Article

Education inequality in Ghana: Gender and spatial dimensions

October 2012
Journal of Economic Studies 39(6)

Authors:

University of Ghana

Purpose The purpose of the paper is to examine the nature and extent of gender and spatial inequalities in educational attainment in Ghana. Design/methodology/approach The paper uses the education Gini coefficient, computed on the basis of years of schooling of individuals, to assess education inequality in Ghana. Findings The paper finds evidence of gender and spatial inequality in education in Ghana. In particular, the three northern regions have lower education attainment as well as higher education Gini coefficients compared to the rest of the country. The paper finds evidence of intra‐gender and intra‐spatial inequalities in education attainment in Ghana, with females contributing proportionately more to the within‐inequality component of the education Gini. The paper also finds a positive correlation between poverty incidence and education inequality. Research limitations/implications The research finds a positive correlation between poverty incidence and education inequality but requires an econometric analysis to make inferences regarding causality. Practical implications The findings call for the design and implementation of policies not only to address between‐gender and spatial inequities in education in Ghana, but also to tackle within‐gender and within‐spatial inequalities. The positive correlation between poverty incidence and education inequality implies the need to create greater equity in educational opportunities across the country. Social implications The need for changes in attitudes, values and cultural practices that put girls at a disadvantage when it comes to education. Originality/value One important and new finding of the paper is the existence of intra‐gender and intra‐spatial inequalities in education attainment in Ghana, with females contributing proportionately more to the within‐inequality component of the education Gini.

Gendered geographical inequalities in junior high school enrollment: Do infrastructure, human, and financial resources matter?

Article

Mar 2018
J Econ Stud

Purpose: This paper examines the spatial patterns of gender inequality in junior high school enrollment and the educational resource investments associated with the spatial trends. Design/methodology/approach: The paper uses data on 170 districts in Ghana and hot-spot analysis based on the Getis-Ord Gi statistic, linear regression, and geographically weighted regression to assess spatial variability in gender parity in junior high school enrollment and its association with resource allocation. Findings: The results reveal rural-urban and north-south variability in gender parity. Results show that educational resources contribute to gender parity. At the national level, educational expenditure, and the number of classrooms, teachers, and available writing places have the strongest positive associations with girls’ enrollment. These relationships are spatially moderated, such that predominantly rural and northern districts experience the most substantial benefits of educational investments. Practical implications: The findings show that strategic allocation of infrastructure, financial, and human resources through local governments holds promise for a more impactful and sustainable educational development of all children, regardless of gender. Besides seeking solutions that address the lack of resources at the national level, there is a need for locally-tailored efforts to remove the barriers to equitable distribution of educational resources across gender and socioeconomic groups. Originality/value: This paper’s use of advanced spatial analysis techniques allowed for in-depth examination of gender parity and investments in educational resources, and highlights the spatial nuances in how such investments predict gender disparities in junior high school enrollment. The findings speak to the need for targeted and localized efforts to address gender and geographical disparities in educational opportunities.

ANALYSIS OF INEQUALITY, POLARISATION AND POVERTY AMONG RURAL FARM HOUSEHOLDS IN GHANA

Thesis

Jun 2019

Godwin Seyram Agbemavor Horlu

Issues on economic well-being distribution among households and poverty reduction have been continuous concerns to many economists and policy-makers. However, progress in closing the gaps in the economic well-being of people in a given population has not been impressive, particularly among rural agricultural households in sub-Saharan Africa. As well, the importance of reducing inequality and polarisation in order to convert income growth into poverty reduction has been a challenge and, therefore, limits the more impoverished individuals from climbing up the income ladder and joining the higher income groups. Meanwhile, poverty is endemic in among rural farm households in Africa and it has been difficult lessening it to the minimum, but whether or not, this difficulty is sometimes attributed to a high inequality and polarisation in the distribution economic well-being indicators has not been adequately examined in Africa’s rural sector. This thesis provides an empirical analysis of the distribution of economic well-being indicators among rural farm households by drawing on the concepts of income inequality, polarisation and poverty. It uses the framework of the agrarian system in sub-Saharan Africa, which is characterised by diversity in farm sizes and varied sources of incomes, including nonfarm employment. It has also considered dissimilarities in climatic condition, determined by differences in agro-ecological zones, which in turn, linked with the type crops cultivated. The main question, therefore, answered in this dissertation is how the diverse characteristics of rural farm sector together with other factors influence the distribution of the economic well-being indicators of income inequality, polarisation and poverty among rural farmers in Ghana. These questions have not been adequately answered empirically in the past. Also, the issues examined in this study are essential for providing some insights into identifying coordinated approaches for reducing income inequality, polarisation and poverty simultaneously with the ultimate aim of increasing the standard of living among all categories of rural farmers. The primary objective of this thesis is first, to give an overview of the incidence of income inequality, polarisation and poverty among rural farmers in Ghana. The second is to investigate factors that affect income polarisation and inequality and their implications for poverty. distribution among rural farmers in Ghana. The thesis identifies explicitly factors that do not grant farmers the equal opportunity of attaining similar levels of economic well-being or standards of living and how they influence income polarisation, inequality and poverty. Thus, it has examined income inequality and polarisation as economic outcomes and as well offer some implications for persistent poverty among rural farmers in rural Ghana. Further, it has explored how employment backgrounds of farmers, among other factors, facilitate segregation of farmers into clusters of income groups of alienation and identification, referred to as polarisation, and also sought to provide some understanding for which factors influence farmer mobility across the identified income groups or socio-economic classes among the rural farmers. Before such analyses, the thesis as used the Chi-squared tests (adjusted by the Holm-Bonferroni probability) to show that distribution of the major crops cultivated generally vary across the farmer categories, particularly by the agro-ecological locations and the farm sizes cultivated. The tests of multivariate analyses of variance on the economic well-being indicators of income and consumptions are significantly different across all the categories of farm households. In spite the differences in the income and consumption distributions among the farm households, the density curves have shown that the patterns of the distributions overlap with one another. Thus, it implies that it is not all the farm households in each of the categories whose incomes and consumptions are lower than the other households’ in a different category and the vice versa.

Economic well-being of rural farm households in Ghana: A perspective of inequality and polarisation

Article

Sep 2017
J RURAL STUD

This paper investigates economic well-being of rural farm households in Ghana from the perspective of inequality and polarisation, using data from the Ghana Living Standard Survey rounds 5 and 6, and within the framework of disparities in ecological locations, farm size holdings and the main occupation of household heads. It also examines sources of income polarisation and inequality and their implications for poverty distribution among the rural farmers. The results show that distribution of the major crops cultivated generally vary across the farmer categories. Also, biases exist in income distribution among the farmers. The main source of inequality and polarisation is the differences within the individual categories of farmers, however, with respect to the ecological locations, between-group differences is the main source of polarisation. We find that greater proportion of the poorer farmers are found in the savannah zones, as well as among the smallholders and where household heads are engaged in self-employed agricultural activities. Contrarily, large-scale producers, farmers in forest areas, and where farm household heads are in public and private sector jobs are richer. Generally, poverty is concentrated within the farmer categories that incur higher polarisation and inequality indices and have also contributed the greatest to the total inequality and polarisation, whereas the categories that incur the lowest of the indices and have contributed the least to the total indices are wealthier. These findings suggest inequality and polarisation should be mitigated in tandem, and targeting the categories harbouring larger proportions of poorer farmers can reduce poverty more effectively.

The Impact of Gender Equality on Education Inequality: A Global Analysis Based on GMM Dynamic Panel Estimation

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2017

Gender and education inequalities are a widespread phenomenon. This study investigates the impact of gender equality and its sub-indices on education inequality using panel data of 103 countries, over the period 2006-2014. Results reveal, by employing the System Generalize Method of Moment (Sys-GMM) estimation method, gender equality and its sub-indices of gender equality; health and survival, economic participation and opportunity and political empowerment gender equality exert a significant negative effect on education inequality, indicating that higher gender equality between males and females results in lower education inequality. GDP per capita, schooling and democracy have a negative and significant effect on education inequality. Conversely, unemployment, population density and dependency have a positive and significant impact on education distribution. Finally, the result implies that higher gender equality is the primary pathway to lower education inequality or achieving greater fairness in education access.

Revisiting global development frameworks and research on universal basic education in Ghana and Sub‐Saharan Africa: a review of evidence and gaps for future research

Article

Jun 2020

The emergence of global development frameworks such as Education for All, Millennium Development Goals, and Sustainable Development Goals have expanded opportunities for Universal Basic Education (UBE) in Ghana and Sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA). In the three decades of their implementation, these frameworks have also stimulated a culture of research based on measuring development and educational outcomes through established indicator‐based approaches. Subsequently, research on UBE in Ghana and SSA remains largely dominated by quantitative indicators which concentrate on enrolment and completion numbers in measuring a country’s progress. Yet, emerging literature shows that the expansion in enrolment is accompanied by high rates of drop‐outs, non completion, and low learning outcomes even for those able to complete basic education. Using structured and unstructured procedures to identify both academic and grey literature, this review explores the state of educational expansion and research on UBE in Ghana and SSA. We argue that the current reliance on dominant quantitative, indicator‐based approaches to assessing UBE reveals little about the differential experiences of children, particularly those in rural and marginalised communities, who receive poor quality education. The lack of information about children’s experiences of access reinforces inequalities in education, employment, and upward mobility in later life. Future research should seek to unpack micro‐level experiences which characterise access, as well as the pathways through which factors such as poverty and location create unequal experiences in schooling access, to inform context‐specific policies for UBE.

Determinant Analysis of Education Inequalities in Indonesia

Article

Full-text available

May 2020

Education is the main capital for humans to prosper. The importance of the role of education in improving welfare requires the need for equal distribution of education in each region regardless of socioeconomic, gender and racial backgrounds. In making educational equality, it is important to know the factors that influence educational inequality, namely income inequality, poverty and education gap. Reducing the income inequality, poverty and education gender gap in each province in Indonesia will reduce education inequality which is the responsibility of all parties, both the central and regional governments. The purpose of this study is to analyze the effect of income inequality, poverty and education gender gap on education inequality in Indonesia in 2016-2018. Data analysis was performed using the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method with a panel data regression estimation model using the help of eviews 9.0. Estimation results show that partially income inequality, poverty and gender gap in education have a positive and significant effect on educational inequality in Indonesia, while simultaneously income inequality, poverty and education gender gap negatively affect education inequality in Indonesia.

