Article

Maternal Responsiveness, Intrusiveness, and Negativity During Play with Infants: Contextual Associations and Infant Cognitive Status in A Low‐Income Sample

January 2013
Infant Mental Health Journal 34(1)

Authors:

City University of New York - Brooklyn College

Maternal parenting behaviors during a mother–infant play interaction were examined in a sample of 160 low-income mothers and their 15-month-old infants. Maternal responsive/didactic, intrusive, and negative behaviors were coded from videotapes and examined in relation to mothers’ age, marital status, stressful life events, and depressive symptoms, and infants’ cognitive scores at 15 and 25 months. Younger maternal age and increases in stressful life events were associated with increases in mothers’ negative behaviors whereas being married was positively associated with mothers’ responsive/didactic behaviors and inversely associated with their negative and intrusive behaviors. Mothers’ depressive symptoms were inversely associated with both responsive/didactic and intrusive behaviors and predicted lower cognitive scores in infants at 15 months, but not 25 months. Maternal responsive/didactic behaviors predicted infant cognitive scores at both ages after controlling for maternal characteristics and other parenting behaviors. Intrusiveness moderated associations between both responsive/didactic and negative parenting behaviors and infant 25-month cognition. Maternal age, marital status, psychological resources, and contextual sources of stress play a central role in the quality of parenting among low-income mothers, and positive mother–infant interactions are strong predictors of infants’ early cognitive status.

What to Look for in Relationships: Development, inter-rater reliability, and initial validity estimates for a young child-caregiver relationship assessment

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

Introduction Observational assessments are important for understanding a range of behaviors and emotions in the young child-caregiver relationship. This paper provides initial data on a multidimensional assessment for professionals who work with young children and their caregivers, the What to Look for in Relationships (WLR). The WLR was designed to assist providers in evaluating strengths and areas for improvement in five areas of young child-caregiver relationship dimensions. This paper reports on the development, interrater reliability, initial convergent and discriminant validity, and incremental utility of the scales. Methods Data were collected from caregiver-child dyads, who participated in a semi-structured observational caregiver-child interaction session as part of a clinic evaluation for relationship-based therapeutic services for young children in child protection. Recorded interactions were coded using the WLR scales with 146 interactions coded by at least two independent observers for interrater reliability analyses. Results The scales showed adequate internal consistency, good inter-rater reliability, strong convergent associations with a single dimension measure (i.e., the Parent-Infant Relationship Global Assessment Scale; PIR-GAS) and discriminated those in the clinical range from those with adaptive functioning on the PIR-GAS. Discussion This study provides initial support for the usefulness of the WLR scales for assessing dimensions of caregiver-child relationships during early childhood that may be useful targets of intervention.

Parenting and Temperament in the Context of Risk: An Investigation of Determinants of Inter- and Intraindividual Differences in Parenting Behavior and Temperament Development under Risk Exposure

Thesis

Jan 2019

Judith Fößel

Daily interactions with their caregivers build an important proximal environment for children. These early experiences shape children’s internal working model, comprising mental representations that guide future expectations and behavior. Moreover, early positive relationships are considered as a source of resilience for the child and his/her future life. It is very relevant to identify risk and protective factors for sensitive caregiving, especially for families who are highly burdened and at risk to show insensitive caregiving. Importantly, as parent-child interactions have a dyadic nature, also factors of the child should be taken into account when determinants of parenting behavior are examined. The present study analyzed psychosocial family risk, parenting stress, and children’s temperamental disposition as determinants of three dimensions of parenting behavior in the infant-toddler period in a sample including a substantial proportion of high-risk families. Furthermore, the effect of situational demand on parenting behavior was explored. Additionally, the development of three dimensions of children’s temperament in the context of family risk and parents’ parenting stress was investigated, and the effect of parents’ behavior on their children’s temperament development was analyzed. The German Development Study, a cooperative project of four research groups, has a sequential cohort design with children from two age cohorts and data assessed at two measurement points, which were about seven months apart. Taking data from a pre-assessment in which 21 distal and proximal risk factors were assessed into account, low-, medium-, and high-risk families were selected for the study. At wave 1, the sample of the German Development Study consisted of 197 children at the ages of 12 and 19 months in the younger and the older cohort, respectively, and their primary caregivers. At both waves, data assessment was conducted during home visits which followed an equivalent semi-structured procedure. Parenting behavior was assessed by two videotaped parent-child interactions, a free play situation and a structured situation, which put higher demands on the parent-child dyad. Child temperament, parenting stress, and psychosocial risk were assessed by parent report questionnaire. Our results showed that when a cut-off-score of four risk factors in the family’s life was reached, maternal responsivity was significantly lowered whereas maternal intrusiveness was significantly heightened. Interestingly, when distal and proximal risk factors were considered separately, analyses revealed that mainly distal risk factors were predictive of lower parenting quality. Results regarding the effect of parenting stress on parenting behavior were partly surprising as mothers’ stress experience due to personal restrictions was related to higher parenting quality. Furthermore, besides child temperament being influenced by parenting behavior, we mainly found parenting behavior to be influenced by child temperament. Interestingly, the effect of child temperament on parenting behavior was partly moderated by family’s risk exposure: Children’s negative affectivity predicted higher maternal responsivity in low-risk families, but lower maternal responsivity in high-risk families. Additionally, children’s effortful control predicted higher maternal sensitivity in the context of a given child-related (negative affectivity) or environmental risk (distal risk). Moreover, an interplay between the temperament dimensions negative affectivity and effortful control and the parenting dimension responsivity was found: In the context of high maternal responsivity, high negative affectivity predicted high effortful control, showing how external regulation (maternal responsivity) fosters internal regulation (effortful control). Besides interindividual differences in parenting behavior, also intraindividual differences were found: Particularly when mothers reported high child-related parenting stress, their parenting quality decreased when the situational demands of the mother-child interaction increased. Finally, regarding the effect of family risk on children’s temperament, results revealed more difficult temperamental characteristics under risk exposure, particularly in boys. Moreover, also parenting stress was found to be related to difficult temperament, particularly mothers’ stress experienced as feelings of incompetence in regard to parenting: Maternal feelings of incompetence predicted regulative and reactive aspects of child temperament. Our findings indicate that high-risk families with children who bring along demanding characteristics, such as regulatory problems, should be of special interest regarding prevention and intervention programs. As negative effects of risk on parenting behavior and children’s temperament had already emerged at the end of infants’ first year of life, these programs should start as early as possible, in order to prevent families from a consolidation of negative parenting behaviors and difficult child characteristics mutually enhancing each other.

