Content uploaded by Sharon Lamb
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Sharon Lamb on Oct 04, 2014
Content may be subject to copyright.
This article was downloaded by: [University of Connecticut]
On: 01 October 2014, At: 06:08
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Sex Education: Sexuality, Society and
Learning
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/csed20
The use and misuse of pleasure in sex
education curricula
Sharon Lamb a , Kara Lustig b & Kelly Graling b
a Department of Counseling and School Psychology , University of
Massachusetts , Boston , MA , USA
b Department of Psychology , University of Massachusetts ,
Boston , MA , USA
Published online: 23 Nov 2012.
To cite this article: Sharon Lamb , Kara Lustig & Kelly Graling (2013) The use and misuse of pleasure
in sex education curricula, Sex Education: Sexuality, Society and Learning, 13:3, 305-318, DOI:
10.1080/14681811.2012.738604
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2012.738604
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
The use and misuse of pleasure in sex education curricula
Sharon Lamb
a
*, Kara Lustig
b
and Kelly Graling
b
a
Department of Counseling and School Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA, USA;
b
Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA, USA
(Received 27 May 2012; final version received 8 October 2012)
Since Michelle Fine’s writing on the missing discourse of desire in sex education, there
has been considerable prompting among sexuality educators and feminist scholars to
incorporate talk of pleasure into sex education curricula. While the calls for inclusion
continue, few have actually examined the curricula for a pleasure discourse or explored
how it is contextualised within sex education curricula. In this paper, we analysed
curricula used in the USA in the past decade. A qualitative thematic analysis revealed
that the discourse around pleasurable sex was often linked to a range of dangerous or
negative outcomes including not using condoms, rushing into sex without thinking,
regretted sex, and pregnancy or STDs. When the discourse around pleasure was included
in sections on ‘knowing one’s body’, this discourse took a medicalised, scientific tone.
Pleasurable sex was also presented in more positive ways, either linked to marriage in
Abstinence Only Until Marriage curricula, or within a more feminist discourse about
female pleasure in comprehensive sex education curricula. Our research indicates that a
discourse of desire is not missing, but that this discourse was often situated as part of a
discourse on safe practice and there, continues to equate pleasure with danger.
Keywords: sexuality education; pleasure; desire; danger; USA
There has been a tremendous response to Fine’s (1988) article pointing to the missing
discourse of desire in sex education. In the article, Fine connected desire to female sexual
subjectivity and argued that sex education’s tendency to emphasise female sexual
victimisation results in the suppression of a discourse about female desire and pleasure.
More recently, researchers note that while pleasure is now a part of the conversation about
female adolescent sexuality and is commodified in popular culture, little change has
occurred within sex education since the article was published (Fine and McClelland 2006),
in part due to the dominant presence of Abstinence Only Until Marriage (AOUM)
curricula in the USA. Although AOUM curricula was the primary type of sex education
funded in the USA over the past two decades, Comprehensive and Evidence-Based
curricula were taught in schools in states that turned down funding and by religious and
community organisations. Unfortunately, little research has examined whether a discourse
of pleasure now exists and if it does, when and where this discourse is contextualised
within sex education curricula. The current study examines a variety of these curricula for
discourses about pleasure and attempts to understand how authors use pleasure to persuade
and educate in these teaching texts.
q2013 Taylor & Francis
*Corresponding author. Email: Sharon.lamb@umb.edu
Sex Education, 2013
Vol. 13, No. 3, 305–318, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2012.738604
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
The call for the inclusion of pleasure into sex education has continued since Fine’s
article (Allen 2004; APA 2007; Bay-Cheng 2003; Fine and McClelland 2006; Lamb
1997; Thompson 1990; Tolman 2002) and has extended to a discussion that includes
both boys and girls. Rasmussen (2004) writes that, ‘Sex and pleasure are fundamental
aspects of students’ lives and school cultures ... integral to students’ sense of well-
being’ (446). Nevertheless, researchers have noted that school-based curricula are
saturated with fear-based, rather than pleasure-based or other sex-positive messages
(Bay-Cheng 2003), and continue to be replete with sexual stereotypes (Lamb, Graling,
and Lustig 2011). Recent critiques of both abstinence and comprehensive sex education
(CSE) demonstrate that these curricula continue to focus on the danger of sex instead of
pleasure for both boys and girls (Fields 2008; Kendall 2008; Lamb, Graling, and Lustig
2011). When sex educators teach to address this danger (e.g. by teaching refusal skills),
sexual desire and entitlement, for girls especially, become associated with being ‘bad’ or
‘slutty’ (Tannenbaum 2000) and negatively affect the development of female sexual
subjectivity. This is particularly problematic for Black, low-income girls, for whom
exploring or expressing desire makes them further vulnerable to the stereotype of being a
‘ho’ (Froyum 2009; Lamb 2010b). In practice, more open discussions may take place
that address such stereotypes, as curricula often provide discussion questions that do (as
Fine 1988 showed), but the focus of lessons limits peer classroom discussion to topics
related to the dangers of sex.
The discourse of pleasure in sex curricula is not always absent. In her research on New
Zealand curricula, Allen (2007a) noted that pleasure is discussed: however, only within a
focus on danger prevention. Kiely (2005) argues that in Irish Sexuality and Relationships
curricula, the narrowing of sex to mean one act, coitus, means that other pleasurable, and
even safer acts are not considered. In these curricula, information about masturbation,
sexual positions, fantasy, non-genital activities, and oral –genital contact are not
mentioned, suggesting that these behaviours are preliminary to the ‘real thing’ (Kiely
2005, 259).