The Impact of Proposed Higher Education Reforms on Geographic Accessibility to Universities in Ireland

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2017

The pursuit of equity in access to higher education is central to education policy in most developed countries. Although much of the focus has been on narrowing the social class differential in higher education participation, spatial factors have been increasingly acknowledged as a potential barrier to access and subsequent participation. This article explores geographic accessibility to university education in Ireland using a variety of techniques and measures, paying particular attention to analysing the effect of proposed higher education policy reforms. In particular, we utilise GIS-based methodologies to model the impact of the proposed reforms on both the level of, and inequalities in, geographic accessibility to university education in Ireland. This includes mapping and analysing a range of accessibility measures, as well as calculating spatially-based university accessibility Gini indices. We also illustrate how the techniques and analysis can be used to help inform higher education policy.

Infrastructure, innovation and industry as solutions for breaking inequality vicious cycles

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2019

Currently, poverty and inequality are crucial social issues around the world. They demand objective evaluations with the purpose of defining policies and prioritizing actions. Most of the times the most important problem lies on the fact that individuals under poverty circumstances or belonging to vulnerable collectives cannot escape these conditions by themselves and need external assistance or interventions. Another added difficulty is that both poverty and inequality can be studied from different angles and require a multidimensional approach whose definition is not straightforward. There exists a vicious cycle defined by a collection of determinants or events that lead to a phenomenon in which various disadvantages work circularly so that it is impossible for individuals or households to break the cycle. In this context, setting the background in which these vicious cycles arise can be helpful in order to conduct in-depth studies as a first step to establishing possible solutions. Even though many researchers have proposed alternative schemes for the poverty’s vicious circle, none has been introduced for inequality. In this contribution, a meaningful and integrated cycle is defined for inequality at two different levels: first of all, at an individual level; secondly, at a collective level in which a certain group is made vulnerable. This cycle includes similar parameter as those comprised in the poverty cycle such as income, access to education and access to healthcare. However, it additionally places emphasis on other aspects such as participation in politics and access to leadership positions. Besides, a conceptual and analytical framework is built, whose objective is to describe ways in which infrastructure, innovation and industry can help interrupt the continuation of the cycle. This model integrates a collection of different measures that is to be potentially helpful for policy makers. Additionally, the frame accounts for not only the fight of current existing cycles, but also of future generations ones, hence considering sustainability dimensions.

Educational progression in Ghana: Gender and spatial variations in longitudinal trajectories of Junior High School Completion rate.

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2016

Completion of junior high school is a critical milestone in every Ghanaian child’s educational trajectory and a critical step toward the transition to higher education. However, the rate of children completing junior high school still lags behind most educational indicators in Ghana. Far more attention is paid to ensuring that students enroll in school, with very little investment or commitment paid toward ensuring that they graduate or complete junior high school. Part of the problem is that there is little to no research on the challenges that children, especially girls, face in completing school. This study aims to bring school completion trends and related challenges to the forefront of research and policy discourse. Thus, the study uses multilevel growth curve modeling, spatial hot spot analysis, and school completion data (from 2009 through 2013) to offer longitudinal insights into (a) the scale and trajectories of junior high school completion in Ghana, and (b) the gender and spatial nuances in the trends. Findings suggest that the completion rate is steadily improving but still low. Findings also reveal unequivocal gender and spatial disparities in the completion rate and the rate’s trajectories, although the spatial inequalities between northern and southern Ghana are more severe compared to the gender inequalities. Suggestions for how Ghana’s government and its development partners can bridge the gender and spatial gaps are discussed.

The Role of Social Support and Psychological Well-Being in STEM Performance Trends across Gender and Locality: Evidence from Ghana

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2020
CHILD INDIC RES

This study focuses on trends in STEM performance and inclusiveness. We examine performance trajectories in STEM subjects, the predictive role of social support and psychological well-being of students, and variations across student gender and school locality (rural vs urban). We used three waves of data from 135 junior high school students in Ghana. Multilevel growth curve modeling was used to assess the trajectories and the socio-environmental predictors of STEM performance, and posthoc power calculation was used to confirm the adequacy of the sample size. Results show that overall, students’ STEM performance improves over time. Minimal gender differences exist but depend on the subject area and evolve with time. We observed a nuanced “urban advantage,” with rural students starting well but declining over time. Among various indicators of social support and psychological well-being, teacher support was the strongest positive predictor of STEM performance. The study highlights the need to focus on the structural and cultural impediments to STEM education at the lower levels of education in order not to risk excluding marginalized groups early in the education system. Further, STEM interventions may do well to incorporate long-term measures to sustain girls’ interest, motivation, and efforts in STEM.

The inequality of educational resources and its countermeasures for rural revitalization in southwest China

Article

Feb 2020

Equal access to education has long been a global concern and is important for rural revitalization strategy in the new era. However, little is known about the regional differences of educational resources in China, especially southwest China, where the spatial heterogeneity of human and physical geography is extremely significant. Using a dataset of primary and secondary schools of southwest China at county level in 2015, this study builds an index system to comprehensively measure the supply of educational resources, investigates the spatial pattern of educational resources via exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA), and explores its influence factors through spatial econometrics. Results indicated that the supply level of educational resources in southwest China was relatively low; the high-high clusters of the supply of educational resources were mainly located in Sichuan Basin and the east of Western Sichuan Plateau, while the concentrated poverty-stricken areas of Guizhou and the border areas of Yunnan-Sichuan-Guizhou, especially Wumeng mountain area, were characterized by the low-low clusters. Furthermore, this study suggested that altitude, population density, local government revenue and rural residents’ income were positively correlated with the supply of educational resources, while the negative influences were exerted by proportion of ethnic minority population and urbanization rate. And there were differences in the specific objects of actions of each factor. Ultimately, we proposed that village relocation and combination, as well as sustainable urbanization and regional development were practical paths to optimize the supply of educational resources in rural areas, thus promoting the modernization of agriculture and countryside.

Six decades after independence: the enduring influence of missionary activities on regional wealth inequalities in Ghana

Article

Jan 2019
J ECON GEOGR

What forces drive regional economic divergence? This study identifies colonial-era missions as an institutional force in shaping economic relations in Ghana. We conceptualize Christian missions as an institution, in its solid form, as the educational infrastructure and trade networks developed, and in its formal form, as advancing new rules that governed cultural and trade development. We use survey data, a map of mission stations, data on colonial-era urbanization and calculations of geographic endowments in each region of the country to examine the impacts of missionary activities on wealth, schooling and population clustering, and how these are reflected in wealth differences across regions of Ghana today. Results show that regional disparities in household wealth are large and significantly associated with intensity of colonial missionary activities, even after accounting for other important structural factors.

ASSESSING HEALTH INEQUALITY AMONG THE ELDERLY IN GHANA

Experiment Findings

Full-text available

May 2019

Cynthia Lum Fonta

Data for the study were drawn from the World Health Organization (WHO)’s Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health (SAGE Wave 1) and analyzed using STATA and a Distributive Analysis Stata Package (DASP) installed in STATA. Health inequality was measured using concentration curves and concentration index (CI). Furthermore, a regression-based approach was used to determine factors associated with health inequality and their estimated contributions to health inequality.

From Studentship to Academia: The Academic Female STEM Trajectory in Ghana

Article

Full-text available

May 2019

At all levels of education in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplinary fields, there are disparities in participation according to gender. This study explores the educational and professional experiences of female faculty in STEM in universities in Ghana. In-depth semi-structured interviews were undertaken employing 20 participants from universities in Ghana. Findings indicate that despite their success fueled by the support system available to them, gender disparities, fostered by patriarchy, characterized these women’s educational and professional experiences. Their gendered experiences were exacerbated in the higher education workplace as some sources of support turned to be sources of discrimination. This was because the women were perceived as threats to the patriarchal status quo as they surged in the academic STEM trajectory.

Interprovincial differences in labour force distribution and utilisation based on educational attainment in Indonesia, 2002‒2015

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2018

Mitsuhiko Kataoka

en Introducing an employment variable with five levels of educational attainment per capita and employing inequality decomposition, this study addresses three questions. How does labour force vary by education and provinces? How does labour force utilization vary by education and provinces? What are the potential causes of differences? We find that the no‐primary‐education group is more endowed in less‐developed provinces and allocated most unequally among education groups across provinces, despite past universal primary education policies. The senior‐secondary‐education group with the largest labour share is a growing concern due to the lower employment rate and largest interprovincial inequality. Resumen es Este estudio introduce una variable de empleo con cinco niveles de logro educativo per cápita y emplea una descomposición de la desigualdad, con el objeto de abordar tres preguntas. ¿Cómo varía la fuerza laboral según la educación y en diferentes provincias? ¿Cómo varía la utilización de la fuerza laboral según la educación y en diferentes provincias? ¿Cuáles son las causas potenciales de las diferencias? Se encontró que el grupo sin educación primaria es más numeroso en las provincias menos desarrolladas y está asignado de forma más desigual entre los grupos educativos de las provincias, a pesar de las políticas anteriores de educación primaria universal. El grupo de educación secundaria superior con la mayor proporción de mano de obra es una preocupación creciente debido a la menor tasa de empleo y a la mayor desigualdad interprovincial. 抄録 ja 本稿では、1人当たりの学歴に5段階の雇用の変数を導入し、不平等分解分析を用いて、労働力は教育や地域によってどのように異なるか、労働力の活用は教育や地域によってどのように異なるか、その差異の潜在的な原因は何か、以上の3つの問題に取り組む。過去に普通初等教育の政策が実施されたにもかかわらず、開発が進んでいない省では初等教育 (primary‐education)の学歴がない集団はより多くの資金を与えられており、すべての省の学歴集団の中で最も不均等に配分されていることが分かった。労働分配率が最大である高等/中等教育の学歴集団は、低い雇用率と省間の非常に大きい格差のために懸念が増大している。.