Temperament und Interaktionsqualität in den ersten Lebensjahren - Das längsschnittliche Wechselspiel frühkindlichen Temperaments und mütterlicher Interaktionsqualität vor dem Hintergrund ungleicher psychosozialer Ressourcen

Thesis

Full-text available

Jan 2018

Jan-David Freund

Die Bedeutung der frühen Kindheit für die weitere Entwicklung findet in der Forschung zunehmend Beachtung. In dieser Hinsicht gelten die mütterliche Interaktionsqualität und das Temperament des Kindes für sich genommen beide als wichtige Prädiktoren. Verstärkt werden könnte ihr Effekt durch ihre Wechselwirkung, über die seit Jahrzehnten diskutiert wird. Die Befundlage gestaltet sich uneindeutig, jedoch gibt es Hinweise, dass die psychosozialen Ressourcen der Mutter eine Rolle dafür spielen könnten, wie sie insbesondere mit einem schwierigen Temperament ihres Kindes umgeht. Des Weiteren wurde bisher versäumt, das längsschnittliche Zusammenspiel der Variablen zu untersuchen, obwohl der Forschungsstand eine transaktionale wechselseitige Beeinflussung vermuten lässt. Zur Untersuchung dieser Thesen wurden zwei Studien durchgeführt, die um eine dritte Studie ergänzt wurden, die der Untersuchung grundlegender Fragen rund um die Erfassung und das Verständnis frühkindlichen Temperaments diente. Die vorgelegte Synopse fasst die relevanten Theorien und Befunde zusammen, zeigt aktuelle Forschungsdesiderata auf, stellt Design und Ergebnisse der drei Studien vor und diskutiert schließlich deren Implikationen für tangierte Forschungs- und Praxisfelder. Die Studien greifen im Wesentlichen auf Daten des Nationalen Bildungspanels zurück, das an einer für das untersuchte Alter außergewöhnlich großen Stichprobe Befragungs- und Beobachtungsdaten erhoben hat, die eine Analyse der untersuchten Fragestellung ermöglichen. Studie 1 stützt die Validität der verwendeten Einschätzungen der Mutter zum Temperament ihres Kindes und liefert Ansatzpunkte für eine Neubewertung des Forschungsstandes zu dieser Frage. Studie 2 und 3 zeigen, dass eine geringere Interaktionsqualität auf komplexe Weise mit einem schwierigeren Temperament assoziiert ist. Für Mütter, deren psychosoziale Ressourcen nicht eingeschränkt sind, fällt die Höhe dieses negativen Zusammenhangs im ersten Lebensjahr minimal aus, nimmt jedoch bis zum dritten Lebensjahr kontinuierlich zu. Lagen hingegen mehrere Risikofaktoren vor, für die von einer belastenden Wirkung auf die psychosozialen Ressourcen der Mutter ausgegangen wird, war nicht nur eine deutlich geringere Interaktionsqualität, sondern auch ein wesentlich stärkerer Effekt des Temperaments zu beobachten. Im ersten Lebensjahr zeigten belastete Mütter eine besonders niedrige Interaktionsqualität, wenn ihr Kind ein schwieriges Temperament aufwies, wohingegen ein einfaches Temperament die negative Wirkung der Belastungsfaktoren auf die Interaktionsqualität sogar zu einem großen Teil kompensieren konnte. Im zweiten und zu Beginn des dritten Lebensjahres zeigte sich kein solcher Interaktionseffekt und auch kein Zusammenhang eines schwierigen Temperaments mit der Interaktionsqualität belasteter Mütter. Somit konnten die Studien die besondere Rolle des frühkindlichen Temperaments bestätigen, da sie zeigen, dass der negative Effekt eines schwierigen Temperaments im ersten Lebensjahr nicht nur konditional an das Vorliegen kumulierter Belastungen geknüpft ist, sondern umgekehrt auch deren negative Wirkung auf die Interaktionsqualität konditional davon abhängt, ob die Mutter vom Temperament ihres Kindes herausgefordert ist. Dass ab dem zweiten Lebensjahr kein querschnittlicher Zusammenhang mehr zu beobachten ist, zeigt in Verbindung mit der hohen festgestellten Prädiktivität der Interaktionsqualität im ersten Lebensjahr, wie wichtig es ist, betroffene Mutter-Kind-Dyaden bereits im ersten Lebensjahr zu identifizieren und zu unterstützen, um weiteren ungünstigen Entwicklungen vorzubeugen. Daher sollten sowohl die Forschung zu frühen Interaktionen als auch die Kinder- und Jugendhilfe dem Temperament im ersten Lebensjahr künftig mehr Beachtung schenken.

INTERVENÇÃO BREVE SOBRE A RESPONSIVIDADE DE MÃES AOS RECÉM-NASCIDOS HOSPITALIZADOS

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Strengthening mother-child interactions among mothers and children with behavior problems at early development

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023
CURR PSYCHOL

The present study examined the effectiveness of a personalized remote video feedback parenting program to improve mother-child interactions and child behavior outcomes among mothers of children with behavior problems in comparison to counterparts with no behavior problems. The sample comprised 60 mothers and their 2-to-6-year-old children, including children with behavior problems (BP = 19) and children without behavior problems (NoBP = 41). The Strengthening Bonds program included one in-person group session and remote personalized video feedback about their mother-child interactions in a play situation via smartphone for six weeks. Mother-child interactions were the primary outcome, and children’s behaviors were the secondary outcome. Pre- and post-intervention assessments were performed. The mother-child interactions were recorded during free- and structured-play situations and were then analyzed by the Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO) and the Dynamics of the dyad activity coding system. Additionally, the mothers answered the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. The results showed that, in the post-intervention, the mother-child interaction pattern improved in the BP group, especially in the teaching dimension of the PICCOLO. Also, after the program, more children with normal classification were in the BP group.

Developmental burden of childhood adversity: Insight from longitudinal perspectives