Students and teachers have voiced reactions to the missing discourse of pleasure in sex
education. Although students have been critical when pleasure is missing in the curricula
(Measor, Tiffin, and Miller 2000), they also express worries that sex is something
too personal to teach and should happen naturally (Allen 2007a, 2007b). Teachers also
express worry about how pleasure can be incorporated into sex education and difficulty
talking about pleasure outside of the stereotypes of heterosexual relationships (Harrison,
Hillier, and Walsh 1996). In one study, when pleasure was used in a way to bolster
talk about safety, teachers expressed feeling more comfortable (Harrison, Hillier, and
Walsh 1996).
The inclusion of pleasure in sex education curricula could improve education for both
girls and boys. Teaching an ‘ethics of pleasure’ (Allen 2007a, 2007b; Carmody 2005;
Lamb 2010a; Rasmussen 2004) could open up ‘new possibilities for understanding
sexual subjects’ (Allen 2007a, 583– 4), including non-heterosexual identities.
Consideration of non-heterosexual sexual activity is typically absent from sex education
curricula (Fine and McClelland 2006). Teaching lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender
(LGBT) sexuality from a positive and pleasure-oriented perspective in the classroom has
almost been ‘unthinkable’ (Mayo 2011, 70). Rasmussen (2004) argues that sex education
should include teaching about pleasure for pleasure’s sake and not be used in an attempt
to fight ‘homophobia, misogyny, or patriarchy’ (455). But teaching about pleasure
inclusive of LGBT-identified young people can provide a counter-narrative to the ‘it gets
better’ project (www.itgetsbetter.org) and ‘wounded identity’ discourse (Rasmussen
306 S. Lamb et al.
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
2004), a discourse that positions all LGBT youth as always harmed by homophobia.
Without specific reference to LGBT pleasures, talk about pleasure can re-inscribe
harmful stereotypes.
In this paper, we examine discourses of desire and pleasure with consideration of past
critiques of sex education, including the framing of discussions of sexual desire in lessons
on danger, focus on coitus, and exclusion of LGBT sexuality. We do this in the context of
recent school-based sex education in the USA where the federal government has provided
more than $1 billion for abstinence-only programming since 1996 (Kendall 2008; Santelli
et al. 2006). While President Barack Obama and congressional leaders have called for an
end of funding for programmes that do not have evidence to support their effectiveness
and have recommended increasing funding to states for teenage pregnancy prevention
programmes (Guttmacher Institute 2009), in 2010 the US Congress elected to maintain
$50 million of funding for states that wanted to continue to use AOUM curricula. The new
focus on evidence-based and health-oriented sex education may mean that goals such as
the development of sexual agency and entitlement are again pushed to the side (Lamb
2011, 2012). Although sexual health and sexual pleasure are connected (Tolman 2002), it
is unlikely that, given the current political climate, a fully comprehensive sexuality
curriculum that addresses pleasure will emerge for use in schools.
The current study examined curricula from the last decade to explore how talk of
pleasure was integrated into curricula and in what context it arose. We decided to examine
three types of curricula: AOUM curricula, curricula that were written by those who
advocate comprehensive or evidence-based sex education (including those comprehensive
curricula revised to fit into an abstinence-plus framework – abstinence plus comprehensive
information about birth control), and a comprehensive curriculum that is taught outside of
the schools but that is considered by liberal sex education advocates to be the gold standard
of comprehensive curricula (Estrella 2012). Choosing a range of curricula that represented
various political agendas enabled us to see how discourses around pleasure are put to
different uses.
Discourse always functions to assert some ideologies over others and our title, the use
and misuse of pleasure, is meant to invite reflection over ways in which pleasure might be
included in curricula to support more ethical sexual practices in addition to student health
and well-being. This paper does not lay out a framework by which pleasure can be put to
better use, as previous theoretical writings address this issue (Allen and Carmody 2012;
Carmody 2005; Lamb 1997, 2010a; Lamb and Peterson 2011).
The discourse approach stems from Foucault’s (1979) writings regarding sexuality as a
social construction that is discursively constituted through ‘a plethora of social institutions
whose meanings are historically and culturally located’ (Allen 2007b, 249). If individuals’
sexualities are forged through such discourses, then an examination of the pleasure
discourse within sex education curricula can inform with regard to what kinds of pleasures
are permitted, when, where, and how.
Methods
This research arose as part of a broader study of ethical issues in current sex education
curricula for young people in which an array of curricula were analysed. For the current
paper, we selected primarily school-based curricula from both AOUM and CSE sources.
We reviewed only those curricula that are in wide use today in the USA, were published in
the last decade, and were used to teach sex education to adolescents in middle school and
high school. Despite substantial efforts, we were unable to obtain accurate statistics about
Sex Education 307
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
the frequency with which any curriculum is used. The determination of ‘popular’ curricula
was made by looking at the Abstinence Clearinghouse website, talking to leaders in the
field at two sex education conferences (individuals in leadership positions of two national
organisations), and noting which curricula have been included in previous evaluations of
curricula (Administration for Children and Families and the Department for HHS 2007;
Committee on Government Reform 2004; Kirby 2007; LeCroy and Milligan Associates
2003; Trenholm et al. 2007). Informed by this information, we created a sample of
convenience. This sample included four AOUM curricula, six CSE curricula, and one non-
school-based CSE curriculum (see Table 1). AOUM curricula were self-classified in their
titles and by their primary focus on encouraging abstinence from sexual intercourse versus
how to engage in sexual intercourse safely. Two of these curricula have new versions that
came out recently, but to ensure that we were comparing a similar sample of curricula, we
chose to analyse the older versions of these curricula that were written under the same
administration’s legislation when AOUM curricula were fully supported. We also
analysed six CSE curricula, four of which were included in lists of evidence-based,
effective curricula (Kirby 2007). The fifth, Making Sense of Abstinence, is a group of
lessons written by a CSE advocate to conform to AOUM expectations (Taverner and
Montfort 2005). We included a sixth truly CSE curriculum, Our Whole Lives (OWL 2000),
which was written for delivery in Unitarian churches, because OWL has not been edited to
conform to legislation around sex education as it is not school-based. We included it with
the expectation that it would provide us with examples of what can be said about pleasure
in sexuality when not confined by legislation and school restrictions. CSE curricula were
classified by a central focus on how a student who chooses to engage in sexual intercourse
can do so safely.