Promoting gender equity in school leadership appointments: A comparison of male and female headteachers' instructional leadership practices in Ghana

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2022

L'effet des inégalités d'éducation sur le développement économique : un essai d'évaluation

Thesis

Full-text available

Oct 2017

Benaabdelaali Wail

Cette thèse cherche à approfondir la nature et la forme des relations entre les inégalités éducatives et le développement. Elle s’inscrit dans le prolongement des analyses engagées sur les liens éducation/croissance et inégalités/croissance, en essayant d’apporter un éclairage complémentaire sur ces deux relations. Elle vise à retracer de manière stylisée l’évolution des inégalités éducatives particulièrement dans les pays en développement et à caractériser la non-linéarité de la relation à partir de l’estimation de modèles non-paramétriques et semi-paramétriques. Cette thèse est constituée de trois chapitres auxquels correspondent des objectifs, des bases de données et des méthodologies spécifiques. Dans un premier chapitre, nous proposons une nouvelle base mondiale sur les inégalités d’éducation. La majorité des travaux sur la relation entre capital humain et développement économique ont principalement appréhendé la mesure du capital humain à travers des mesures de l’éducation en utilisant notamment la moyenne d’années de scolarisation (stock du capital humain). Notre base de données, qui présente une mesure alternative du capital humain, tend à améliorer sensiblement le mode de calcul des inégalités de l’éducation. Elle exploite toute la richesse des données désagrégées, corrige les pondérations inappropriées et affine certaines hypothèses réductrices sur les durées des cycles d’enseignement et les niveaux d’éducation retenus. Nous avons aussi généralisé la formule proposée par Berthélemy (2006) sur l’indice de Gini de l’éducation. Le domaine de variation possible de cet indice est identifié graphiquement selon la moyenne d’années de scolarisation et les durées cumulées des cycles d’enseignement. Nous mettons en évidence, dans le cadre du chapitre II, l’existence d’une relation non linéaire entre les inégalités dans l’éducation et le développement économique en utilisant des modèles non-paramétriques et semi-paramétriques qui n’exigent pas de formes fonctionnelles prédéfinies à l’avance. Plusieurs phases sont ainsi mises en évidence : les trois premières sont repérées seulement par rapport aux niveaux de développement ; deux autres sont identifiées à la fois par des seuils de développement et d’inégalité d’éducation ; une sixième et dernière phase est définie par rapport au seul niveau d’inégalité d’éducation. Nous montrons que c’est dans la troisième et cinquième phases que la réduction de l’inégalité d’éducation présente l’impact le plus bénéfique sur le développement économique.Au-delà du schéma général mis en évidence sur le plan transnational dans les chapitres I et II, nous explorons dans le chapitre III la nature de cette relation au plan régional dans le cas du Maroc, pour lequel nous disposons de données aux niveaux communal et provincial. La non-linéarité de la relation est aussi confirmée. La troisième phase repérée au chapitre II est subdivisée, dans le cas des provinces marocaines, en deux sous phases qui présentent un impact différencié selon un seuil de développement et d’inégalité d’éducation.

Inequality, Gender and Human Development in Africa

Chapter

Full-text available

Sep 2017

Angela Lusigi

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has witnessed impressive progress on human development over the past 25 years.At the same time, inequality has become a central challenge for the region as it has for all other regions of the world. Progress has been uneven between countries and various socioeconomic groups and serious human deprivation remains. Income inequality is an important element of inequality, but the trends capture only part of the story. The full realization of human potential for all people also requires attention to inequalities in access to non-income resources, including basic services such as health, education, political participation and access to property and financial resources. In addition, some groups systematically have less access to income and non-income resources than others. Women and girls in particular are, on average, more deprived than men across all countries in the region. Ensuring equal access to opportunities and services for women and girls would have significant positive implications for overall human development progress in SSA. This chapter employs the human development framework to examine the extent and nature of inequality in SSA. It draws attention to the complex and multidimensional nature of inequalities in the region, with a particular focus on gender inequalities, and points to policy interventions that may help to close gaps

Les performances scolaires en Afrique australe et orientale : disparités régionales et facteurs déterminants

Thesis

Full-text available

Jul 2017

Abou Moussa Dieng

L’objectif de ce travail est d’analyser les déterminants des inégalités de performances scolaires de 56 392 élèves en fin de cycle primaire dans 2 603 établissements scolaires situés dans 647 districts des 12 pays d’Afrique australe et orientale (Afrique du Sud, Botswana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibie, Ouganda, Swaziland, Tanzanie, Zambie et Zimbabwe) à partir de la troi-sième enquête de 2007 du Consortium de suivi de la qualité de l’éducation en Afrique orientale et australe (SACMEQ III). Le travail s’articule autour de trois chapitres. Il s’agit d’étudier, dans le premier chapitre, l’influence des caractéristiques individuelles de l’élève et de l’école sur les per-formances scolaires, ainsi que le rôle important des caractéristiques régionales. Dans le deuxième chapitre, nous cherchons à analyser comment l’inspection des établissements scolaires et leur ac-cessibilité par rapport au domicile des élèves agissent sur l’eÿcience scolaire. Le dernier chapitre propose d’étudier les facteurs socio-économiques et les conditions de scolarité déterminant les per-formances et les inégalités scolaires entre les filles et les garçons, compte tenu de leurs origines socio-économiques. Pour ce faire, nous avons utilisé di˙érentes approches économétriques, à savoir une modélisation multiniveau dans le premier chapitre, un modèle de frontière non paramétrique dans le chapitre deux et un modèle d’économétrie spatiale dans le chapitre trois. Les résultats montrent que les acquis des élèves, l’eÿcience des établissements et les inégalités scolaires entre les filles et les garçons sont très hétérogènes en Afrique australe et orientale. Les résultats révèlent que les élèves qui enregistrent des scores relativement élevés sont situés dans les régions urbaines riches et ayant accès aux moyens de transport. De profondes inégalités scolaires existent du fait de la carence de transports, d’infrastructures routières, éducatives et de santé particulièrement pour les districts situés en milieu rural et dans les quartiers pauvres des grandes villes. Il est également montré que les variables touchant les missions d’inspection des écoles, l’utilisation de la langue d’instruction à la maison et la sécurité dans le milieu scolaire jouent un rôle important dans la réussite des élèves. Les résultats obtenus permettent une meilleure compréhension du système sco-laire dans ces pays.

Examining the association between exposure to mass media and health insurance enrolment in Ghana

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2018

Although previous studies have explored the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) in Ghana, very little attention is paid to the influence of mass media exposure on NHIS enrolment. Yet, understanding this linkage is important, particularly due to the critical role of mass media in disseminating health information and shaping people's health perceptions and choices. Using data from the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, we employed logistic regression analysis to understand the relationship between NHIS enrolment and exposure to print media, radio, and television. Our findings indicate that women with more exposure to radio (OR = 1.23, P < 0.01) and television (OR = 1.24, P < 0.01) were more likely to enroll in the NHIS than those with no exposure. For men, more exposure to print media was associated with higher odds of enrolling in the NHIS (OR = 1.41, P < 0.01). In conclusion, all 3 types of media may be helpful in promoting NHIS enrolment in Ghana. However, given that the relationship between media exposure and enrolment in the NHIS was gendered, we recommend that policymakers should pay attention to these dynamics to ensure effective targeting in NHIS media campaigns for increased enrolment into the scheme.

Inequality, Gender and Human Development in Africa

Chapter

Full-text available

Dec 2017

Undp Regional Bureau For Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has witnessed impressive progress on human development over the past 25 years. Indeed, using the Human Development Index (HDI) as a measure of development, since 2000, SSA has experienced more rapid growth than any other region, growing at 1.68 per cent from 2000 to 2010 and 0.94 per cent from 2010 to 2014 (UNDP, 2015a). The rate of progress in some countries – for example, Rwanda, Ethiopia and Mozambique – has been particularly remarkable.

Software Piracy, Inequality and the Poor: Evidence from Africa

Article

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Jan 2012

Simplice Asongu

Purpose – Poverty and inequality undoubtedly remain substantial challenges to economic and human developments amid growing emphasis on IPRs (with recent advances in ICTs) and good governance. In the first empirical study on the incidence of piracy on inequality in Africa, we examine how a plethora of factors (IPRs laws, education & ICTs and government quality) are instrumental in the piracy-inequality nexus. Design/methodology/approach – Two-Stage-Least Squares estimation approaches are applied in which piracy is instrumented with IPRs regimes (treaties), education & ICTs and government quality dynamics. Findings – The main finding suggests that, software piracy is good for the poor as it has a positive income-redistributive effect; consistent with economic and cultural considerations from recent literature. ICTs & education (dissemination of knowledge) are instrumental in this positive redistributive effect, while good governance mitigates inequality beyond the piracy channel. Practical implications – As a policy implication, in the adoption IPRs, sampled countries should take account of the role less stringent IPRs regimes play on income-redistribution through software piracy. Collateral benefits include among others, the cheap dissemination of knowledge through ICTs which African countries badly need in their quest to become ‘knowledge economies’. A caveat however is that, too much piracy may decrease incentives to innovate. Hence, the need to adopt tighter IPRs regimes in tandem with increasing income-equality. Originality/value – It is the first empirical assessment of the incidence of piracy on inequality in Africa: a continent with stubbornly high poverty and inequality rates.

Standardization or Localization: A Study of Online Learning Programmes by Tertiary Institutions in Ghana

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2016

Many universities in Ghana have had a desire to ensure equitable access to formal tertiary education for the growing number of the working public who have sought to improve or better their educational status in tertiary institutions. For many of these working public or individuals, it is almost impossible to stay off work to enrol in these tertiary institutions but rather would most likely prefer to improve their educational and knowledge acquisition status in the comfort of their homes and in a relaxed and calm environment. This study is aimed at distinguishing between whether tertiary institutions should be evenly and commonly regulated and the learning process standardized for all individuals or to be specifically adapted for the individual needs of the target market.

