty-nine (89) randomly selected door handles. They were isolated using the spread plate method on Nutrient Agar and repeatedly subcultured to obtain a monoculture and identified. The bacterial isolates obtained were subjected to a panel of sixteen antibiotics and their antibiogram profile was carried out with standard microbiological techniques. The results disclosed that 100% of the door handles sampled were vectors of bacteria isolates belonging to five different Genera: Citrobacter, Pseudomonas, Parabulkholderia, Paenacaligenes and Serratia. Seventy six percent (76%) of the obtained isolates exhibited multiple antibiotic resistance with the predominant being CHL-CTR-CTX-CPZ. This study uncovers a link between multi-drug resistant Enterobacteriaceae and door handles, highlighting a significant public health interest as it shows the potential risk these frequently touched surfaces could play as a depository for the distribution of multi-drug resistance.
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... Ahimed and Sirag [33] discovered that enteric microorganisms were present due to fecal contamination caused by improper hand washing after using the toilet. Nworie et al. [34] also noted that the presence of Gram-negative bacteria, such as coliforms, indicates a likelihood of fecal contamination in public restrooms. ...
The Art, Microbial Quality, Safety, and Physicochemical Characteristics of Jikita: A Traditional Ethiopian Fermented Beverage
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2024
Jikita is a traditional fermented beverage popular among the Oromo ethnic groups in Ethiopia. It is made from cereal and has a high alcohol content and thick texture. Jikita is widely consumed in the Western Oromia region of Ethiopia and holds significant socioeconomic and cultural importance. However, there is limited knowledge regarding the microbial quality and safety of Jikita, as well as its physicochemical and proximate composition. This study is aimed at assessing the current state of Jikita production and consumption. Samples were collected from two districts in the West Shewa Zone, where Jikita is most prevalent. A survey was conducted to gather information on production methods, sanitary conditions, ingredient composition, and the socioeconomic importance of Jikita. The samples were then analyzed for microbial counts, identification, and dynamics, as well as for pH, titratable acidity (TA), moisture, total solid, alcohol, carbohydrate, fat, and protein contents. The results showed that the majority of producers and sellers were middle-aged women who did not use protective clothing. Microbial counts revealed that the levels of aerobic mesophilic bacteria, yeasts, and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were below the WHO/FDA standards, and no Salmonella spp. were detected. The samples exhibited varying pH, TA, moisture, total solid, alcohol, carbohydrate, fat, and protein contents. The microbial dynamics during fermentation showed that different groups of bacteria and yeasts dominated different stages. The overall microbial quality of Jikita was indicative of spoilage microorganisms. However, the duration of fermentation inhibited the growth of pathogenic microorganisms and extended the shelf life of the product to more than 2 months. This study provides valuable insights into traditional fermented beverages and their implications for public health. It also suggests the need for improved hygiene practices and quality control measures in Jikita production and consumption.
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... Using the methodology outlined by Nworie et al. (2012), biochemical characterization tests; Voges-proskauer, coagulase, indole, citrate utilization, methyl red, and catalase tests were conducted to identify the bacterial isolates. ...
Detection of environmental pollutants from cobwebs found in selected lecture rooms at the
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2023
The aim of this study was to assess the environmental pollutants present in the cobwebs found in selected lecture rooms; Mathematics lecture room (MTH), Chemistry lecture room (CHM), Biology lecture room (BIO) and Environmental Science lecture room (EMT) in the Faculty of Science, Federal University Dutse. Bacterial pollutants coupled with Arsenic (As) Lead (Pb) in the sampled cobwebs were isolated and identified using standard procedures. One-way Analysis of variance was used to determine the variation in the concentrations of Pb and As in the sampled cobwebs. Staphylococcus aureus (28.1%), Bacillus sp. (37.5%), Streptococcus sp. (18.8%), and Streptobacillus sp. (15.6%) were detected in all the cobwebs samples. MTH 4 had the highest Pb concentration (1.2800 mg/kg) while CHM 3 had the lowest (0.470 mg/kg) Pb concentration. CHM 3 and BIO 3 had very low concentrations of Pb, which were significantly different from each other (p˂0.05). This study has revealed that spider cobwebs can be an effective bio-indicator in determining indoor air quality.
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Reducing the Spreading of Human Pathogenic Bacteria with a Biomechanical Device
Chapter
  • Feb 2024
The control and prevention of infectious diseases depend on interrupting the transmission of pathogens from their source to new hosts or locations. Pathogens can be transmitted through various routes. Fomite transmission specifically refers to inanimate objects (as door handles) that become contaminated by an infected individual and subsequently come into contact with susceptible individuals. During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, this mode of transmission received particular attention. The most common way to open doors is by using hands. However, arm pulls handles provide an alternative method that allows opening doors without direct skin contact with the surface. This aspect is particularly important in high-traffic buildings such as schools. This study presents the results of an experimental test with a recently developed biomechanical device adaptable to doors, enabling door open without the use of hands. The study was conducted at Coimbra Institute of Engineering. Different potentially pathogenic bacteria capable of causing diseases including pneumonia, endocarditis, and meningitis were isolated from a door handle, both with and without the biomechanical device. The research findings indicated that the use of the device results in a reduction of approximately 50% in the contamination of the door handle surface by Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The greatest reduction (66.7%) was observed in the Enterobacter cloacae. Based on the main results, it can be concluded that the developed biomechanical device help to reduce the spread of human pathogenic bacteria through direct contact with door surfaces and subsequent transmission within the human population.