To analyse sex education curricula, we used a thematic analysis methodology
described by Braun and Clarke (2006) conducive to the exploration of discourse. Although
we concentrate on themes, our analysis follows discursive psychology’s practice of
examining language with regard to how it works to construct subjects, in this case sexual
subjects, and knowledge, in this case sexual knowledge (Potter and Wetherell 1994; Willig
2008). Following the authors’ general guidelines, two to three members of the research
team independently read through curricula and identified on note cards salient quotations
and comments that were relevant to the theme of pleasure. The team then met and sorted
the cards into categories representing overarching themes. One person sorted the
quotations. Then the second and third members of this research team re-sorted the first
person’s categories until all three coders agreed that a quotation or topic fit under a
particular category. Quotes were permitted to lie under different themes. Initial reliability
statistics were not attempted as the process was collaborative and first codings were not
meant to form lasting categories. Temporary theme titles were assigned to each group.
Members next defined and developed each theme (Braun and Clarke 2006). At the end
of this process, we narrowed the categories down to three broad themes with sub-themes.
After identifying themes, we used quotes to develop a description of themes and then
proceeded to analyse the theme and any problems that might arise in shaping the pleasure
discourse for students. The three authors also worked with other research group members,
who were consulted on quotes that were difficult to place.
Findings
Pleasure discourse fell into three themes with sub-themes: health and knowing your body;
problematic pleasure; and positive pleasure. Themes and sub-themes are identified below.
308 S. Lamb et al.
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
Table 1. Name, abbreviation, and type of curricula utilised.
Curriculum Abbreviation Type Age group Citation
WAIT training (Why am I so tempted) WAIT AOUM Middle and high school Krauth (2003)
Aspire Aspire AOUM High school Phelps (2006)
Choosing the best journey Journey AOUM 9th and 10th Cook (2006)
Game plan GP AOUM 7th grade Green (2007)
Becoming a responsible teen BART CSE High school St. Lawrence (2005)
Be proud! Be responsible! Strategies to
empower youth to reduce their risk for HIV/AIDS
BPBR CSE High school Jemmott, Jemmott, and McCaffree (2004)
Positive images: Teaching about abstinence, contraception,
and sexual health
PI CSE High school Brick and Taverner (2001)
Reducing the risk: Building skills to prevent pregnancy,
STDs and HIV
RR CSE 9th and 10th Barth (2004)
Streetwise to sexwise: Sexuality education for
high-risk youth
SWSW CSE High school Brown and Taverner (2001)
Making sense of abstinence: Lessons for comprehensive
sex education
MSA CSE High school Taverner and Montfort (2005)
Our whole lives OWL CSE 10th – 12th Goldfarb and Casparian (2000)
Sex Education 309
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
Health and knowing your body
There is a long history of US sex education including information about body parts,
reproduction, and the mechanics of sex. In the past, this information has narrowly
represented heterosexual sexual intercourse (Moran 2000). We found that there were still
lessons that presented this information and that some of these lessons referenced pleasure
and arousal (MSA, PI, SWSW, and OWL).
How the body works: knowing oneself versus pleasing another
Pleasure was sometimes included in larger discussions of physical health and knowledge
of the body. In some of these discussions it was presented in a scientific, expert tone
that differed from the tone of many of the other chapters, which took on a more casual
or conversational tone. This discourse described arousal in a way that suggested
that by providing such information, students would better understand how their bodies
work.
For example, in PI’s sections on negotiating sexual relationships, the authors refer to
sexual arousal with slang expressions such as ‘feeling very horny’ or ‘getting very “hot”’
(Brick and Taverner 2001, 19). However, when presenting pleasure information in lessons
on knowing one’s body, the authors use a more neutral, expert, and regulating tone,
common to the discursive shift from a values emphasis to a science emphasis in sex
education (Carlson 2011). For example, PI uses the following language to describe sexual
excitement for girls: ‘hav[ing] wetness in the vaginal area when sexually aroused’ (Brick
and Taverner 2012, 142). By presenting the biological bases of arousal and pleasure
separately from other chapters and using language and tone that is more medical and
expert, the authors take pleasure out of the realm of the emotional and relational
experience of sex. While this may imply that pleasure ought to be domesticated through
integration into discussions of relationship, we merely mean to point out that most pleasure
occurs in relation to another person whether in actuality or in fantasy, and to take it out of a
relational context may support a more self-focused, neoliberal project of self-management
(Rose 1996). This language also suggests to students that pleasure is achieved through
focus on their own sexual responses rather than the sexual responsiveness and arousal of
others, which has been discussed as a problem in sex education (Lamb 2010a, 2011).