Thesis

Full-text available

May 2022

Tochukwu Nweze

Childhood adversity has been implicated in poorer developmental outcomes such as behavioral problems, poorer mental health and cognitive deficits. Studies have also linked adversity to alterations in cortical brain structures. To date however, almost all knowledge of the effects of adversity on outcomes has come from cross-sectional studies or longitudinal studies that used cross-sectional data analysis method. In an attempt to bridge this gap, across three empirical studies, this thesis sets out to implement series of longitudinal data modelling aimed at disentangling the intricacies of the effects of childhood adversity on mental health, cognitive abilities and brain development. In study 1, I analyzed a large sample (N=13,287) of 5 wave longitudinal data obtained from the Millennium Cohort Study in an attempt to understand how early-life adversity, mental health and cognition affect one another or how the effects unfold over time. To achieve this, I used focused longitudinal mediation model via path model approach. Results showed that early-life adversity was associated with poorer performance in spatial working memory and vocabulary performance. Notably, current and previous mental health mediated a substantial proportion (working memory: 59%; vocabulary: ¬70%), of these effects. Findings also showed that adversity has an enduring adverse effect on mental health, and that poorer mental health is associated with poorer cognitive performance later on in development. Moreover, the adverse effects of mental health were cumulative: poor mental health early on is associated with poorer cognitive scores up to 11 years later, above and beyond contemporaneous mental health. Based on this evidence, I suggested that the academic and cognitive competence of vulnerable children may be enhanced if their early mental health conditions are given deliberate clinical attention. In a follow-up study 2, I attempted to provide empirical support for dimensional model of adversity which argues that childhood adversity can be classified into subgroups, known as dimensions. For this purpose, I analyzed rich set of adverse childhood experiences obtained from a subset of ALSPAC cohort sample (N = 2,965) using latent class analysis. Findings showed evidence of five distinct adversity subgroups, namely, low adversity, dysfunctional family, parental deprivation, family poverty and global adversity. To establish a pathway to cognitive functioning among the adversity subgroups, a further analysis using latent class regression revealed that family poverty subgroup performed poorest in working memory and inhibition tasks. A separate analysis revealed that the effects of each individual adversity types on cognitive outcomes were mostly consistent with the observed class performance in which they co-occurred. Regardless, sensitive periods (timing of adversity exposure) explained more variability in these observed effects compared to accumulation hypothesis. In study 3, I analysed a subset of IMAGEN cohort sample (N = 502) using latent change score model and complete longitudinal mediation model via autoregressive path approach, aimed to understand the long-term interrelations between adverse life events, cortical development and cognitive functioning. Results of latent change score model showed that greater baseline adverse life events predicted a marginal reduction in the right anterior cingulate surface area. In addition, baseline right orbitofrontal cortical thickness predicted a decrease change in adverse life events. I found no evidence of association between adverse life events and volumes of cortical structures or cognitive outcomes. In separate longitudinal analyses, I found no evidence of indirect effects in the two neurocognitive pathways that link adverse life events in adolescence to brain and cognitive outcomes. Although the results of latent change score model appear to support the robust cross-sectional studies which have implicated adverse events in brain alterations, especially in the prefrontal, however, the magnitude of effects observed in this study 3 are smaller than have been reported in the cross-sectional studies, suggesting that potential long-term impact of adverse life events on brain structures may likely be more modest than previously noted. I end the thesis by articulating the implications of these findings across the 3 empirical studies, indicating the strengths and limitations, and suggesting areas for future directions. Generally, it is my hope that new insight drawn from these longitudinal studies will inform the right policies in the society. Such policies may include but not limited to increase clinical intervention for the vulnerable and most underprivileged children as well greater financial aids to families living in poverty, given recent reports that such aid package can alter the trajectories of developmental outcomes of children in a positive way.

Maternal responsive behaviours and child language outcomes in a cohort of mothers and children facing adversity

Article

May 2022

Children facing adversity are at greater risk of experiencing language difficulties than their peers. This study aims to examine the association between specific maternal responsive behaviours at 24 months and language outcomes at the age of 5 years in a cohort of mothers and children facing adversity. Mother–child dyads (n = 138) facing adversity were observed and videoed at home at 24 months in mother–child free play. Four maternal responsive behaviours were coded from these videos: imitations, responsive questions, labels, and expansions. Child language was assessed using the CELF-4 at the age of 5 years. Linear regression was used to examine associations, in both adjusted and unadjusted models. In unadjusted models, imitations, responsive questions, and labels predicted better child language scores at age 5. Imitations continued to positively predict language scores after adjusting for confounding factors, including earlier communication skills. Findings demonstrate the importance of considering maternal responsive behaviours with respect to stages of child development.

What to Look for in Relationships: Development, Inter-Rater Reliability, and Initial Validity Estimates for a Young Child-Caregiver Relationship Assessment

Preprint

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Observational assessments are important for understanding a range of behaviors and emotions in the young child-caregiver relationship. Given the importance of observational assessments and the skill and experience that is required to learn to do them, the What to Look for in Relationships (WLR) interaction rating system was developed. The goal was to provide a multidimensional assessment for professionals who work with young children and their caregivers to assist providers in evaluating both strengths and areas for improvement in five areas of young child-caregiver relationship dimensions. This paper reports on the development, interrater reliability, initial convergent and discriminant validity, and incremental utility of the scales. Data were collected from caregiver-child dyads, who participated in a semi-structured observational caregiver-child interaction session as part of a clinic evaluation for relationship-based therapeutic services for young children in child protection. Eighty-five children (57% male) and 146 caregivers (parents or other custodial caregiver) participated in this study. Recorded interactions were coded using the WLR scales with 146 interactions coded by at least two independent observers for interrater reliability analyses. The scales showed adequate internal consistency, good inter-rater reliability, strong convergent associations with a single dimension measure (i.e., the Parent-Infant Relationship Global Assessment Scale; PIR-GAS) and discriminated those in the clinical range from those with adaptive functioning on the PIR-GAS. This study provides initial support for the usefulness of the WLR scales for assessing dimensions of caregiver-child relationships during early childhood that may be useful targets of intervention.

Parenting quality from observational ratings at age 2: validation from Norwegian and U.S. Samples

Article

Oct 2020
EARLY CHILD RES Q

This study investigated the construct validity of a proposed measure of parenting quality derived from extensively used observational ratings of parenting in mother-child interaction procedures with 2-year-olds in two large samples. Data included global ratings of mother-child interaction in an unstructured free-play and a semi-structured teaching task from the Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study (N = 1157) and from the Three Boxes procedure used in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (N = 1364). Confirmatory Factor Analyses, including ratings of mothers’ sensitivity, detachment, intrusiveness, cognitive stimulation, positive regard and negative regard, revealed a similarly structured latent parenting construct across samples and observational procedures, supporting the structural and content validity, and the generalizability of the measure. In the Norwegian sample, better predictive validity to child outcomes at age 4 was found from the semi-structured teaching task than from the less structured free-play task. Comparable predictive validity to child outcomes was found for the U.S. sample’s latent parenting quality construct. The results hold implications for the careful selection and study of observational procedures for measuring parenting quality in early childhood.

Latino Caregivers’ Interactions With Their Children With Language Delays: A Comparison Study

Article

Apr 2020

Evidence-based treatments for young children with developmental language delays include caregiver-implemented naturalistic interventions. However, there is little research on culturally appropriate interventions for Spanish-speaking caregivers from low–socioeconomic status (SES) households and their young children with identified language delays. We compared interaction strategies of Latino Spanish-speaking caregivers from low-SES backgrounds and non-Latino English-speaking caregivers from high-SES backgrounds with their children with language delays. Caregivers’ interactions were coded for (a) interaction characteristics, (b) use of naturalistic language support strategies, and (c) linguistic input. Results indicated Spanish-speaking Latino caregivers from low-SES backgrounds used a more directive, responsive, and warm interaction style than non-Latino caregivers. Non-Latino, English-speaking caregivers from high-SES backgrounds used more cognitively stimulating strategies, spent more time observing and narrating play, and used longer utterances and more lexical diversity. Findings provide directions for future research and guidance for clinicians working with Latino families from low-SES households.