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Occurrence of Bacteria and Viruses on Elementary Classroom Surfaces and the Potential Role of Classroom Hygiene in the Spread of Infectious Diseases
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2009
  • J Sch Nurs
The presence of microorganisms on common classroom contact surfaces (fomites) was determined to identify the areas most likely to become contaminated. Six elementary classrooms were divided into control and intervention groups (cleaned daily with a quaternary ammonium wipe) and tested for heterotrophic bacteria. Three classrooms were also tested for norovirus and influenza A virus. Frequently used fomites were the most contaminated; water fountain toggles, pencil sharpeners, keyboards, and faucet handles were the most bacterially contaminated; desktops, faucet handles, and paper towel dispensers were the most contaminated with viruses. Influenza A virus was detected on up to 50% and norovirus on up to 22% of surfaces throughout the day. Children in the control classrooms were 2.32 times more likely to report absenteeism due to illness than children in the intervention classrooms and were absent longer (on average). Improved classroom hygiene may reduce the incidence of infection and thus student absenteeism.
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An investigation of microbial contamination in the home
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 1982
  • J Hyg
An investigation of the bacterial flora in over 200 homes is reported. The occurrence of potential pathogens and the levels of contamination at individual sites, particularly in the kitchen, toilet and bathroom is described and the implications for hygiene practices in the home discussed.
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Bacterial Contamination of the Hands of Hospital Staff During Routine Patient Care
Article
Full-text available
  • May 1999
  • ARCH INTERN MED
Cross-transmission of microorganisms by the hands of health care workers is considered the main route of spread of nosocomial infections. To study the process of bacterial contamination of health care workers' hands during routine patient care in a large teaching hospital. Structured observations of 417 episodes of care were conducted by trained external observers (S.T. and V.S.). Each observation period started after a hand-cleansing procedure and ended when the health care worker proceeded to clean his or her hands or at the end of a coherent episode of care. At the end of each period of observation, an imprint of the 5 fingertips of the dominant hand was taken and bacterial colony counts were quantified. Regression methods were used to model the intensity of bacterial contamination as a function of method of hand cleansing, use of gloves during patient care, duration and type of care, and hospital ward. Bacterial contamination increased linearly with time on ungloved hands during patient care (average, 16 colony-forming units [CFUs] per minute; 95% confidence interval, 11-21 CFUs per minute). Patient care activities independently (P<.05 for all) associated with higher contamination levels were direct patient contact, respiratory care, handling of body fluid secretions, and rupture in the sequence of patient care. Contamination levels varied with hospital location; the medical rehabilitation ward had higher levels (49 CFUs; P=.03) than did other wards. Finally, simple hand washing before patient care, without hand antisepsis, was also associated with higher colony counts (52 CFUs; P=.03). The duration and type of patient care affect hand contamination. Furthermore, because hand antisepsis was superior to hand washing, intervention trials should explore the role of systematic hand antisepsis as a cornerstone of infection control to reduce cross-transmission in hospitals.
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Hygiene of environmental surfaces in a cattle barn
Article
  • Jan 2014
Microbiological dipslides are widely used e.g. in food production facilities for HACCP (hazard analysis & critical control points) measurements and hygiene monitoring surveys, as well as for other cleanability studies. In this study the suitability of microbiological dipslide methods to measure the hygiene level of the environmental surfaces in a cattle barn was tested. A total of 1112 measurements were carried out during five measurement days. When evaluating the rooms by combining the results of the individual sampling sites and different dipslide types (total microbes, enterobacteria and β-glucuronidase-positive organisms, yeasts and moulds), the corridor and personnel rooms had the highest hygiene status. The office and personnel kitchen and the milk room were generally the next cleanest, depending on the evaluation criteria. The poorest hygiene level was observed in the barn and the second dirtiest in the washing room. It was demonstrated that the hygiene level of cattle barn surfaces with no excessive amounts of visible soil can be measured using microbiological dipslides. The results provided preliminary reference values for future studies and constitute an information source for training and self-monitoring systems.
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Comparative surface-to-hand and fingertip-to-mouth transfer efficiency of Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, and phage
Article
  • Oct 2002
To determine the transfer efficiency of micro-organisms from fomites to hands and the subsequent transfer from the fingertip to the lip. Volunteers hands were sampled after the normal usage of fomites seeded with a pooled culture of a Gram-positive bacterium (Micrococcus luteus), a Gram-negative bacterium (Serratia rubidea) and phage PRD-1 (Period A). Activities included wringing out a dishcloth/sponge, turning on/off a kitchen faucet, cutting up a carrot, making hamburger patties, holding a phone receiver, and removing laundry from the washing machine. Transfer efficiencies were 38.47% to 65.80% and 27.59% to 40.03% for the phone receiver and faucet, respectively. Transfer efficiencies from porous fomites were <0.01%. In most cases, M.luteus was transferred most efficiently, followed by phage PRD-1 and S. rubidea. When the volunteers' fingertips were inoculated with the pooled organisms and held to the lip area (Period B), transfer rates of 40.99%, 33.97%, and 33.90% occurred with M. luteus, S. rubidea, and PRD-1, respectively. The highest bacteral transfer rates from fomites to the hands were seen with the hard, non-porous surfaces. Even with low transfer rates, the numbers of bacteria transferred to the hands were still high (up to 10(6) cells). Transfer of bacteria from the fingertip to the lip is similar to that observed from hard surfaces to hands. Infectious doses of pathogens may be transferred to the mouth after handling an everyday contaminated household object.
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Notes on Medical Mirobiology, 5 th edition
  • Jan 1998
  • Dj Sleigh
  • Mc Timbury
Sleigh DJ, Timbury MC. (1998): Notes on Medical Mirobiology, 5 th edition. Churchill-Livingstone, New York. P.173.