While discussion of arousal in medicalised language may have drawbacks, it may also
have benefits. Specifically, normalising discourse about pleasure may undermine feelings
of shame. MSA, SWSW, and PI provide information that normalises arousal. After
including a description of puberty changes (e.g. wet dreams, vaginal lubrication, etc.),
SWSW’s authors add that students may also ‘desire to masturbate more’ (Brown and
Taverner 2001, 197), thus normalising masturbation. In the past, the discourse of science
and medicine has problematically been used to control and discipline those who do not fall
under the narrow version of ‘normal’ and so such a discourse should be critiqued.
However, in these curricula, it may be a strategy for those CSE authors who would like to
more freely teach about pleasure to insert information about pleasure in an acceptable
format. It is also possible, however, that this ‘expert normalisation’ creates more problems
than it solves by creating hegemonic norms that might alienate individuals experiencing
different forms of pleasure and arousal, or who may even be asexual or pre-sexual. Sexual
experiences, such as masturbation or the sexual arousal response, are not universal and
often vary (Tiefer 2004).
Despite past research pointing to heterosexism in the way sexual education presents
sex, this was not apparent in the manner in which CSE curricula presented biological
310 S. Lamb et al.
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
information on desire and arousal. In fact, in almost all cases there was no sexual partner
within these discussions, which made the sexual response or behaviour being described
more applicable to a variety of relationships. The one exception to this is when SWSW
describes the vagina as the ‘place that holds the penis during sexual intercourse’.
Although the presentation of this information in these curricula was largely not
heterosexist in its language, there was one interesting omission that may be related to
homophobia. In the curricula’s discussion of pleasure and desire in the body, none discuss
the anus or perineum as a potential source of pleasure. This omission is particularly
noticeable when these curricula discuss the other points of pleasure in the body (clitoris,
penis, vagina, G-spot, and skin). While several of these curricula include the anus on a
diagram (SWSW), include anal intercourse in their lessons on sexual decision-making
(OWL), or mention anal intercourse in passing (MSA), curricula do not explore these
regions of the body as pleasure areas. This omission could be related to the stigma against
gay men and anal sex among heterosexuals.
Making healthy sexual choices
Talk about pleasure also occurred in the context of making healthy choices and was used
as a way to increase the attractiveness of safe sexual behaviours. For example, in BPBR,
the authors write that, ‘some people focus on how to make sex feel really good and be fun
for both people. They also need to think about being safe. ... Openly communicating
needs and concerns can increase enjoyment of the experience’ (Jemmott, Jemmott, and
McCaffree 2004, 127). Readers should note that pleasure is fully acknowledged and
integrated with a message that also speaks to safety.
Condom use is also an area in which both pleasure and safety are integrated. BART’s
authors attack the idea that condoms decrease pleasure with the response from one student
to another in a vignette, ‘It will feel good to know we’re keeping each other safe’
(St. Lawrence 2005, 174). In this way, the pleasure of sex is matched with the pleasure of
taking care of the other person. PI asks, ‘which part in the process feels the same whether
or not a condom is used?’ (Brick and Taverner 2001, 103), in order, it would seem, to show
that there is still sexual pleasure to be experienced with a condom even if, during
intercourse, it may be lessened. SWSW even makes a suggestion to further increase the
pleasure of safe sex, ‘A bit of lubricant inside the condom gives many guys more feeling
during intercourse’ (Brown and Taverner 2001, 79).
Several curricula also focus on non-coital pleasure as a way to keep sex safe. For
example, SWSW suggests that there are ‘things that two people could do with each other if
they want to be sexual’ but not have intercourse, and asks students if these activities ‘feel
good’ (2001, 219). OWL (Goldfarb and Casparian 2000, 91 – 2) asks students to think up a
safe sex fantasy: ‘sexually exciting and fulfilling behaviors that do not involve
penetration’. These curricula may be countering the common cultural assumption that
intercourse, especially unprotected intercourse, feels the best. This assumption is not
presented directly as a myth or a cultural belief, but is addressed indirectly through the
promotion of other practices, including what some call ‘outercourse’ (MSA; Taverner and
Montfort 2005, 61).
AOUM curricula reviewed in this study did not include pleasure information from
a ‘know your body’ or ‘safe practices’ perspective. The restriction regarding teaching
about contraception derives from the belief that teaching about a subject leads to
experimentation with that subject. When contraception is mentioned in AOUM curricula,
as in the case of Journey, it is with the purpose of reinforcing the message that only
Sex Education 311
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
abstinence is 100% effective against pregnancy and STIs. Discussion of arousal and
pleasure may also be seen by these authors as too evocative.
Problematic pleasure
Talk of pleasure was also included in discussions of risk, self-control, regrettable sex, and
peer pressure. However, in this context, pleasure is not typically discussed in a way that is
meant to enhance self-knowledge, fun, getting to know someone else, or developing
sexual subjectivity. Instead, pleasure is presented as a problem in that it is an obstacle to
restraint, abstinence, and health.
Pleasure makes it hard to control oneself
In our analyses of AOUM curricula, we found that several AOUM curricula present sexual
pleasure as an impediment to self-control. However, when AOUM curricula teach that any
sexual activity is dangerous because, once started, a student might not be able to stop, they
imply that sex feels good. Several of these curricula use metaphors for desire that tie
pleasure to uncontrollability. Journey includes a lesson about ‘chemistry’ and ‘attraction’
and compares them to lighting a match. When one lights a match, the fire is not contained
and it can burn out quickly or burn down the house. But when one lights a log in a fireplace
(meant to symbolise marriage or commitment), the fire burns over time and in a ‘safe space’
(Cook 2006, 37).