Fetal and Infant Outcomes in the Offspring of Parents With Perinatal Mental Disorders: Earliest Influences

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2019

Mental illness is highly prevalent and runs in families. Mental disorders are considered to enhance the risk for the development of psychopathology in the offspring. This heightened risk is related to the separate and joint effects of inherited genetic vulnerabilities for psychopathology and environmental influences. The early years of life are suggested to be a key developmental phase in the intergenerational psychopathology transmission. Available evidence supports the idea that early exposure to parental psychopathology, during the pregnancy and first postpartum year, may be related to child psychological functioning beyond the postpartum period, up to adulthood years. This not only highlights the importance of intervening early to break the chain of intergenerational transmission of psychopathology but also raises the question of whether early interventions targeting parental mental disorders in this period may alleviate these prolonged adverse effects in the infant offspring. The current article focuses on the specific risk of psychopathology conveyed from mentally ill parents to the offspring during the pregnancy and first postpartum year. We first present a summary of the available evidence on the associations of parental perinatal mental illness with infant psychological outcomes at the behavioral, biological, and neurophysiological levels. Next, we address the effects of early interventions and discuss whether these may mitigate the early intergenerational transmission of risk for psychopathology. The summarized evidence supports the idea that psychopathology-related changes in parents’ behavior and physiology in the perinatal period are related to behavioral, biological, and neurophysiological correlates of infant psychological functioning in this period. These alterations may constitute risk for later development of child and/or adult forms of psychopathology and thus for intergenerational transmission. Targeting psychopathology or mother-infant interactions in isolation in the postnatal period may not be sufficient to improve outcomes, whereas interventions targeting both maternal psychopathology and mother-infant interactions seem promising in alleviating the risk of early transmission.

Mother-Child Interactive Behaviors and Cognition in Preschoolers Born Preterm and Full Term

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2018
J Child Fam Stud

The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between child-mother interactive behaviors and cognition in preschoolers born preterm (<32 weeks gestation; n = 82) and full term (>37 weeks gestation; n = 53). Child-mother interactive behaviors were assessed during a videotaped free play session. Maternal education and neonatal medical factors were included as covariates. Although the preterm and full term groups showed some differences in child and mother interactive behaviors, we found that the child and mother behaviors associated with Verbal IQ (VIQ) and Performance IQ (PIQ) were the same for both children born preterm and full term and for both sexes. Child positive affect and quality of communication; and maternal responsiveness to verbal cues remained significantly associated with VIQ after controlling for sociodemographic variables. Children born preterm showed significantly less responsiveness to their mother and lower levels of play sophistication compared with children born full term. Mothers of children born preterm showed less emotional attunement, lower responsiveness to nonverbal cues, and lower quality of communication compared with mothers of children born full term. Models predicting VIQ and PIQ included maternal education, gestational age, maternal and child interactive behaviors, and one uniquely significant combined mother-child (interaction) term in each model. Child-mother interactive behaviors associated with VIQ and PIQ are the same for both children born preterm and full term and for both sexes, suggesting that similar interactive behaviors may be important in facilitating cognitive development. © 2018, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.

Maternal insightfulness protects against the detrimental effect of postpartum stress on positive parenting among at-risk mother-infant dyads

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2018
ATTACH HUM DEV

The current study evaluated whether maternal insightfulness can buffer the negative influence of postpartum stressful life events on maternal parenting behaviors. Participants were 125 mother–infant dyads (55% boys) who present a subsample of a larger longitudinal study on maternal maltreatment during childhood and its impact on peripartum maternal adjustment. Women were primarily white and middle class. At 4 months postpartum, mothers reported on the stressful life events experienced after the child’s birth and current depressive symptoms. At 6 months postpartum, maternal parenting quality was assessed using videotaped mother-infant interactions and maternal insightfulness was evaluated using the Insightfulness Assessment. Insightfulness significantly moderated the effect of postpartum stressful events on maternal parenting behaviors. Mothers who were insightful displayed high levels of positive parenting during interactions with their infant regardless of the amount of stressful life events experienced. In contrast, mothers classified as non-insightful showed less positive parenting as they experienced more stressful life events. Findings highlight the protective role of maternal insightfulness in the face of postpartum stress, and suggest that efforts to enhance insightfulness during the early postpartum period may be particularly relevant for women in high-risk contexts.

Bedingungen sensitiver Mutter-Kind-Interaktionen

Chapter

Full-text available

Oct 2016

In early childhood sensitive mother-child-interactions are presumed to be especially beneficial to children’s language, cognitive and socio-emotional development. Sensitivity is defined as a behaviour that reacts and refers to a child’s needs and interests in an appropriate way (Ainsworth et al., 1974). International studies identified characteristics of the child as well as of the mother and the context as relevant for sensitivity. Considering the child, it is essential to take its active role in the interaction into account to accommodate the dyadic nature of sensitivity. Hence, this article addresses the question which general and context specific variables are relevant to sensitive interaction behaviour within a German context by means of representative data from the National Educational Panel Study. For this purpose, semi-standardized play situations of mothers with their seven-month-old children were videotaped and analysed. Afterwards, the relevant conditions of sensitive mother-child-interaction were identified by bivariate and multivariate methods. On average, sensitive interaction behaviour ranged on a medium level. Socio-economic context variables (e.g. poverty in income and educational background of the mother) proved to be relevant predictors. Other characteristics of the mother, such as age and experienced psychological strain as well as the everyday perceived temperament of the child, showed merely small to no correlations. The child behaviour in the interaction turned out to be most relevant for sensitivity. Thereby, these results emphasize the active role of the child within the interaction and basically confirm international findings.

Parental positive affect and negative affect in same- and different-sex parent families: no associations with parental gender and caregiving role

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2024

Positive and negative parental affect influence developing parent–child attachment relationships, especially during infancy as well as children’s social–emotional, academic, and behavioral functioning later in life. Increasingly, because both mothers and fathers can play central caregiving roles, the parenting qualities of both parents demand consideration. Therefore, this study investigated whether parental gender and caregiving role were associated with mothers’ and fathers’ positive affect and negative affect during interactions with their 4-month-old firstborn infant, while determining whether parenting stress, infant temperament, having a singleton/twin, and living in the Netherlands, France, or the United Kingdom were related to parental positive affect and negative affect. In all, 135 different-sex, same-sex male, and same-sex female couples (113 fathers and 157 mothers, comprising 147 primary, and 123 secondary caregivers) who conceived through artificial reproductive techniques were studied. The couples were videorecorded at home while in feeding, cleaning, and playing contexts to assess the levels of positive and negative parental affect. In addition, the couples completed questionnaires about their caregiving role, parenting stress, and the infants’ temperament. Mixed linear models indicated that the levels of positive and negative parental affect toward the infant in all contexts were not related to parental gender, caregiving role, the interaction between parental gender and caregiving role, parenting stress, infant temperament, or singleton/twin status. However, the target parental behaviors were related to the country of origin, suggesting differences among Dutch, French, and British parents. Overall, we found no evidence that gender or caregiving roles were associated with the levels of positive and negative affect shown by the parents.

Skin-to-Skin Care and Spontaneous Touch by Fathers in Full-Term Infants: A Systematic Review

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2024

A series of studies have shown that mothers’ early tactile behaviors have positive effects, both on full-term and preterm infants, and on mothers alike. Regarding fathers, research has focused mostly on paternal skin-to-skin care with preterm infants and has overlooked the tactile behavior effects with full-term newborns on infants’ outcomes and on fathers themselves. The current systematic review considered the evidence regarding paternal tactile behaviors with full-term infants, including skin-to-skin care (SSC) and spontaneous touch (ST), during parent–infant interactions, and differentiated biophysiological, behavioral and psychological variables both in fathers and in infants. We also compared fathers’ and mothers’ tactile behaviors for potential differences. The few available studies suggest that paternal touch—SSC and ST—can have positive effects on fathers and infants alike. They also show that, despite some intrinsic differences, paternal touch is as pleasant as maternal touch. However, given the paucity of studies on the topic, we discuss why this field of research should be further explored.