Prevalence and determinants of diabetes among older adults in Ghana

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2016
BMC PUBLIC HEALTH

Background Diabetes is one of the leading non-communicable diseases in Africa, contributing to the increasing disease burden among the old adults. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and determinants of diabetes among adults aged 50 years and above in Ghana. MethodsA cross sectional study based on data collected from Study of Ageing and Adult Health (SAGE) Wave 1 from 2007 to 2008. Data was collected from 5565 respondents of whom 4135 were aged 50+ years identified using a multistage stratified clusters design. Bivariate and hierarchical multivariable logistic regression models were used to examine the association of the determinants and diabetes. ResultsThe weighted prevalence of diabetes among the adults aged 50 years and above in Ghana was 3.95% (95% Confidence Interval: 3.35–4.55) with the prevalence being insignificantly higher in females than males (2.16%, 95% CI: 1.69–2.76 vs. 1.73%, 95% CI: 1.28–2.33). Low level of physical activity (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] 2.11, 95% CI: 1.21–3.69) and obesity (AOR 4.81, 95% CI: 1.92–12.0) were associated with increased odds of diabetes among women while old age (AOR 2.58, 95% CI: 1.29–5.18) and university (AOR 12.8, 95% CI: 4.20–39.1), secondary (AOR 3.61, 95% CI: 1.38–9.47) and primary education (AOR 2.71, 95% CI: 1.02–7.19) were associated with increased the odds of diabetes among men. Conclusion The prevalence of diabetes among old adults shows a similar trend with that of the general population. However, the prevalence may have been underestimated due to self-reporting and a high rate of undiagnosed diabetes. In addition, the determinants of diabetes among older adults are a clear indication of the need for diabetes prevention programme targeting the young people and that are gender specific to reduce the burden of diabetes at old age. Physical activity and nutrition should be emphasised in any prevention strategy.

An overview of Ghana’s educational system and its implication for educational equity

Article

May 2019

The purpose of this study was to assess how Ghana’s educational system is promoting educational equity. In terms of data collection, the study relied on secondary sources whilst Scott’s goals of educational equity served as the theoretical basis for data analysis. The results show marked disparities in Ghana’s educational system that manifest in terms of gender, geographic location, and income levels. In the area of gender, the results show that gender parity worsens as the educational level increases. This fuels the variations in literacy rates between the male and female population in Ghana. In terms of geographic location, a performance gap was observed between urban and rural Ghana, which could be explained by the uneven distribution of educational facilities and resources. It was further observed that the current educational system is skewed more towards formal academic development to the neglect of vocational and technical training, especially in the informal sector. To address this form of educational inequity, policies should be put in place to expand Ghana’s educational system to areas such as sports development, the creative arts, vocational, and technical education.

Human capital inequality and economic growth: evidence with sub-national data from Thailand

Article

Jul 2019
Int J Soc Econ

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to find the effects of human capital inequality on economic growth. Design/methodology/approach Thailand Labor Force Survey has been used to generate provincial average years of schooling and Gini coefficient of years of schooling for the years 1995‒2012. Econometric techniques have been employed to identify the effects of human capital inequality on economic growth. Findings Economic growth is inversely affected by the distribution of human capital in Thailand. The coefficient of human capital inequality suggests that if Gini coefficient increases by 0.01 points, gross provincial product (GPP) decreases by about 2 percentage points in the long run. However, the effect of average years of schooling in GPP is not significant. Research limitations/implications There is a lack of strong theoretical background for the relationship between human capital inequality and economic growth to support the empirical study. Practical implications The findings of the study help to design and evaluate education policies in developing countries like Thailand and other low- and middle-income countries. Originality/value This paper is among the first attempts to analyze the effect of human capital inequality on economic growth with sub-national level annual data. In addition, it considers cross sectional dependence in panel model.

Career aspirations and influencing factors among male and female students studying Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) subjects in Ghana

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Full-text available

Apr 2022

This paper examines the career aspirations of male and female students studying Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) subjects at the tertiary level in Ghana and the motivating factors for these aspirations. The study objectives were addressed using data gathered from a survey, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions. Chi-square test and binary logistic regression were used in analysing the quantitative data, while the qualitative data were analysed using thematic content analysis. The results show that there is no significant difference in the career aspirations of male and female students. However, we established that there are differences in the factors that influence career choices of male and female students. While economic consideration was a significant factor for males’ interest in pursuing a career in STEM, females were influenced by external motivation factors such as encouragement and motivation from role models. The authors recommend both formal and informal science-related mentorship programmes and internships as measures that could encourage females to actualise their career aspirations in STEM since it is an essential way of empowering them and building their capacities for national development.

Gender inequality in key sectors in Ghana: Current trends, causes and interventions

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2020

Gender inequality is one of the problems that has gained much attention in both policy and academia. The increased attention paid to the problem has been as a result of the mass acknowledgment of both its short and long term effects on development. While it has placed females in disadvantaged situations and thereby curtailed their growth and development, it has also compromised the optimal utilization of human capital in various countries. In Ghana, gender inequality in which females have usually been treated as second-class citizens can be traced back to patriarchy. While females in Ghana are underprivileged in various arenas of life, the three main areas are education, economy and political participation. This paper discusses the current trends in gender inequality in the three above-stated areas. It also interrogates the causes of the inequalities. The paper concludes by exploring interventions that have been adopted to resolve gender inequality in Ghana.

Gender Inequality in Key Sectors in Ghana Current Trends, Causes and Interventions

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Z Cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin her iki politika ve Akademi çok önem kazanmış sorunlarından biridir. Soruna verilen dikkatin artması, hem kısa hem de uzun vadeli gelişime etkilerinin kitlesel olarak kabul edilmesinin bir sonucu olmuştur. Kadınları dezavantajlı durumlara yerleştirmiş ve böylece büyümelerini ve gelişimlerini azaltmış olsa da, çeşitli ülkelerde insan sermayesinin optimal kullanımını da tehlikeye atmıştır. Gana'da, kadınların genellikle ikinci sınıf vatandaşlar olarak ele alındığı cinsiyet eşitsizliği ataerkilliğe kadar izlenebilir. Gana'daki kadınlar çeşitli yaşam alanlarında yetersiz kalırken, üç ana alan eğitim, ekonomi ve politik katılımdır. Bu makale, yukarıda belirtilen üç alanda cinsiyet eşitsizliğindeki mevcut eğilimleri tartışmaktadır. Aynı zamanda eşitsizliklerin nedenlerini de sorguluyor. Makale, Gana'daki cinsiyet eşitsizliğini çözmek için kabul edilen müdahaleleri keşfederek sona eriyor. ABSTRACT Gender inequality is one of the problems that has gained much attention in both policy and academia. The increased attention paid to the problem has been as a result of the mass acknowledgment of both its short and long term effects on development. While it has placed females in disadvantaged situations and thereby curtailed their growth and development, it has also compromised the optimal utilization of human capital in various countries. In Ghana, gender inequality in which females have usually been treated as second-class citizens can be traced back to patriarchy. While females in Ghana are underprivileged in various arenas of life, the three main areas are education, economy and political participation. This paper discusses the current trends in gender inequality in the three above-stated areas. It also interrogates the causes of the inequalities. The paper concludes by exploring interventions that have been adopted to resolve gender inequality in Ghana.

Leaving No One Behind in Ghana Through University Education: Interrogating Spatial, Gender and Class Inequalities

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021

The number of higher education institutions in Ghana has soared in the last three decades and university enrolments have shot up in tandem. Yet the number of Ghanaians living in poverty is higher than ever before, and social inequality is on the rise. Against this backdrop, this paper critically examines the role universities play in addressing the problem of social inequality in Ghana. It specifically explores the possibilities and limitations Ghana faces in meeting the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically SDG 4 on education. Based on analysis of secondary data, both qualitative and quantitative, the paper argues that the widening of participation in university education in Ghana is not inclusive in terms of gender, class or geographic location. Far from addressing inequalities in access to university education, the dynamics shaping the provision of university education in Ghana exclude marginalized social groups such as women and the poor, as well as the those living in rural areas and in the northern part of the country. The paper concludes by highlighting critical areas and issues needing further research to inform policy reforms aimed at widening access and promoting equity in higher education in Ghana.

Ten2Twenty-Ghana: Study Design and Methods for an Innovative Randomised Controlled Trial with Multiple-Micronutrient Fortified Biscuits Among Adolescent Girls in North-Eastern Ghana

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021

Investing in adolescent girls’ nutrition is vital for health and breaking intergenerational cycle of malnutrition and deprivation, but limited knowledge on the type, timing and efficacy of interventions delays progress. We describe the design of a 26-weeks randomised placebo-controlled trial with multiple-micronutrient fortified biscuits (MMB) among adolescent girls in north-eastern Ghana. Apparently healthy pre-menarche (n = 312) and post-menarche (n = 309) girls (10–17 yrs.) were randomised into receiving 5-day per week (i) MMB (fortified with 11 vitamins and 7 minerals) or (ii) unfortified biscuits. Data included plasma micronutrient status; anthropometry; body composition; cognitive function; psychosocial health; fertility; dietary intake, and socio-demographic and socio-economic covariates, complemented with in-depth interviews (n = 30) and 4 focus group discussions. We hypothesize that plasma ferritin and retinol-binding protein increase with a resultant increase in haemoglobin, cognition, vertical height and psychosocial health. Our study allows determining the efficacy and optimal timing of a multiple-micronutrient food intervention programme for adolescent girls

Malnutrition, Hypertension Risk, and Correlates: An Analysis of the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey Data for 15-19 Years Adolescent Boys and Girls

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2020

The sex differences in malnutrition and hypertension during adolescence is largely inconclusive. There is also a paucity of data on the sex-specific correlates of malnutrition and hypertension for adolescents. Hence, this study aimed to assess the association between malnutrition, pre-hypertension/hypertension (PHH) and sex among adolescents. The study also aimed to determine and contrast the factors associated with these risks in Ghana. We analysed data of non-pregnant adolescent girls (n = 857) and adolescent boys (n = 870) aged 15–19 years from the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). We modelled the prevalence risk ratio (PRR) of malnutrition and PHH using Cox proportional hazard models. Compared to adolescent girls, boys were more than twice likely to be stunted (PRR = 2.58, 95% C.I (1.77, 3.76)) and underweight (PRR = 2.67, 95% C.I (1.41, 5.09)) but less likely to be overweight/obese (PRR = 0.85, 95% C.I (0.08, 0.29)). Boys were also about twice likely to have PHH (PRR = 1.96, 95% C.I (1.47, 2.59)) compared to their female peers. Girls were more at risk of the detrimental effects of poor education on stunting and PHH. Empowerment index while protective of stunting for girls (PRR = 0.82, 95% C.I (0.67, 0.99)) also increased their risk of overweight/obesity (PRR = 1.31, 95% C.I (1.02, 1.68)). A higher household wealth index (HWI) increased the risk of overweight/obesity for adolescent girls but was protective of stunting and PHH for adolescent boys. Improvement in household water, hygiene, and sanitation (WASH) reduced the risk of stunting by 15% for adolescent boys. Overall, our findings suggest a double-burden of malnutrition with an up-coming non-communicable disease burden for adolescents in Ghana. Our findings may also be highlighting the need to target adolescent boys alongside girls in nutrition and health intervention programmes.