This message of desire being uncontrollable was also found in a CSE curriculum. RR
presents students with a list of pleasurable activities and asks them to say whether the
activities, including massages, fantasising, masturbation, mutual masturbation, and oral
sex, are risky or not. In ‘red alert’ situations (Barth 2004, 161), pleasure is identified as a
red alert sign, thus only presented in relation to danger. The uncontrollability of sex is not
questioned or explored as an aspect that might make sex enjoyable. Moreover, in some
sense the argument that sex is overwhelming and uncontrollable implies a biological, even
animal model of sex, which is problematic. Choice is available as an option to students, but
only at a certain point in the progression towards sexual intercourse, after which point
choice is more difficult or even impossible. In this discourse, having a choice and being
able to make a choice is the focus supporting, once again, a discourse of self-management
of the neoliberal subject (Bay-Cheng 2012; Lamb 2012).
Pleasure in relation to STDs and pregnancy
Several of the curricula, both CSE and AOUM, implicitly and explicitly link pleasure and
desire to the negative consequences of STDs and pregnancy. For example, in RR,
instructors are told to ask the students to identify some of the consequences of having sex:
‘Students may include some positive outcomes (e.g. it’s fun or it makes us feel close) and
these should be acknowledged as reasons that millions of teenagers risk getting pregnant,
or infected with HIV and other STD each year’ (Barth 2004, 40). The immediate and
dizzying jump from fun and intimacy to infection is reminiscent of AOUM curricula,
although RR is not identified with that ideology. In MSA, students are given five scenarios
in which someone is aroused but needs to make the decision to remain abstinent from
sexual intercourse. As with the discourse on sexual arousal inevitably leading to
intercourse because it is hard to control, here arousal is presented as leading to disease or
pregnancy. While it is true that these are serious risks that are attached with intercourse,
312 S. Lamb et al.
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
the linking of pleasure to these risks raises questions with regard to authors’ intended
message to students about pleasure.
Pleasure and regret
AOUM curricula also make the case that there are emotional risks linked to pleasure. In
several AOUM curricula, desire or pleasure was linked with regret. For example, one
vignette presents a couple who had decided to wait to have sex, and, in the ‘heat of the
moment, they ended up having sex’ and then regretted it and broke up (Journey; Cook
2006, 54). Other curricula do not explicitly mention the pleasure in the ‘heat of the
moment’, but still introduce the idea of regret. For example, in GP (Green 2007, 45),
students are warned, ‘many are surprised at the shame and guilt they may experience after
engaging in intimate sexual behaviour. They may also feel that they were being used in a
relationship for sexual gratification alone’.
Pleasure and pressure
Another very common use of desire and pleasure appeared when curricula presented
examples or vignettes of one person pressuring another to have sexual intercourse. This
occurred in both CSE and AOUM curricula, although less so in AOUM curricula. In many
of these instances, examples were used to help students prepare to deal with these
situations. For example in one vignette, a male says to a female, ‘we can take things slow I
promise. But I think you might change your mind ... you don’t know how good it could
be’ (Journey; Cook 2006, 62). Another example from BART demonstrates one young
person pressuring another to have sex by saying, ‘come on, baby, I’m going to make your
earth move’ (St. Lawrence 2005, 217). In this manner, pleasure is again presented as
uncontrollable and linked to potentially regrettable or unwanted sex.
Positive pleasure
In addition to discussions about the negative consequences of having sex, we also looked
for discourse that acknowledges pleasure in a positive way. We found many positive
references to the pleasure of sex, surprisingly in both AOUM and CSE curricula, as well as
in OWL. True to their aims, the AOUM curricula emphasised how pleasurable sex can be
in marriage. Other curricula emphasised the pleasure of sex in reference to mutuality or
female sexuality.
Pleasure in marriage
The aim of many AOUM curricula is to encourage students to wait until they are married
to have any form of sex, especially sexual intercourse. One of the promises made to
students is that if they wait, they will less likely encounter the negative consequences from
sexual activity. But these curricula also advertise better (presumably more pleasurable)
sex when a student waits: ‘A study done by the University of Chicago shows that married
people are having the best and the most sex’ (WAIT; Krauth 2003, 58). These curricula
also emphasise the role of fidelity and trust in creating more pleasurable sex. GP relates
that, ‘couples who are faithfully married report better satisfaction with their sex lives than
couples who aren’t married’ because ‘their trust, love, and respect for each other make
their physical relationship more enjoyable’ (Green 2007, 60). Thus, positive pleasure is
mentioned in some AOUM curricula, but only in the context of marriage.
Sex Education 313
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
Pleasure together/mutual pleasure
We found that OWL and one CSE curriculum also talked about pleasure within the context
of relationships, although not specifically marriage. In SWSW the authors write, ‘Sexually
healthy people feel positive about sexuality, like their own bodies, can talk openly about
sexuality, and see sex as mutual, loving, pleasurable, fun and safe for both partners’
(Brown and Taverner 2001, 26). On the very first page of OWL, the authors write that
people, ‘engage in healthy sexual behavior for a variety of reasons, including to express
caring and love, to experience intimacy and connection with another, to share pleasure, to
bring new life into the world, and to experience fun and relaxation’. Contextualising
pleasure within relationships may be a way in which pleasure was ‘tamed’ in an era where
safety is the primary purpose of sex education. Surprisingly, this was not a tack taken by
the majority of CSE curricula which included very few messages about mutual pleasure.
There was also very little discussion in CSE curricula that counteracted the ‘regret’
discourse and pointed out the positive benefits to a relationship once a couple has sex. This
may have been a taboo topic in the era of AOUM sex education.