Maternal postnatal depressive symptoms and early achievement of developmental milestones in infants and young children: A meta-analysis

Article

Jan 2024
INFANT MENT HEALTH J

Screening for social determinants of health, including maternal depression, is a recommended pediatric practice. However, the magnitude of association between maternal and child screening tools remains to be determined. The current study evaluated the association between maternal postnatal depressive symptoms and child developmental milestones, as well as moderators of these associations. A comprehensive search strategy was carried out in four databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, APA PsycINFO, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials) from database inception to September 2022. Studies that examine postnatal depressive symptoms and associations with infant and early child (<6 years) achievement of developmental milestones were included. Data were extracted by two independent coders and a random‐effects meta‐analysis was used to estimate pooled effect sizes and test for moderators. A total of 38 non‐overlapping studies (95,897 participants), all focused on maternal postnatal depression, met inclusion criteria. The pooled effect size for the association between postnatal depressive symptoms and early achievement of infant and child developmental milestones ( N = 38; r = −.12; 95% CI = −.18, −.06) was small in magnitude. Child age at maternal depression measurement was a moderator, whereby effect sizes became greater for older children. Despite small effects, maternal postnatal depressive symptoms should be included in screening during routine well‐child visits to enhance child development outcomes.

Positive Parenting and Sociodemographic Factors Related to the Development of Chilean Children Born to Adolescent Mothers

Preprint

Full-text available

Oct 2023

The current study aimed to examine the relationship between demographic variables within the family context and parenting behaviors among adolescent mothers (including affection, responsiveness, encouragement, and teaching). These factors were correlated with communication, problem-solving abilities, and personal-social development in typically developing infants. The study included a sample of 79 Chilean adolescent mother-child dyads with children aged 10 to 24 months. Communication, problem-solving, and personal-social development were assessed using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire-3, along with a demographic information questionnaire. Parenting behaviors (affection, responsiveness, encouragement, and teaching) were observed using the Spanish version of Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes. The findings indicated that employed mothers and those who had not dropped out of school had children with better problem-solving skills. Additionally, children residing with their fathers and female children exhibited superior performance in communication, problem-solving, and personal-social development. Maternal responsiveness was associated with communication and problem-solving, while maternal encouragement was linked to improved problem-solving skills. Maternal teaching was connected to communication, problem-solving, and personal-social development. The study emphasized the significance of parenting and sociodemographic factors among adolescent mothers in influencing their children's development.

Maternal supportiveness is predictive of childhood general intelligence

Article

May 2023
INTELLIGENCE

Data from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project (N = 1075) were used to test the hypothesis that maternal supportiveness (measured at three waves from 14 to 36 months) is positively and prospectively associated with a child's general intelligence (measured at five waves from 14 months to 10 years). Bivariate correlations showed that maternal supportiveness was consistently and positively associated with a child's general intelligence. For example, maternal supportiveness as measured at 14 months was correlated with a child's general intelligence at age 10; r = 0.35. Results of autoregressive cross-lagged panel models showed maternal supportiveness directly predicted future general intelligence through age four and indirectly, via age four general intelligence, up to age 10. Additional analyses verified that the effect of maternal supportiveness was on general intelligence and not specific abilities. The results point to the importance of maternal supportiveness on general intelligence in the first decade of life.

Maternal Postnatal Depressive Symptoms and Early Achievement of Developmental Milestones in Infants and Young Children: A Meta-Analysis

Preprint

Mar 2023

Screening for social determinants of health, including maternal depression, has become a common and recommended pediatric practice. However, the magnitude of association between maternal and child screening tools remains to be determined. The current study evaluated the association between maternal postnatal depressive symptoms and child developmental milestones, as well as moderators of these associations. A comprehensive search strategy was carried out in four databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, APA PsycINFO, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials) from database inception to September 2022. Studies that examine postnatal depressive symptoms and associations with infant and early child (<6 years) achievement of developmental milestones were included. Data were extracted by two independent coders and a random-effects meta-analysis was used to estimate pooled effect sizes and test for moderators. A total of 38 non-overlapping studies (95,897 participants), all focused on maternal postnatal depression, met inclusion criteria. Random-effect meta-analyses were conducted. The pooled effect size for the association between postnatal depressive symptoms and early achievement of infant and child developmental milestones (N = 38; r =-.12; 95% CI= -.18, -.06) was small in magnitude. Older child age at maternal depression measurement was a moderator. Maternal postnatal depressive symptoms are one early indicator of early achievement of developmental milestones and should be included in screening during routine child wellness visits.

Non-Intrusive Maternal Style as a Mediator between Playfulness and Children's Development for Low-Income Chilean Adolescent Mothers

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

The aim of this study was to describe the relationship between low-income Chilean adolescent maternal playfulness and mothers' non-intrusiveness in their children's development and to analyze whether a mother's non-intrusiveness mediates the relationship between maternal play-fulness and children's development. The Parental Playfulness Scale and the Subscale of Intrusive-ness from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project were used to assess maternal play-fulness and mothers' non-intrusiveness respectively. Ages and Stages Questionnaire 3rd Edition (ASQ-3) was applied to measure the children's communication, gross and fine motor skills, problem solving and personal-social development. The sample consisted of 79 mother-child dyads with children aged 10-24 months (M = 15.5, SD = 4.2) and their mothers aged 15-21 years old (M = 19.1, SD = 1.7). A bivariate analysis showed that maternal playfulness was significantly associated with communication, fine motor, problem-solving and personal-social development. Moreover, higher levels of communication, fine motor skills and problem-solving development were observed in the children of less intrusive mothers. Maternal playfulness had a significant effect on children's development of language, problem-solving and personal-social skills when their mothers showed less intrusiveness during interaction. These findings contribute to the understanding of the interaction between adolescent mothers and their children. Active play and less intrusiveness can enhance child development.

Mother and father interaction with their 3-month-old infants: Similarities and differences in parenting behaviour in well-resourced parents

Article

Feb 2023

Infancy is characterized by intensive parenting which may affect later child development. However, little is known about similarities and differences in maternal and paternal parenting behaviour, as the majority of the studies have mainly focused on mothers. The present study investigated similarities and differences in mothers' and fathers' parenting behaviour during parent-infant interaction in 56 mothers and 56 fathers of 3-months-old infants in a good-resourced sample. Parent-child interactions were videotaped and coded by the Global Rating Scales. Results suggested similar parenting behaviour in terms of maternal and paternal sensitivity, intrusiveness and remoteness. Moreover, regardless of sex infant's behaviour was similar during interactions with mothers and fathers. The low-risk and non-clinical nature of our sample may have had a positive influence on mother-child and father-child dyadic exchanges. These findings suggest including family system models in research and clinical practice.