Knowledge and Other Predictors of Child Welfare Clinic Completion among Children Aged 24–59 Months in the Garu-Tempane District of Northern Ghana: A Cross-Sectional Study of Caregivers

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Full-text available

Aug 2020

Background: While completion of the Child Welfare Clinic (CWC) schedule for children remains a crucial factor in the prevention of illness and promotion of better child health, there has been low attendance among caregivers in Ghana. This study examined knowledge of 220 caregivers of children aged 24-59 months on CWC and other factors influencing attendance in the Garu-Tempane District of Northern Ghana. Methods: This health facility-based descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out among caregivers of children using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential statistics comprising frequency, percentage, Fisher's exact test, and logistic regression were adopted in analysing the data. Results: Less than half (46.9%) of the children completed their CWC schedules. Meanwhile, caregivers' knowledge on CWC was 97.7%. Children aged 37-48 months (AOR = 0.42, 95%CI = 0.21-0.86, p=0.017) and 49-59 months (AOR = 0.27, 95%CI = 0.10-0.77, p=0.014), respectively, had lower odds of completing CWC. Children with caregivers not having any formal education also had lower odds of completing CWC (AOR = 0.45, 95%CI = 0.21-0.95, p=0.036). Conclusion: Educational programmes on the importance of CWC completion should focus on caregivers with children aged 37 months and above and those caregivers with low educational level. It is further recommended that studies be conducted to explore the extent of association between caregivers' marital status, occupation, level of knowledge, and child CWC completion in the Garu-Tempane District.

Determinants of Educational Exclusion of Children: A Study of

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2020

The current study was conducted in the 3 Districts of Southern Punjab to analyze the parent's attitude towards children's education and teachers related attributes. A sample of 975 household heads were investigated through the interview schedule. It was found that due to poor socioeconomic status, parents involve their children in livestock activities due to poverty. Parents do not know the importance of education due to their illiteracy. Teachers, related issues were also explored like shortage of teachers, usage of bad language by teachers, exercise of corporal punishment, and late join of school by teachers as well. These above issues negatively affected the educational inclusion of children in southern Punjab, Pakistan. Based on results, the researcher recommended that the government should have arranged professional and focus for the scholarships to the needy children and arrange seminars to motivate the community towards children education.

Cross-Cultural Educational Experiences and Academic Achievement of Ghanaian Immigrant Youth in Urban Public Schools [Education and Urban Society]

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2016
EDUC URBAN SOC

The past two decades have witnessed a rapid increase of immigrant population in U.S. schools. Little is known, however, about factors that promote cross-cultural experiences, academic achievement, and/or challenges of Black African immigrant youth, which is particularly significant today in the midst of the current social and political discourse over the influence of immigration in U.S. schools. Sixty Ghanaian-born immigrant students were recruited and interviewed. Analyses, which draw from in-depth interviews and observations, revealed that resilience to succeed, teacher and parent support, positive school environment, past histories including educational experiences, and challenging factors of racism, classism, xenophobia, acculturative stress, changes in curriculum, language, and cultural discrimination emerged as the major factors that largely influenced academic achievement of these learners. This article discusses the implications of these findings for educators who are tasked to render better educational settings for Black African immigrant students to succeed in U.S. schools.

Iodine Content of Salt in Retail Shops and Retailers’ Knowledge on Iodized Salt in Wa East District, Upper West Region, Ghana

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2020
J FOOD QUALITY

Background. There are laws to enforce the universal iodization of salt to check the consequences of iodine deficiency in Ghana. These laws are to ensure that there are production and sales of iodized salt in the country. Yet, the availability of iodized salt in the county's households is still not encouraging, with data indicating that 93.8% of children have urine iodine <100 μg/dl. Hence, the study investigated the iodine content of salt in retail shops and knowledge of iodized salt among retailers in the Wa East District. The study will help the informed decision on strengthening and enforcing laws to achieve the universal salt iodization and the consumption of adequate iodized salt. Method. The study was a descriptive cross-sectional survey. We used a questionnaire to collect quantitative data from participants and a rapid field test kits to determine the iodine content of salt. STATA version 14.2 was used to analyse data. Chi-squared and logistic regression models were used to examine the association between the dependent and independent variables and considered value <0.05 as statistically significant. Findings. The retailers’ primary source of information about iodized salt was health workers (46.2%), with the majority (52.8%) of them having low knowledge of iodized salt. Notwithstanding the high knowledge of iodized salt, as high as 53.8% of the salts do not have adequate iodine (<15 ppm). Retailer’s sex (), educational level (), primary source of information about iodized salt (), texture of salt being sold (), and mode of displaying salt in the shop () were associated with knowledge of iodised salt. Again, retailer’s educational level (), knowledge of iodized salt (), texture of salt being sold (), and method of displaying the salt being sold () were associated with an iodine content of the salt in the shop. Conclusions. Though policies have been implemented to promote production and consumption of iodized salt, the iodine content of salt in retail shops in the Wa East are not encouraging. We recommend the establishment of checkpoints along the production and distribution chain to ensure salt with adequate iodine reaches the consumer. Again, traders of iodized salt should have regular training on ways to preserve salt to maintain its iodine content. 1. Background Iodized Salt has been credited with preventing about 750 million cases of goitre over the past years, with Iodine Global Network and UNICEF estimating that globally about 6.1 billion people are currently consuming iodised salt representing a significant achievement of large-scale food fortification [1]. However, studies in Tunisia and Tanzania showed that salt in wholesale and retail shops are inadequately iodised [2, 3]. Ghana has, since 1996, passed laws, including the Food and Drugs (Amendment) Act 523, the Provisional National Defence Council Law (PNDCL) 3058, and the Public Health Act 851 aimed at promoting universal salt iodization to check the consequences of iodine deficiency. Despite this, studies in the country indicate that 93.8% of children have low urine iodine (<100 μg/dl) levels [4] and 36.6% of women are living in households with no iodized salt [5]. Again, a study conducted in the Volta Region of Ghana revealed that only 30.9% and 24.5% of salt in the retail shops and households, respectively, have adequate iodine (>15 ppm) [6]. Also, iodine concentration levels in salt in retail shops in Accra do not meet the standards of the Ghana Standard Authority [7]. Though Volta Region and Accra are closer to the iodized salt production sites, transporting iodized salts to these areas might have less effect on iodine content than to the Wa East District. Aware of the consequences of iodine deficiency on the general population, especially women and children including abortion, miscarriage, brain damage, congenital abnormalities, and perinatal deaths [5], we investigated the iodine content of salt in retail shops and knowledge of iodized salt among retailers in the Wa East District to help inform the decision on strengthening and enforcing laws to achieve the universal salt iodization and the consumption of adequate iodized salt. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Site The total land size of Wa East District is about 4,279.1 km², forming approximately 17.3% of the total landmass of the Upper West Region. It is located in the South-Eastern part of the region and has one-hundred and forty-five (145) communities that are completely rural with no urban settlements. The district had an estimated population of eighty-nine thousand one-hundred and eighty-two (89,182) with an annual fertility rate of 3.9 and crude birth rate (CBR) of 25 per 1,000 populations. Males constitute 50.5%, while females represent 49.5%. The distance between the study area and salt production sites on the coast of Ghana is about 713.1.3 km. About 68.6% of the people who are 11 years or older are uneducated, with the proportion of females (53.4%) higher than that of males (46.6%). About 76.0% of the people who are 15 years or older are economically active, while 24.0% are not active. Of the economically active ones, 97.8% of them are employed while 2.2% are unemployed [8]. There are nine health centres, a clinic, and twenty-eight Community-Based Health Planning and Services (CHPS) compounds providing healthcare services to the people in the district. The area also has some secondary and elementary schools providing formal education to people in the area including two senior high secondary schools, fifty-four junior high secondary schools, eighty-one primary schools, and seventy-seven nursery schools [9]. 2.2. Study Population The study involves retailers of salt who had stayed in the district for three or more months. However, only those who signed informed consent forms were allowed to participate in the study. Foreign nationals and severely ill people were excluded from the study. 2.3. Study Design We used a descriptive cross-sectional study and a qualitative and quantitative data collection procedure to collect data on iodine concentration levels in salt in retail shops and knowledge of iodized salt among retailers in the district from October to November 2019. 2.4. Sample Size and Sampling Procedure A total of 197 salt retail shops and retailers were involved in the study. A total population purposive sampling method was used to include all the 197 registered salt retail shops and retailers in the study area. 2.5. Data Collection Tools and Procedure Semistructured questionnaires and the Rapid Field Iodine Test kits manufactured by MBI KITS INTERNATIONAL supplied to Ghana Health Service by UNICEF were the tools used to collect data on iodine concentration levels of salts in retail shops, knowledge on iodized salt, and demographic characteristics of the retailers. Face-to-face interview technique and collection of a sample of salt for the iodine test were the methods used to collect study data. The Rapid Field Iodine Test kits used were part of kits tested and approved for Ghana Health Service to use for routine services by the Ghana Standard Board and Food and Drugs Authority. Iodine concentration levels of salt in each retail shop were tested by adding two drops of the test solution to each sample using the Rapid Field Test kits and the testing procedure was followed as specified by the manufacturer of the kits. After sixty seconds, the colour of the salt was cross-checked with the colour chart of the kits to determine the iodine content. A verification test was performed on salts that did not show colour change after sixty-seconds by adding five drops of the recheck solution and two drops of the test solution to a fresh sample as specified in the user instructions. When no colour change appeared after the retest, it was assumed and concluded that the salt does not contain iodine. Due to differences in an individual’s eyesight and to reduce errors, two individuals were recruited to perform double iodine tests on each sample separately and independently. Ages of the retailers were assessed using their Baptismal Certificates, Birth Certificates, Health Insurance Cards, Marriage Certificates, and events calendars for participants who do not possess any certificate or document. 2.6. Data Analysis The statistical software STATA 14.2 version was used to analyse data and display them in tables and charts as frequencies and proportions to delineate the characteristics of the study population. Chi-squared and logistic regression analytical tests were used to investigate the associations between the predictor and outcome variables, and the value <0.05 was recognized as exhibiting significant association. The retailers’ knowledge on iodized salt was appraised on 11 points, and those who scored 0 to 5 points were described as having low (poor) knowledge, while those who scored 6 to 11 points were described as having high (good) knowledge on iodized salt. 3. Results 3.1. Background Characteristics of Retailers A total of one-hundred and ninety-seven (197) salt retailers in Wa East District were involved in the study. The mean age of the retailers was 39.5 years (±2.6 sd), with a comparative majority (47.2%) of them being 40 years or older. The majority (63.5%) of them was females, and a comparative majority (45.2%) of the salt retailers had no formal education. Again, the majority (73.1%) of them was married, and 78.2% were Moslems. Also, a comparative majority (48.2%) of them were Waalas. About 1% of the retailers’ tested the salt for iodine content before purchasing from the wholesale shops and distributors. Fine-texture salt (38.1%) was the comparative majority found in the shops in the district, while 44.2% of the retailers had placed salt directly under the Sun. About 37.6% of salts were in the original package from the producer (Table 1). Variable Frequency (n = 197) Percentage Sex Male 72 36.5 Female 125 63.5 Age group (years) <20 41 20.8 20–39 63 32.0 ≥40 93 47.2 Educational level None 89 45.2 Basic 47 23.9 Secondary 43 21.8 Tertiary 18 9.1 Marital status Single 53 26.9 Married 144 73.1 Type of marriage (n = 144) Monogamous 81 56.3 Polygamous 63 43.7 Ethnicity Waala 95 48.2 Sissala 57 28.9 Dagaaba 45 22.9 Religion Christianity 43 21.8 Islam 154 78.2 Salt from wholesale shop tested for iodine No 195 99.0 Yes 2 1.0 Texture of salt in shop Fine 75 38.1 Coarse 71 36.0 Granular 51 25.9 How salt was displayed for sale In handy polythene bag 41 20.8 In large polythene bag 49 24.9 In original package 74 37.6 Open/uncovered bowl 33 16.7 Where salt was displayed for sale Placed directly in sun 87 44.2 Placed under shade 110 55.8