Female pleasure/female pain
Several curricula made special attempts to discuss both female pleasure and sexual abuse
and victimisation. This may have been an attempt to address some of the concerns
expressed over the past two decades with regard to sex education and the lack of a
discourse around female pleasure and subjectivity (Fine 1988). Many CSE curricula
included information about the female body and female arousal. BPBR gave explicit
information with regard to how many women receive pleasure:
Most women need to have their clitoris (the arousal organ in their vulvas) touched, directly or
indirectly in order to have an orgasm ... sexual intercourse is not the only way for couples to
express feelings, to feel good, or to have fun ... Using a condom can become part of the
touching and stroking that happens prior to intercourse ... The lubrication will make it more
comfortable for her and more slippery and exciting for him .... (Jemmott, Jemmott, and
McCaffree 2004, 128)
Note that the message of condom use and safety (although combining talk of pleasure
with talk of risk) emphasises both male and female pleasure. SWSW authors also discuss
‘false scripts’, which include beliefs that are deterrents to female pleasure. False scripts
include: ‘Orgasm is the primary goal of sexual intercourse’; ‘Intimacy or a feeling of
relationship with a partner is less important’; and ‘A sexual encounter is over once the
male has had his orgasm’ (Brown and Taverner 2001, 12). OWL also explicitly includes
information that tells male students to think of one’s partner after orgasm. Teachers are
told to, ‘tell the group that once the condom is removed, the man may relax with and hold
his partner, or continue to pleasure his partner without further penetration with the penis’
(Goldfarb and Casparian 2000, 87). Although the authors do not specify the gender of the
partner, the mention of the man as the main actor suggests it is an antidote to the stereotype
of men forgetting about their female partners.
Another way that curricula now seem to address female concerns is by including
information about victimisation. Sometimes information about victimisation contains
information about pleasure and sex in that pleasure is introduced as an impetus for date
rape in several vignettes. In SWSW, Larry gets turned on and tries to go further with Diane
and she pushes his hand away and says no. He later insists, ‘I’m so turned on let’s do it’
(Brown and Taverner 2001, 140). These vignettes possibly suggest the problematic idea
that pleasure is no indication that someone is safe and that pleasure is linked to female
314 S. Lamb et al.
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
exploitation. The man is pictured as overwhelmed by his own arousal, whereas a different
presentation of this scene might have presented him as predatory or very much in control
with regard to wanting to have sex independent of the girl’s consent.
The message that sex should be pleasurable may be important to combat victimisation.
Some feminist theorists purport that young women’s experiences of desire increase their
ability to assert themselves against coercive or unwanted sex (Fine 1988; Tolman 2002).
Today pleasure is synonymous with sexual subjectivity and agency (Gill 2008) and
research shows that sexually agentic women are more able to assert their needs and say no
(Impett, Schooler, and Tolman 2006). However, it is unclear how messages about pleasure
convey information to boys about assertiveness and violence. Curricula do not say enough
about how and why pleasurable sexual experiences are sometimes linked with exploitation
and what boys can do about it.
Conclusion
Pleasure is not merely a biological experience; it is defined, controlled, and evoked
through context. In this paper, we were interested in examining desire and pleasure as they
were represented in sex education curricula in the USA during a historical period during
which the mention of pleasure most likely needed to be circumscribed, whereas sex is
over-represented in the media young people use. This perspective led us to ask several
questions: is pleasure included in curricula at all? If it is, in what context and to what use?
Overall, we found that pleasure is no longer ignored and this was true for both AOUM
and CSE sex curricula, and that the discourse around pleasure had various functions.
Pleasure and desire were included in medicalised, expert CSE discussions about the body.
Many curricula were heterosexist and failed to discuss anal or non-heterosexual pleasures.
In many of the curricula, discourses of desire and pleasure are linked with messages about
danger and risk, including desire being uncontrollable, desire carrying emotional and
health risks, desire used in peer pressure, and desire in relation to victimisation. Positive
references to pleasure and desire took place in the context of discussions about the
pleasures of safe sex, marital sex, mutual relationships, and being female.
One might argue that students do not need to know that sex is pleasurable, that they
will find that out soon enough, or that messages of pleasure are infused within popular
media already. However, as noted in the introduction, research suggests that the manner in
which girls are socialised interferes with the development of sexual subjectivity (Tolman
2000, 2002; Tolman et al. 2006), that students themselves want to know what feels good
(Allen 2007b), and that lack of discussion about the pleasure of sex makes curricula seem
to students less relevant (Allen 2007b). Moreover, representations of sexuality in popular
media more often than not tend to be heterosexist, sexist, and derivations from
pornography (Dines 2010).
The discourse of desire is no longer missing, but is often situated as part of a discourse
on safe practice and thus equates pleasure with danger. In a climate where AOUM
curricula were federally funded and the authors of CSE curricula were attempting to show
CSE’s effectiveness in preventing pregnancy and STD reduction, it is no surprise that
pleasure and risk were deeply connected. While the acknowledgement of the ‘fun’, ‘good
feelings’, and pleasure of sex goes far to undermine the link between shame and sex that
has been present in a number of eras of sex education (see Carlson 2011), this emphasis on
prevention practice largely overshadowed any discussion of issues relating to mutuality
and the importance of developing pleasurable sexual practices for both male and female
students, though there were exceptions.
Sex Education 315
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
How was pleasure defined in these curricula? There were no overarching definitions or
detailed descriptions of sexual pleasure per se, none similar to those suggested by
researchers like Fine (1988), Tolman (2002), or Allen and Carmody (2012). Perhaps that
was why we as researchers were limited to teasing out a discourse of pleasure by examining
phrasing regarding ‘getting horny’, getting carried away, and the mechanics of arousal.
There are a variety of pleasures that could have been described. Authors pursue a discourse
of restraint around desire and instructors are told that if students ask for permission to list the
positive consequences of sex (after exercises in which they list negative consequences),
then they are to respond with reminders that sex is dangerous.