Sleep SAAF responsive parenting intervention improves mothers’ feeding practices: a randomized controlled trial among African American mother-infant dyads

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022
INT J BEHAV NUTR PHY

Background/objective: Parents shape children's early experiences with food, influencing what is served, children's food choices, and how much children eat. Responsive parenting (RP) interventions such as INSIGHT have improved maternal infant feeding practices, but have only been tested among predominantly White families. This secondary analysis of data from the Sleep SAAF (Strong African American Families) RCT tests the effects of an RP intervention designed to prevent rapid infant weight gain on African American mothers' infant feeding practices. Methods: Primiparous African American mother-infant dyads (n = 194) were randomized to an RP or safety control intervention delivered by community research associates at infant age 3 and 8 weeks. At 16 weeks, mothers completed the Babies Need Feeding questionnaire, the Infant Feeding Styles Questionnaire, and the Babies Need Soothing questionnaire. Logistic regression and general linear models examined the effect of study group on infant feeding practices. Moderation analyses explored whether effects varied by feeding mode (any breast milk versus exclusive formula), maternal age (≥ 20 years versus < 20 years), and maternal pre-pregnancy BMI (with obesity versus not). Results: RP mothers reported more responsive feeding (p = 0.005, partial η2 = 0.02), lower likelihood of using beverages other than breast milk/formula to soothe their infant (p = 0.01, OR = 0.42, 95% CI [0.2-0.8]), and less pressure with cereal than control mothers (p = 0.09, partial η2 = 0.02). RP mothers also reported less pressure to finish/soothe than controls (p = 0.007, partial η2 = 0.04); feeding mode (B = 0.74, p = 0.003) and maternal age (B = 0.53, p = 0.04) moderated this effect. There were no significant group differences in bottle-feeding practices (e.g., adding cereal to bottle, using an appropriate nipple/bottle size), or in context-based or emotion-based food to soothe. Conclusions: Responsive parenting education influenced some feeding practices of African American mothers. Mothers reported using less pressure, a control-based feeding practice, and more responsive feeding than controls. Trial registration: Sleep SAAF: A Strong African American Families Study. www. Clinicaltrials: gov NCT03505203. Registered 3 April 2018.

Risk and Protective Processes in the Link Between Racial Discrimination and Chinese American Mothers’ Psychologically Controlling Parenting

Article

Full-text available

May 2022

Objectives: Racial–ethnic minority parents’ experiences with racial discrimination may function as a contextual stressor that negatively impacts psychological functioning to shape less effective parenting practices, including the use of more psychological control. Moreover, various factors can enhance or diminish psychological functioning in the face of racial discrimination. Accordingly, we examined the associations between Chinese American mothers’ experiences of racial discrimination and three subdimensions of psychologically controlling parenting by considering the mediating roles of negative (depressive symptoms) and positive (psychological well-being) psychological functioning and the moderating role of maternal acculturation toward the mainstream culture (AMC) as a protective factor. Method: Participants comprised 226 Chinese American mothers of preschoolers (Mage = 37.65; SDage = 4.39). Two separate moderated-mediation models with depressive symptoms or psychological well-being as mediators were tested using maximum-likelihood estimation. Results: Findings revealed significant direct positive associations between racial discrimination and all three subdimensions of psychological control (love withdrawal, guilt induction, and shaming practices), as well as indirect associations through depressive symptoms but not psychological well-being. Importantly, the indirect associations were further moderated by maternal AMC. Conclusions: Results illustrate the importance of incorporating the contextual stressor of perceived racial discrimination in parenting determinant models and examining specific and nuanced processes in understanding the role of psychological adjustment. Support for Chinese American mothers’ engagement in and access to various resources in the mainstream cultural context may help alleviate the adverse impact of racial discrimination on mothers’ psychological health and ultimately on their negative parenting behaviors.

Predictors of Maternal Bonding and Responsiveness for Mothers of Very Preterm Infants

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2022
J CLIN PSYCHOL MED S

Identify predictors of maternal bonding and responsiveness for mothers of very preterm infants (< 32 weeks gestational age) at 6 weeks and 12 months corrected-age (CA). Cross-sectional and longitudinal study containing 39 mothers of very preterm infants. At 6 weeks CA maternal self-efficacy made a significant unique contribution to the variance in self-reported maternal bonding and responsiveness (21% and 26%, respectively). At 12 months CA maternal trauma symptoms, depressive symptoms and self-efficacy made a significant unique contribution to the variance in bonding (14%, 9% and 9%, respectively). Maternal self-efficacy made a significant 31% unique contribution to the variance in responsiveness. The combined effects of maternal trauma symptoms, depressive symptoms and self-efficacy at 6 weeks CA predicted maternal responsiveness at 12 months CA (p = .042). Supporting maternal self-efficacy is key to facilitating bonding and responsiveness up to 12 months CA following a very preterm birth. Trial registration: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: ACTRN12612000194864.

A Personalized Remote Video-Feedback Universal Parenting Program: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021

The randomized controlled trial examined the efficacy of a personalized remote video feedback parenting program to improve parenting and child behavior outcomes. Ninety-two mothers of 2-6-year-old children were randomly allocated into the intervention group (n = 50) and waiting-list control group (n = 42). The Strengthening Bonds preventive program was performed to improve positive parenting. The mothers participated in one in-person group session. During six weeks, the mothers received, via smartphone, remote personalized video feedback about their mother-child interactions in a play situation. Parenting was the primary outcome, and child behavior was the secondary one. Pre- and post-intervention assessments were performed. The generalized estimating equation analysis showed no significant results in the intention-to-treat (ITT). In the treatment-on-the-treated (TOT), there were statistically significant effects of the intervention decreasing mothers’ coercive parenting practices and child behavior problems. The structural equation model analysis showed that the intervention-induced reductions in children’s behavior problems were mediated by improvements in coercive practices. There was a direct effect of the intervention to improve the parental sense of competence. Despite the null findings in the ITT analysis, the TOT analysis showed promising results to strengthen positive parenting behaviors and beliefs and reduce child behavior problems.