Rural–urban divide in human capital in Poland after 1988

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2020

Małgorzata Wosiek

Research background: The subject of the study is the disproportionate development of rural and urban areas in terms of human capital in the context of the convergence process. Purpose of the article: The main goal of the study is to assess the rural–urban disparities on the educational attainment of the population (adopted as a human capital proxy), based on the example of Poland. Methods: The Bray-Curtis measure of structures diversity, the Kruskal-Wallis test and regression analysis were applied to investigate the scale and dynamic of the rural–urban educational divide in Poland in the period 1988–2018. Findings & Value added: The paper emphasizes the aspect of rural–urban differences in the Polish economy and their dynamic nature. Studies have revealed that in 1988–2018, in Poland, the disparity in educational attainment between rural and urban populations was gradually reduced. This process, however, was not accompanied by the reduction of internal educational disparities in the rural space. The study results are helpful in verifying the effectiveness of public funds, allocated in recent years in order to accelerate the multi-functional development of rural areas in Poland and other CEE countries.

Equity dimensions of the decline in under‐ five mortality in Ghana: A joinpoint regression analysis

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2020

Background: There has been a global rise in interest and efforts to improve under-five mortality rates, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Ghana has made some progress in improving this outcome; however, the extent of such progress and its equity implications remains understudied. Methods: This study used a joinpoint regression analysis to assess the significance of changes in trends of under-five mortality rates in Ghana between 1988 and 2017 using data from seven rounds of the Ghana Demographic and Health Survey. Annual percentage change (APC) was estimated. The APCs of different dimensions of equity (residence, administrative region, maternal education and wealth quintile) were compared by coincidence test- to determine similarity in joinpoint regression functions via 10000 Monte Carlo resampling. Results: There has been progress in reduction of under-five mortality in Ghana between 1988 and 2017 with an annual percentage change of -3.49%. Disaggregation of the trends showed that the most rapid improvement in under-five mortality rates occurred in the Upper East Region (APC= -5.0%). The closing of under-five mortality equity gaps in the study period has been uneven in the country. The gap between rural and urban rates has closed the most, followed by regional gaps (between Upper East and Ashanti Region), while the most persistent gaps remain in maternal education and wealth quintile. Conclusion: The findings suggest that programmatic interventions have been more successful in reducing geographic (rural-urban and by administrative region) than non-geographic (maternal education and wealth quintile) inequities in under-five mortality in Ghana. To accelerate reduction and bridge the inequities in under-five mortality, Ghana may need to pursue more social policies aimed at redistribution.

Politics as an Explanation to the Health Divide in Different Settings: A Comparative Study of England and Ghana

Article

Sep 2019

Informed by the theoretical perspective of the political economy of health and in the context of the recommendations of World Health Organization’s Commission on Social Determinants of Health, this article examines the political explanations of geographical health inequities in 2 extremely different settings: Ghana and England. Based on the “north-south health divide” in the 2 countries, the article finds that, while the drivers of health inequities in both countries are policy driven, historically situated contextual factors (colonialism in the case of Ghana and deindustrialization in the case of England) offer explanations for health inequities in both countries. We conclude by discussing the importance of paying attention to structural factors such as colonialism for understanding contemporary health inequities in formerly colonized countries such as Ghana.

Labour Intensive Public Work (LIPW) programme and youth migration in Ghana : a study of Daffiama Bussie Issah district

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2019

Mostly, youth in northern Ghana migrate to the south from November to May, the period of high labour demand shortfall as a result of no rainfall for farming activities in the north. This has resulted in the huge concentration of youth in major slumps in Accra and Kumasi and as a consequence, putting a lot of pressure on the already poor social amenities, thereby, worsening living conditions and perpetuating poverty. As a mitigating measure to address this trend of youth out migrating from the northern part of Ghana, the Government of Ghana instituted a Labor Intensive Public Work (LIPW) programme under the World Bank funded Ghana Social Opportunity Project (GSOP). The project constructed dams/dugouts in some communities to engage the youth in dry season farming. This study investigated the impact of the LIPW built facilities on youth out-migration. With the aid of an ANOVA test, the researchers compared three communities with LIPW facility and three communities without LIPW facility in the Daffiama Bussie Issah District. It was revealed that the project has no significant impact on youth out-migration. Using Participatory Learning for Action (PLA) approach, the youth recommended the formation of a dry season farming committee to oversee dry season farming and the formation of a Village Savings and Loans Associations (VSLA) to assist them, in mobilizing funds for dry season farming.

Can labor transfer reduce poverty? Evidence from a rural area in China

Article

Oct 2020

The aim of this paper is to examine how labor transfer can alleviate poverty caused by regional inequality. Based on a survey dataset of poor farmers in traditionally poverty-stricken areas in the Jiangxi province of China, we concluded that labor transfer and improvement in health can positively affect poverty reduction. Particularly, the labor transfer distance has a significant and positive effect on poor households in the middle- and low-income levels. In contrast, families occupying the middle and upper strata in society are forced to improve their wealth level in response to a potential drop in health levels through accumulating wealth. Additionally, we found that poor households with health obstacles had to traverse a longer distance to improve their income levels.

Assets and Livelihoods of Male- and Female-Headed Households in Ghana

Article

Aug 2019
J FAM ISSUES

Albert Kpoor

The consumption expenditure approach indicates that female-headed households are better-off than male-headed ones in Ghana. This approach has been criticized by scholars for being one-dimensional. Thus, this study adopts the livelihoods approach—a multidimensional perspective—to examine the human, social, financial, and economic assets and livelihoods of male- and female-headed households in Ghana utilizing in-depth interviews and a survey. The findings of the study demonstrate that male-headed households have greater assets endowment and better livelihood outcomes than female-headed ones indicating that they are better-off than their female counterparts. Thus, the consumption expenditure approach masks the deprivations of female-headed households in assets endowment and poor livelihood outcomes. The study recommends the need for national surveys to incorporate a household assets and livelihoods dimensions in order to capture a broad view of the living circumstances in these two types of households.

Asset Ownership and Academic Achievement Among Youth in Ghana: Examining Associations Based on Asset Type and Academic Subject

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2019
Educ Forum

This cross-sectional study examined the relationships between asset type and academic achievement among Ghanaian junior high school students. Results suggest that the positive relationship between asset ownership and academic achievement depends on the type of asset and academic subject. Homeownership was positively and significantly associated with math achievement. Ownership of transport-related assets was positively and significantly associated with English achievement. Findings have implications for asset-building programs to promote academic proficiency and progress for all youth.

Spatial Education in Thailand: Does Spatial Dimension affect Enrollment Rate and Literacy Rate or not?

Research Proposal

Full-text available

Jan 2021

Suphawisit Boonla

The education system plays an important role in producing human capital for the economy. However, in recent years, from 2011 to 2013, American colleges' enrollment of students aged between 18 and 24 plummeted by nearly one million (Tomar, 2015). Furthermore, the knowledge level of students in each province is also different. Despite having the same educational system as mentioned, students in the urban are more successful than rural students because they have enough endowment to study and facilitate them. Therefore, this makes a significant difference in scores between urban and rural areas, including the biasing policy of the state that often subsidizes schools in the urban first. It affects more disparity between studies Therefore, we will foresee such problems. Therefore, is the origin of this study.