Although sexual safety is a laudable goal, the juxtaposition of pleasure with danger
reinforces old messages about sex and shame; that if one gets carried away, enjoys sex with
abandon, or seeks out sexual pleasure, harm will come. Largely missing in discourse on
sexual pleasure is a discourse that connects pleasure to mutuality in non-marital
relationships (Lamb 2010a, 2012). Focusing on prevention and danger, educators miss the
opportunity to talk to adolescents about pleasure in the context of a good relationship, one
in which the adolescent can take care of both her/himself as well as her/his partner. When
the young person is positioned as reckless, easily pressured, unknowledgeable, or unwise to
consequences, rather than as a human being who seeks relationship and pleasure within it,
discussions of sexuality will be as superficial as the kind of sex these curricula are trying to
prevent. As the OWL curriculum reminds us, talk of pleasure ought to be embedded
in discourse about negotiating relationship, communication, and mutuality. In so doing, the
goal of prevention may be reached while higher and more positive goals are also attempted.
References
Administration for Children and Families and the Department for HHS. 2007. http://www.acf.hhs.
gov/
Allen, L. 2004. Beyond the birds and the bees: Constituting a discourse of erotics in sexuality
education. Gender and Education 16, no. 2: 151– 67.
Allen, L. 2007a. Doing ‘it’ differently: Relinquishing the disease and pregnancy prevention focus in
sexuality education. British Journal of Sociology of Education 28, no. 5: 575– 88.
Allen, L. 2007b. ‘Pleasurable pedagogy’: Young people’s ideas about teaching ‘pleasure’ in
sexuality education. Twenty-First Century Society 2, no. 3: 249– 64.
Allen, L., and M. Carmody. 2012. ‘Pleasure has no passport’: Re-visiting the potential of pleasure in
sexuality education. Sex Education 12, no. 4: 455– 68.
APA (American Psychological Association). 2007. Report of the APA task force on the sexualization
of girls. Washington, DC: APA. http://www.apa.org/PI/women/programs/girls/report.aspx
(accessed November 20, 2012).
Barth, R.P. 2004. Reducing the risk: Building skills to prevent pregnancy, STD and HIV. Scotts
Valley, CA: ETR Associates.
Bay-Cheng, L. 2003. The trouble of teen sex: The construction of adolescent sexuality through
school-based sexuality education. Sex Education 3, no. 1: 61– 74.
Bay-Cheng, L. 2012. Recovering empowerment: De-personalizing and re-politicizing adolescent
female sexuality. Sex Roles 66, nos. 11–12: 758 – 63.
Braun, V., and V. Clarke. 2006. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in
Psychology 3, no. 2: 77–101.
Brick, P., and B. Taverner. 2001. Positive images: Teaching abstinence, contraception, and sexual
health. Morristown: Planned Parenthood of Greater Northern New Jersey.
Brown, S., and B. Taverner. 2001. Streetwise to sex-wise: Sexuality education for high-risk youth.
2nd ed. Morristown: Planned Parenthood of Northern New Jersey.
Carlson, D. 2011. Constructing the adolescent body: Cultural studies and sexuality education. In The
sexuality curriculum and youth culture, ed. D. Carlson and D. Roseboro, 3 –28. New York: Peter
Lang.
316 S. Lamb et al.
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
Carmody, M. 2005. Ethical erotics: Reconceptualizing anti-rape education. Sexualities 8, no. 4:
465–80.
Committee on Government Reform, Minority Staff. 2004. The content of federally funded
abstinence-only education programs. Washington, DC: US House of Representatives.
Cook, B. 2006. Choosing the best journey. Atlanta, GA: Choosing the Best Publishing.
Dines, G. 2010. Pornland: How pornography has hijacked our sexuality. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Estrella, S. 2012. Health coalition releases first ever National Sexuality Education Standards. http://
www.examiner.com/article/health-coalition-releases-first-ever-national-sexuality-education-
standards (accessed November 20, 2012).
Fields, J. 2008. Risky lessons: Sex education and social inequality. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers
University Press.
Fine, M. 1988. Sexuality, schooling, and adolescent females: The missing discourse of desire.
Harvard Educational Review 58, no. 1: 29 – 53.
Fine, M., and S. McClelland. 2006. Sexuality education and desire: Still missing after all these years.
Harvard Educational Review 76, no. 3: 297 – 338.
Foucault, M. 1979. The history of sexuality. London: Allen Lane.
Froyum, C.M. 2009. Making ‘good girls’: Sexual agency in the sexuality education of low income
black girls. Culture, Health & Sexuality 12, no. 1: 59– 82.
Gill, R. 2008. Empowerment/sexism: Figuring female sexual agency in contemporary advertising.
Feminism & Psychology 18, no. 1: 35–60.
Goldfarb, E.S., and E.M. Casparian. 2000. Our whole lives: Sexuality education for grades 10 – 12.
Boston, MA: Unitarian Universalist Association.
Green, A.C. 2007. Game plan abstinence program. Golf, IL: Project Reality.
Guttmacher Institute. 2009. The Obama administration’s first budget proposal prioritizes sex
education and family planning but not abortion access. Guttmacher Policy Review 12, no. 2.
http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/12/2/gpr120223.html (accessed November 20, 2012).
Harrison, L., L. Hillier, and J. Walsh. 1996. Teaching for a positive sexuality: Sounds good, but what
about fear, embarrassment, risk and the ‘forbidden’ discourse of desire? In Schooling and
sexualities: Teaching for a positive sexuality, ed. L. Lasky and C. Beavis, 69 – 82. Geelong:
Deakin University Press.