Family Processes Underlying Economic Insecurity, Father Involvement, and Child Outcomes in Families with Low Income

Thesis

Jan 2021

Joyce Lee

The theme of the dissertation focuses on examining family processes underlying economic insecurity and young children’s outcomes in unmarried parents with low income. All three studies involved secondary analysis of the Building Strong Families (BSF) data, a large and racially diverse sample of unmarried parent families from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds. The dissertation focused on samples of residential father families. The first dissertation study was exploratory in that it used a person-centered approach to discern the existence of latent parenting profiles of unmarried mothers and fathers of preschoolers based on the father-child activation relationship theory (Paquette, 2004). The study used a sample of 672 BSF families. Observations of mother–child and father–child interactions were included in latent profile analysis to reveal 3 distinct parenting profiles for both fathers and mothers (i.e., supportive, activation, and intrusive), with the activation profile showing a pattern of moderate intrusiveness combined with sensitivity, positive regard, and cognitive stimulation. Next, four family configurations were created. Children with supportive mothers and fathers had higher receptive language scores compared with those from other family groups, and had higher prosocial scores compared with children with activation mothers and activation fathers, but not other family groups (i.e., activation father/supportive mother or supportive father/activation mother). Results support activation relationship theory by noting a pattern of parenting behaviors used by fathers (and mothers) in which parents are moderately intrusive, challenging, or directive with their children, yet still sensitive and positive in their interactions. The second dissertation study applied the Family Stress Model (FSM; Conger, Ge, Elder, Lorenz, & Simons, 1994) to test the mechanisms by which economic insecurity contributes to mothers’ and fathers’ mental health and couples’ relationship functioning. The study used a sample of 2,794 BSF families. Bayesian mediation analysis was employed, taking advantage of the prior evidence base of the family stress model. Material hardship worked above and beyond household income to directly predict couples’ destructive conflict for both mothers and fathers. Indirect effects of material hardship on couples’ destructive conflict through parental depressive symptoms was found for mothers only. Overall, the economic stress of meeting the daily material needs of the family sets the stage for parental mental health problems that carry over into destructive interparental conflict, especially through maternal depressive symptoms. Building on the findings of the first and second dissertation studies, the third dissertation study also applied the FSM to examine the links between material hardship, and preschoolers’ prosocial behaviors and an examination of the coparenting alliance, and mother’s and father’s positive parenting as key mediators. The study used a sample of 1,375 BSF families. Structural equation modeling results showed that material hardship was associated with increased levels of father’s positive parenting only and that coparenting alliance was linked with increased levels of both mother’s and father’s positive parenting. Subsequently, both mother’s and father’s positive parenting was related to increased levels of preschoolers’ prosocial behaviors. The results suggest the potentially protective role a strong coparenting alliance plays amongst BSF mothers and fathers in the context of material hardship. That is, when unmarried mothers and fathers maintain a strong coparenting bond amidst economic challenges, they may be able to engage in positive parenting, such as being responsive to their children’s needs and thus promote their children’s prosocial development.

Continuity and Stability of Parenting of Infants by Women at Risk for Perinatal Depression

Article

Feb 2021

SYNOPSIS Objective. The present study aimed to enhance understanding of continuity and stability of positive parenting of infants, across age and different settings in women with a history of depression who are at elevated risk for postpartum depression. Design. Mothers (N = 103) with a history of major depression and their infants were observed during 5-min play and feeding interactions when their infants were 3, 6, and 12 months of age. Summary scores representing mothers’ positive parenting were computed separately for each age and context based on ratings of five parenting behaviors. Mothers’ depressive symptom levels were assessed at each infant age. Results. Continuity (consistency of level) and stability (consistency of rank order) were assessed across age and context at both the group and individual level. Across-age analyses revealed continuity in the play context and discontinuity in the feeding context, albeit only at the group level, as well as weak to moderate stability. Across-context analyses revealed higher positive parenting scores in play than feeding at all time points as well as weak to moderate stability. Variations in positive parenting across age and context were independent of mothers’ postpartum depressive symptom levels. Conclusions. Findings based on normative samples may not generalize to women with a history of depression, who may benefit from interventions aimed at enhancing their positive parenting over the course of infancy, regardless of postpartum depressive symptom level. Results also underscore the importance of assessing parenting at multiple age points and across varying contexts.

Effectiveness of an Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT) Group Depression Treatment for Head Start Mothers: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial

Article

Nov 2020
J AFFECT DISORDERS

Background: Maternal depression is known to be a serious problem with higher rates among poor and racial/ethnic minority mothers that can have numerous negative impacts on their children. These mothers have less access to effective care and may be wary of traditional mental health care because of the stigma. The purpose of this study was to test whether an adaptation of an Interpersonal Psychotherapy group for perinatal depression could be effective in reducing depressive symptoms of mothers whose children were enrolled in Head Start. Methods: Forty-nine mothers, randomized by site, were recruited into the intervention group, 70 into the control group. They were measured on depressive symptoms, parenting stress, parenting behavior, and parent child interaction at intake, at end of the group, and 6 months following. Results: The intervention group was lower in depressive symptoms at the end of treatment with a further decrease 6 months post intervention. There was no change in the control group. The intervention group also improved in parenting stress. Limitations: The sample size for the intervention group was smaller than desired. Conclusions: This study supports the effectiveness of this 12 session IPT group which was highly effective for a population of Head Start mothers. It is a strategy that can be adapted to other settings that serve low income mothers.

Developmental delay and parenting: The role of behaviour problems in toddlers

Article

Oct 2020

Developmental delays (DD) are missed early childhood developmental milestones in cognitive, motoric or linguistic domains. DD associated with behaviour problems may compound to impact parenting. This study investigated whether DD would moderate the relation between behaviour problems and parenting in families of toddlers. Data were drawn from an Early Head Start (n = 564) sample. The Ages and Stages Questionnaire‐Third Edition measured developmental status at age 2 (typically developing, in a monitoring zone, or having a DD), behaviour problems were assessed at age 2, and supportive and negative parenting at age 3. Developmental delay moderated the relationship between behaviour problems and supportive parenting such that greater behaviour problems were unrelated to parental supportiveness for children with DD, while greater behaviour problems led to less parental supportiveness for typically developing children. These findings suggest distinct developmental processes, with parental supportiveness acting as potentially protective for children with DD.

Dyadic Synchrony and Responsiveness in the First Year: Associations with Autism Risk

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2020

In the first year of life, the ability to engage in sustained synchronous interactions develops as infants learn to match social partner behaviors and sequentially regulate their behaviors in response to others. Difficulties developing competence in these early social building blocks can impact later language skills, joint attention, and emotion regulation. For children at elevated risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), early dyadic synchrony and responsiveness difficulties may be indicative of emerging ASD and/or developmental concerns. As part of a prospective developmental monitoring study, infant siblings of children with ASD (high‐risk group n = 104) or typical development (low‐risk group n = 71), and their mothers completed a standardized play task when infants were 6, 9, and/or 12 months of age. These interactions were coded for the frequency and duration of infant and mother gaze, positive affect, and vocalizations, respectively. Using these codes, theory‐driven composites were created to index dyadic synchrony and infant/maternal responsiveness. Multilevel models revealed significant risk group differences in dyadic synchrony and infant responsiveness by 12 months of age. In addition, high‐risk infants with higher dyadic synchrony and infant responsiveness at 12 months received significantly higher receptive and expressive language scores at 36 months. The findings of the present study highlight that promoting dyadic synchrony and responsiveness may aid in advancing optimal development in children at elevated risk for autism. Lay Summary In families raising children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), younger siblings are at elevated risks for social communication difficulties. The present study explored whether social‐communication differences were evident during a parent–child play task at 6, 9, and 12 months of age. For infant siblings of children with ASD, social differences during play were observed by 12 months of age and may inform ongoing monitoring and intervention efforts.