Ghanaian school-going adolescents’ self-perceived barriers of access to quality education: A qualitative study

Article

May 2017

Social equality has emerged as one of the important ideals of human society, especially for development. Moreover, education has featured prominently among the many key drivers of equality. However, in developing nations like Ghana, education represents one of the areas in which gross inequality has eroded the country’s potential for attaining equality and development. The aim of the current study was to explore adolescents’ self-perceived barriers regarding access to quality education in the Northern Region of Ghana and provide suggestions on the way forward. A sample of 18 school-going adolescents from six secondary schools within the Northern Region of Ghana was purposively selected to participate in face-to-face interviews. The barriers identified included limited resources, gender disparities and a multi-dimension nature of poverty. Implications for policy and research are discussed.

HUMAN CAPITAL, INEQUALITY AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN THAILAND

Thesis

Full-text available

Oct 2019

Md Nasir Uddin

This dissertation contains three papers concentrating on human capital, inequality and economic growth in Thailand. All three papers use the Labor Force Survey (LFS), conducted by National Statistical Office (NSO) in Thailand. First paper (Chapter two of this dissertation) aims to find intergenerational rate of transmission of human capital. As one of the major limitations of finding intergenerational rate of transmission is endogeneity problem, this paper contributes by proposing an alternative instrument to find rate of transmission of human capital. In addition to methodological contribution, this paper finds new evidence of rate of transmission from Thailand. Moreover, it also finds that the children from lower income families are getting less education than their counterparts. Second paper (Chapter three of this dissertation) analyses on the rural-urban differences and inequality trend of human capital in Thailand. Using the rural-urban dummy, this paper found that on an average, rural children are getting about 0.67 years less schooling than urban children. This paper also concludes that intergenerational transmission is higher in lower educated families than that in higher educated families. One of the major contributions of this paper is to control nature or nurture effects from the parents to find rural-urban gap in education. Third paper (Chapter four of this dissertation) aims to find the long run effects of human capital inequality on economic growth. It generates the provincial panel data of human capital inequality from the year 1995 to 2012. Second generation panel econometric techniques are applied to find the long run effects of human capital inequality on aggregate economy. It concludes that inequality of human capital has significant and negative effect on overall economy. There are several contributions of this paper, among them using the sub-national annual data, controlling cross sectional dependence, and finding long-run effects of human capital on economic growth are important.

Improving women's energy access, rights and equitable sustainable development: a Ghanaian perspective

Article

Sep 2021

Purpose The purpose of the study is to investigate the challenges in improving women's energy access, rights and equitable sustainable development from a Ghanaian perspective. Design/methodology/approach The research utilizes a mixed method. A qualitative in-depth exploratory design was chosen to understand how gender is mainstreamed within Ghana's energy sector. This included semi-structured interviews with key managers, experience policy experts and focus groups. The semi-structured interviews were analyzed using thematic content analysis (TCA). Findings The study reveals that the National Energy Policy of 2010, as the main energy policy regulating the energy sector in Ghana, does make provision for gender equality, safety especially women, in line with Ghana's sustainable development goals. The energy policy aims to empower women and create gender parity in the sector. Nevertheless, the study also found major challenges to gender mainstreaming in the energy sector, including poor analysis in formulating energy policies, inadequate financial resources, and poor monitoring and evaluation. Originality/value The paper exposes gender equity challenges associated with the energy sector in Ghana. It also offers a new policy angle which connects gender mainstreaming to sustainable development. The research describes how women are included in developing energy policies and in addressing gender challenges in the energy sector.

Promoting gender equity in school leadership appointments: A comparison of male and female headteachers’ instructional leadership practices in Ghana

Article

Mar 2022
Educ Manag Admin Leader

Ghana’s efforts to end all forms of discrimination against women and ensure gender equity in school leadership appointments require a change in peoples’ mindsets, habits and cultural beliefs. It is envisaged that evidence on the performance of the few women who have been appointed into leadership positions against their male counterparts would be quite instrumental in the change process. This study, therefore, assessed whether statistically significant differences exist in the extent to which male and female headteachers in two selected educational districts in Ghana enact instructional leadership practices in their schools. Utilizing a descriptive survey design and employing the teacher version of the principal instructional management rating scale, 263 teachers participated in the study. Findings from the study showed that there were no significant differences between male and female headteachers in none of the ten instructional leadership functions explored in the study. This meant that male headteachers in the selected educational districts did not significantly demonstrate any superior instructional leadership practices compared to their female counterparts. The study recommends that educational policymakers in Ghana initiate pragmatic policies to increase women’s representation and participation in school leadership roles.

How does education inequality respond to policy? A method and application to survey data from Albania and Nepal

Article

May 2016
J Econ Stud

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to measure inequality in education and examine how socioeconomic factors affect education inequality in Albania and Nepal. Design/methodology/approach – Using large household survey data sets the authors calculate income-related inequality in education and decompose the inequality into factors that determine educational attainment. The decomposition procedure establishes the role played by two sets of factors: elasticities of education demand with respect to its determinants; and inequalities in those determinants. The paper then proposes a new mechanism to quantify the effects of policy simulations regarding income, urbanization, and distance to school on education inequality. Findings – Both the countries show significant inequality in education. Educational attainment in Albania and Nepal is determined by socioeconomic, demographic and geographic factors of which three are particularly significant in affecting inequality – income, urbanization and distance to school. Research limitations/implications – While schooling for most individuals is largely financed by public subsidy in the countries, attainment is also likely affected by the price of education services and cost of health care. Identification of those factors in the context of more comprehensive data will enable researchers in future to draw firmer conclusions. Practical implications – The proposed method can help to identify cost-effective and sustainable policies to reduce socioeconomic inequality in education in developing countries. Social implications – Reduction in education inequality can lead to higher income and better health which are instrumental in uplifting the poor in developing countries. Originality/value – This is the first paper to measure education inequality using a concentration index and to propose a new mechanism to show the effect of simulated policies on education inequality.

Scaling up Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Transport: Analysis of Policies, Practices, Impacts and Monitoring Processes Case Study Report: Ghana

Technical Report

Full-text available

Sep 2017

Regina Amoako-Sakyi

Wide gender disparities have persisted in various forms within Ghanaian society including the transport sector. Previous gender mainstreaming efforts in this area have not always achieved their purpose, but even when successful, these initiatives are seldom up-scaled. This study explored the scalability potential of gender mainstreaming initiatives in Ghana using the second phase of the Transport Rehabilitation Programme (TRP-2) and the ongoing Cocoa Roads Rehabilitation project as case studies. The research found that Ghana’s gender policy landscape to be adequate but not necessarily optimal in operationalizing gender mainstreaming. This study emphasised the male dominance in the provision of rural transport infrastructure and services. Absence of gender issues in budgeting and a silence on gender issues in legislation and regulation points to weak gender responsiveness in the transport sector. A key observation is that gender mainstreaming components are more visible in donor funded programmes as compared to nationally funded programmes

Horizontal Inequalities in Nigeria, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire: Issues and Policies.

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2007

Identities, Inequalities and Conflicts in Ghana.

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2004

Education Inequality, Human Capital Inequality and the Kuznets Curve

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2006

This paper develops an improved measure of human capital. Using a Mincer specification of human capital, the improved measure takes into consideration rates of returns to schooling, education quality, and school dropouts. The paper applies the improved measure to evaluate national and global human capital inequality and compares them with education inequality. Human capital Kuznets curves are evident when relative inequality measures are used while education Kuznets curves are found when absolute inequality measures are used. It is also found that while global education inequality has been declining over the past four decades, global human capital inequality remains largely steady.

Measuring regional inequality of education in China: Widening coast-inland gap or widening rural-urban gap?

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2008
J Int Dev

This article measures education inequality between the coastal and inland provinces and compares it with rural-urban educational inequality in China, using Gini education coefficients and decomposition analysis. The main finding of the article is that disparities in access to education between rural and urban areas rather than between coastal and inland provinces are the major cause of educational inequality in China. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Public Health and Education Spending in Ghana in 1992-98: Issues of Equity and Efficiency

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2001

Using primary data from the health and education ministries, and household survey data from the Ghana Statistical Service, the authors analyze equity, and efficiency issues in public spending on health, and education in Ghana in the 1990s. Public expenditures in the education sector, declined in the second half of the 1990s. Basic education enrollment has been stagnant, or declining in public schools, but increasing in private schools, resulting in a moderate increase in total enrollment. Regional disparities are significant, with lower public resource allocations, and lower enrollment ratios in the three poorest regions. The quality of basic education in public schools remains poor, while it has steadily improved in privateschools. Enrollments in higher levels are lagging behind those in basic education. Ghana ranks high among West African countries in health indicators, although its health expenditures tend to favor the non-poor. While more of the rural population have gained access to health services in recent years, many still have limited access, or none. Moreover, there is no link between the pattern of public expenditures - especially the pattern of immunization across Ghana - and health outcomes. To ensure that social services are efficiently, and equitably delivered in a fiscally constrained economy, the authors argue, public expenditures need to be linked to outcomes.

Addressing the education puzzle : the distribution of education and economic reform

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1998

This paper examines the recent decentralization of governance in Indonesia and its impact on local infrastructure provision. The decentralization of decisionmaking power to local jurisdictions in Indonesia may have improved the matching of public infrastructures provision with local preferences. However, decentralization has made local public infrastructures depend on local resources. Due to differences in initial endowments, this may result in the divergence of local public infrastructures in rich and poor jurisdictions. Using data from village-level panel surveys conducted in 1996, 2000, and 2006, this paper finds that (1) local public infrastructures depend on local resources, (2) decentralization has improved the availability of local public infrastructures, (3) local jurisdictions are converging to a similar level of local public infrastructure, and (4) to some extent, decentralized public infrastructures' provision reflects local preferences.