Impett, E.A., D. Schooler, and D.L. Tolman. 2006. To be seen and not heard: Femininity ideology
and adolescent girls’ sexual health. Archives of Sexual Behavior 35, no. 2: 129 – 42.
Jemmott, L.S., J.B. Jemmott, and K.A. McCaffree. 1994. Be proud! Be responsible!: Strategies to
empower youth to reduce their risk for HIV infection. Curriculum manual. New York: Columbia
University School of Nursing, Columbia University, American Foundation of AIDS Research,
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (US), and Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (US).
Kendall, N. 2008. Sexuality education in an abstinence-only era: A comparative case study of two
U.S. states. Sexuality Research & Social Policy 5, no. 2: 23 – 44.
Kiely, E. 2005. Where is the discourse of desire? Deconstructing the Irish relationships and sexuality
education (RSE) resource materials. Irish Educational Studies 24, nos. 2 – 3: 253 – 66.
Kirby, D. 2007. Emerging answers 2007: Research finding on programs to reduce teen pregnancy
and sexually transmitted diseases. Washington, DC: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen
and Unplanned Pregnancy.
Krauth, J. 2003. WAIT training. Greenwood Village, CO: Abstinence and Relationships Training
Center.
Lamb, S. 1997. Sex education as moral education: Teaching for pleasure, about fantasy, and against
abuse. Journal of Moral Education 26, no. 3: 301 – 6.
Lamb, S. 2010a. Towards a sexual ethics curriculum: Bringing philosophy and society to bear on
individual development. Harvard Educational Review 80, no. 1: 81– 105.
Lamb, S. 2010b. Feminist ideals of healthy female adolescent sexuality: A critique. Sex Roles 62,
nos. 5–6: 294 – 306.
Lamb, S. 2011. The place of mutuality and care in democratic sexuality education: Incorporating the
other person. In The sexuality curriculum and youth culture, ed. D. Carlson and D. Roseboro,
29–43. New York: Peter Lang.
Lamb, S. 2012. The future of sex education: Just the facts? Paper presented at the Educational
Theory Summer Institute, August 20– 22, in Urbana-Champaign, IL.
Sex Education 317
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
Lamb, S., K. Graling, and K. Lustig. 2011. Stereotypes in four current AOUM curricula: Good girls,
good boys, and the new gender equality. American Journal of Sexuality Education 6, no. 4:
360–80.
Lamb, S., and Z. Peterson. 2011. Adolescent girls’ sexual empowerment: Two feminists explore the
concept. Sex Roles 66, nos. 11–12: 703 – 12.
LeCroy and Milligan Associates. 2003. Final report: Arizona abstinence-only education program
evaluation, 199822003. Phoenix: Arizona Department of Health Services, Office of Women’s
and Children’s Health.
Mayo, C. 2011. Philosophy of education is bent. Studies in Philosophy and Education 30, no. 5:
471–6.
Measor, L., C. Tiffin, and K. Miller. 2000. Young people’s views on sex education: Education,
attitudes, and behavior. London: Routledge/Falmer.
Moran, J. 2000. Teaching sex: The shaping of adolescence in the 20th century. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Phelps, S. 2006. Aspire: Live your life.Be free. Arlington Heights, IL: A & M Resources.
Potter, J., and M. Wetherell. 1994. Analyzing discourse. In Analyzing qualitative data, ed. A. Bryman
and R.G. Burgess, 47– 68. London: Routledge.
Rasmussen, M.L. 2004. Wounded identities, sex and pleasure: ‘Doing it’ at school. NOT! Discourse:
Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education 25, no. 4: 445– 58.
Rose, N. 1996. Inventing ourselves: Psychology, power, and personhood. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Santelli, J., M. Ott, M. Lyon, J. Rogers, D. Summers, and R. Schleifer. 2006. Abstinence and
abstinence-only education: A review of US policies and programs. Journal of Adolescent Health
38, no. 1: 72–81.
St. Lawrence, J.S. 2005. BART ¼becoming a responsible teen: An HIV risk reduction program for
adolescents. Santa Cruz, CA: ETR Associates.
Tannenbaum, L. 2000. Slut!: Growing up female with a bad reputation. New York: Harper Collins
Books.
Taverner, B., and S. Montfort. 2005. Making sense of abstinence: Lessons for comprehensive sex
education. Morristown: Planned Parenthood of Greater Northern New Jersey.
Thompson, S. 1990. Putting a big thing into a little hole: Teenage girls’ accounts of sexual initiation.
Journal of Sex Research 27, no. 3: 341–61.
Tiefer, L. 2004. Sex is not a natural act and other essays. 2nd ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Tolman, D.L. 2000. Object lessons: Romance, violence and female adolescent sexual desire. Journal
of Sex Education and Therapy 25, no. 1: 70– 9.
Tolman, D.L. 2002. Dilemmas of desire: Teenage girls talk about sexuality. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Tolman, D.L., E.A. Impett, A.J. Tracy, and A. Michael. 2006. Looking good, sounding good:
Feminist ideology and adolescent girls’ mental health. Psychology of Women Quarterly 30, no.
1: 85–95.
Trenholm, C., B. Devaney, K. Fortson, L. Quay, J. Wheeler, and M. Clark. 2007. Impacts of four
Title V, Section 510 abstinence education programs: Final report. Washington, DC:
Mathematica.
Willig, C. 2008. Introducing qualitative research in psychology. 2nd ed. Maidenhead/New York:
Open University Press.
318 S. Lamb et al.
Downloaded by [University of Connecticut] at 06:08 01 October 2014