Changes in Inequality and Poverty in Latin America: Looking Beyond Income to Health and Education

Article

Nov 2006
J APPL ECON

This paper uses Demographic and Health Survey data from six Latin American countries to analyze levels and trends of inequality for two important non-income measures of well-being, children's stature and adult women's educational attainment. Our purpose is to determine whether the worrying trend of increasing income inequality in Latin America is also found in non-income dimensions of well-being. We find that it is not. Almost across the board, health inequality, measured by children's stature, and education inequality, measured by young women's years of schooling, have fallen in these countries in the late 1980s and 1990s, often dramatically. Further, by decomposing changes in non-income dimensions of poverty into shifts in the mean and changes in the distribution of health and education, we show that reduced inequality has contributed to significant reductions in education poverty, and to a lesser extent, health poverty. This, too, is a very different result from the income inequality literature.

Ethnic Inequalities in Education in Kenya

Article

Jan 2004

This paper uses Kenya's survey data to explore ethnic inequalities in education in Kenya. It focuses on some ethnic groups that may have resources and opportunities as a result of their geographical location and ethnic proximity to the ruling elite. The factors examined to explain potential educational inequalities among ethnic groups include the Gross Enrolment Ratios, the number of schools, and the number of qualified teachers. The results suggest a close correspondence of differentials between inequalities in education and ethnic affiliation to the ruling elite. Relatively small, clearly defined ethnic groups have accumulated an advantage over the majority in the national population, in terms of the education infrastructure and resources. Based on these results, this paper argues that ethnicity should be placed at the forefront of analyses of educational development in Kenya, as well as in policy efforts to reduce inequalities in education.

A New Dataset on Inequality in Education: Gini and Theil Indices of Schooling for 140 Countries 1960-2000

Article

Jan 2002

Abstract As human capital is one of the few assets that the poor may possess, its distribution matters for both welfare and efficiency. This article introduces a new dataset containing several indices measuring inequalities in educational attainment for 140 countries between 1960 and 2000. Using education Gini and Theil indices we are able to compare the distribution of education attainment across countries and over time. We then examine the behavior of these inequality indices especially at the lower bound as schooling approaches zero, and show that education Gini and Theil indices are well behaved. Our limited objective is to make this dataset available to the development community,and facilitate research on inequality in all aspects of welfare. JEL Classification code: D63, I32, O15 Keywords: Distribution of education, Human Capital Accumulation, Poverty Reduction * Respectively, Country Director, senior economist, and consultant, at The World Bank. This paper builds on the initial work in our 1999 paper,“Measuring Educational Inequality: Education Gini Index from 1960 to 1990.” The authors are grateful to Ramón E. López for collaborating on an earlier paper. We thank Nancy Birdsall, Deon Filmer, Emmanuel Jimenz, Peter Moock, and Martin Ravallion for their comments.

Evaluation studies equality trends and comparisons for the education system of Papua New Guinea

Article

Dec 1988
Stud Educ Eval

Michael Sheret

Regional Inequality and Secondary Education in Ghana

Article

Jan 2009

Kate Higgins

This brief explores the education dimensions of spatial inequality in Ghana and examines the model secondary schools policy, which was recently adopted by the Government of Ghana (GoG) in an attempt to address this disparity. This brief explores the education dimensions of spatial inequality in Ghana and examines the model secondary schools policy, which was recently adopted by the Government of Ghana (GoG) in an attempt to address this disparity. The first section of the brief briefly outlines the development, poverty and inequality context in Ghana. The second section examines regional inequality and the education dimension of regional inequality in Ghana. The third section discusses the model secondary schools programme, which has been developed by GoG to specifically address geographic disparities in education and discusses the potential for this policy to reduce regional disparities in education in Ghana.

Human capital inequality and the Kuznets curve

Article

Mar 2008
DEV ECON

This paper develops a Mincerian measure of human capital distribution and applies it to evaluate national and global human capital inequality and compare them with education inequality measures. It is shown that using education inequality as a proxy of human capital inequality is problematic due to the nonmonotonic relationship between them. We find that the inconsistent evidence on education and human capital Kuznets curves in the literature is due to the use of different inequality measures. In particular, human capital Kuznets curves are evident when relative inequality measures are used, whereas education Kuznets curves are found when absolute inequality measures are used. It is also observed that while global education inequality has been declining over the past four decades, global human capital inequality remains largely steady, as the decrease in between-country human capital inequality is largely balanced by the increase in within-country human capital inequality.

Measuring education inequality in the Philippines

Article

Eirene P. Mesa

This paper measures the degree of education inequality in the Philippines. It generates the average years of schooling (AYS) and education Gini coefficients of the Philippines as a whole, and all its regions and provinces to examine the economically active population’s level of educational attainment and the distribution of education. The paper finds that although inequality in educational attainment declined from 1960 to 2000, there are wide discrepancies in the educational performance of regions and provinces. Using decomposition analysis, it finds that poor provinces have greater education inequality than nonpoor provinces. It also finds that at the national level, women are facing a more equitable distribution of education than males. The regional and provincial data show that the education Gini index is negatively associated with the average years of schooling and gross domestic regional product, but positively associated with the income Gini index, poverty incidence, and poverty gap.

Spatial Inequality in Education and Health Care in China

Article

Dec 2003
CHINA ECON REV

While increasing income inequality in China has been commented on and studied extensively, relatively little analysis is available on inequality in other dimensions of human development. Using data from different sources, this paper presents some basic facts on the evolution of spatial inequalities in education and healthcare in China over the long run. In the era of economic reforms, as the foundations of education and healthcare provision have changed, so has the distribution of illiteracy and infant mortality. Across provinces and within provinces, between rural and urban areas and within rural and urban areas, social inequalities have increased substantially since the reforms began.

Inequality of Educational Opportunity in India: Changes Over Time and Across States

Article

Jan 2010
WORLD DEV

This paper documents the extent of inequality of educational opportunity in India spanning the period 1983-2004 using National Sample Survey (NSS) data. We build on recent developments in the literature that has operationalized concepts in the inequality of opportunity theory (including Roemer's) and construct three indices of inequality of educational opportunity using data on an adult sample. Irrespective of the index used, the state of Kerala stands out as the least unequal in terms of educational opportunities. However, even after excluding Kerala, significant inter-state divergence remains amongst the remaining states. Transition matrix analysis confirms substantial inter-temporal mobility in inequality of opportunity across Indian states. Rajasthan and Gujarat in the West and Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the Centre experienced large-scale fall in the ranking of inequality of opportunities. However, despite being poor, Eastern states of West Bengal and Orissa made significant progress in reducing inequality of opportunity. At a region level, Southern, North-eastern and Eastern regions on average experienced upward mobility (i.e. decline in inequality of opportunity) whilst the Central region experienced downward mobility. We conclude by examining the link between progress towards equality of opportunity and poverty reduction, growth and a selection of pro-poor policies.

Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education

Article

Jan 2001

Incl. abstract, bibl., tables.

International Inequality and Convergence in Educational Attainment, 1960-1990

Article

Feb 2002
REV DEV ECON

The paper examines the international inequality and convergence of educational attainment from 1960 to 1990. Despite the increasing trend in educational attainment, the gap in educational attainment between the developing countries and developed countries and that between males and females increased in the period. However, the relative dispersion of educational attainment--as measured by the coefficient of variation, the Gini coefficient, or the standard deviation of log average years of schooling--declined consistently during the period by either development or gender status. Decompositions of the Gini coefficient indicate that the development gap and the gender gap were the main components for world inequality in educational attainment in both 1960 and 1990. Educational attainment exhibited beta- and sigma-convergence over the period. Copyright 2002 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Education inequality in Ghana

K Appiah- Kubi

Appiah-Kubi, K. (2003), "Education inequality in Ghana", MIMAP -Ghana Research Report No. 001, July.

Does investing in education reduce poverty? Evidence from Ghana, Uganda and South Africa”, id 21 Research Highlight

S Appleton
G Kingdon
J Knight
M Soderbom
F Teal

Appleton, S., Kingdon, G., Knight, J., Soderbom, M. and Teal, F. (2003), "Does investing in education reduce poverty? Evidence from Ghana, Uganda and South Africa", id 21 Research Highlight, August 20, available at: www.id21.org/society/s5bft1g1.html (accessed January 12, 2011).

Poverty livelihoods and access to basic services in Ghana

H Coulombe
Q Wodon

Coulombe, H. and Wodon, Q. (2007), "Poverty livelihoods and access to basic services in Ghana", Ghana CEM: Meeting the Challenge of Accelerated and Shared Growth, available at: http:// siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGHANA/Resources/CEM_poverty.pdf (accessed January 12, 2011).

Higher Education in Africa: The International Dimension, Centre for International Higher Education

P Effah
B Senadza
Ghana

Effah, P. and Senadza, B. (2008), "Ghana", in Knight, J. and Teferra, D. (Eds), Higher Education in Africa: The International Dimension, Centre for International Higher Education, Boston College and Association of African Universities, Accra, pp. 208-37.

Distribution of primary school enrollments in Eastern Africa

J V Maas
G Criel

Maas, J.V. and Criel, G. (1982), "Distribution of primary school enrollments in Eastern Africa", World Bank Staff Working Papers No. 511, The World Bank, Washington, DC.

Regional inequality of education in Tunisia: an evaluation by the Gini index”, available at: www.ps2d.net/media/TRABELSI%20Salwa.pdf (accessed

S Trabelsi

Trabelsi, S. (2010), "Regional inequality of education in Tunisia: an evaluation by the Gini index", available at: www.ps2d.net/media/TRABELSI%20Salwa.pdf (accessed January 18, 2011).

World Development Report: Spatial Disparities and Development Policy

Dec 2010

World Bank

World Bank (2009), World Development Report: Spatial Disparities and Development Policy, available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2009/Resources/Outline. pdf (accessed December 27, 2010).

Inequality of educational opportunity in India: changes over time and across states”, IZA Discussion Papers 5146, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), available at: www

Niaz Asadullah
Gaston Yalonetzky

Horizontal inequalities in Nigeria

A Langer
A R Mustapha
F Stewart

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A Araar
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Education inequality in Ghana: Gender and spatial dimensions

Abstract

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