Testing the Father–Child Activation Relationship Theory: A Replication Study With Low-Income Unmarried Parents

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2020

The current study aims to replicate and extend previous research on father–child activation relationship theory, which suggests that fathers engage in stimulating, challenging, and directive parenting behaviors that are likely to benefit children’s development. A large and racially diverse sample of low-income, unmarried couples with young children (n 􏰀 672) was used to examine whether fathers and mothers exhibited an activation parenting profile (high sensitivity, positive regard, and stimulation of cognitive development, moderate levels of intrusive/directive behavior, and low detachment and negative regard). Observations of mother–child and father–child parenting behaviors during the two-bags task with preschool children were included in latent profile analysis to reveal 3 distinct parenting profiles for both fathers and mothers (i.e., supportive, activation, and intrusive), with the activation profile showing a pattern of moderate intrusiveness combined with sensitivity, positive regard, and cognitive stimulation. Four family configurations were created: (a) supportive mother/supportive father (23.74%), (b) support- ive mother/activation father (9.24%), (c) activation mother/activation father (27.31%), and (d) activation mother/supportive father (39.71%). Children with supportive mothers and fathers had higher receptive language scores compared with those from other family groups, and had higher prosocial scores compared with children with activation mothers and activation fathers, but not other family groups (i.e., activation father/supportive mother or supportive father/activation mother). Results support activation relationship theory by noting a pattern of parenting behaviors used by fathers (and mothers) in which parents are moderately intrusive, challenging, or directive with their children, yet still sensitive and positive in their interactions.

Maternal and family predictors of infant psychological development in at‐risk families: A multilevel longitudinal study

Article

Oct 2019

The impact of different parenting‐related variables on child psychological development is widely acknowledged. However, studies about the specific influence of maternal and family dimensions on child early developmental outcomes in at‐risk dyads are still scarce. The aim of this longitudinal study was to investigate the short‐ and middle‐term effects of prenatal and postnatal family and maternal features, and child attachment, on child psychological development at 3 and 24 months in at‐risk families. Forty‐two mothers with psychological, social and/or demographic risk conditions and their first‐born infants were assessed longitudinally. Measurements of maternal personality, psychological and depressive symptoms, family socioeconomic status (SES), child–mother attachment, and infant general psychological development were collected at multiple time points, through validated questionnaires and/or mother–child observation. Maternal and family dimensions showed a significant effect on child psychological development over time. The expected detrimental role of reported maternal depressive symptoms was observed both at 3 and 24 months of child's age. Data also highlighted the negative contribution of low family SES and an unexpected positive influence of maternal personality trait of psychoticism on child psychological development at 24 months. We also found a positive association between attachment security and child developmental outcome. These findings might have relevant implications for the implementation of early prevention programs by differentiating the specific predictive role of maternal child and familial factors on child psychological development in at‐risk families.

DigitalCommons@USU Socioeconomic Status Influence on Mothers' Interactions with Infants: Contributions to Early Infant Development

Thesis

Full-text available

Aug 2018

Krista Gurko

Children from different socioeconomic backgrounds often have different long-term outcomes in terms of school, language, and emotional wellbeing. At this time, no reasons for these differences have been agreed upon by experts across disciplines. Parents with different personal characteristics and life situations use different types and amounts of interactions with their infants. The social interactions infants experience during their first year of life provide the start of their developmental path in the areas of language and executive control while also guiding their expectations for interactions with people around them. This study used previously unpublished data from a sample of 79 young infants, age 3 to 9 months, and their mothers. There was a set of five research questions. The first question guided exploration of how socioeconomic status (SES; represented by maternal education and family income) was associated with the parenting behaviors mothers used with their infants. The second question guided exploration of how mothers’ psychosocial resources (represented by child development knowledge and parenting stress) were associated with the parenting behaviors mothers used with their infants. The third question addressed whether associations between maternal education and parenting behavior were directly connected or if the amount of child development knowledge influenced the association. The fourth question addressed whether associations between family income and parenting behavior were directly connected or if the amount of mothers’ parenting stress influenced the association. The final question addressed whether associations between mothers’ psychosocial parenting resources and infant development were directly connected or if the associations were instead connected by mothers’ psychosocial resources. During a single home visit with each mother and her young infant, the research visitor assessed infant development, video recorded the mother and infant playing during a free play session, and asked mothers to fill out questionnaires. Project questionnaires addressed mothers’ education and family income as well as their levels of child development knowledge and parenting stress. None of the findings directly related to the five hypotheses were statistically significant. However, follow-up analyses provided information about potential future directions for investigating the links between SES, parenting interactions, and infant competencies using smaller categories of education and income levels. These findings from follow-up questions may guide potential future directions for identifying SES and psychosocial influences on early parenting interaction behaviors and young infants’ early development.

The relationship between negative parenting and child and maternal temperament

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021
CURR PSYCHOL

The purpose of the present study was to examine how negative parenting, namely coercive and abusive parenting, relates to maternal and child temperamental characteristics, based on Belsky’s model of parenting. In addition to the unique effects of child temperamental characteristics (approach, perceptual sensitivity, soothability, persistence, and reactivity), we investigated how child temperamental characteristics play a moderating role between maternal temperamental characteristics (negative affect, effortful control, extraversion and orienting sensitivity) and negative parenting. Participants were 209 mothers of preschool children (Mage = 50.01 months, SD = 5.75) from 48 child care centers across the capital city of Turkey. Two sets of hierarchical regression analyses showed that coercive parenting was predicted by child reactivity, perceptual sensitivity, maternal negative affect, and effortful control. In addition, maternal SES and negative affect were related to abusive parenting. Furthermore, interaction between maternal extraversion and child’s persistence predicted coercive parenting. For children with high levels of persistence, maternal extraversion levels did not make any difference in the level of abusive parenting. However, for children with low levels of persistence, mothers who had high levels of extraversion were more likely to display coercive parenting. Consistent with Belsky’s model, both child and maternal characteristics were related to parenting. While both maternal and child characteristics were associated with coercive parenting, only maternal negative effect was associated with abusive parenting.

Supporting positive parenting practices within a community‐based music therapy group program: Pilot study findings

Article

Dec 2018

The aim of this study was to evaluate the benefits of a short‐term, community‐based music therapy group program on positive parenting practices. Parent–child dyads receiving early intervention family services (N = 199) participated in 8 weekly, 45–60 minute, music‐based group play sessions. We analyzed pre–post parent self‐reports that measured parenting competency and clinician‐observed ratings of parental responsiveness that evaluated behavioral domains of play, praise, and consistency. Significant results were found for parent‐reported efficacy (p = 0.008, d = 0.21) and satisfaction (p = 0.004, d = 0.19) but not for interest (p = 0.149, d = 0.12). Significant results were found for clinician‐rated observations of parental responsiveness, including play (p < 0.001), praise (p < 0.001), and consistency (p < 0.001). Short‐term, music‐based parenting programs may be an effective way to improve parents’ sense of competency and foster greater parental responsiveness for those receiving family services.

Associations Between Maternal Control and Child Defiance Among Puerto Rican-Origin Adolescent Mothers and Their Toddlers: A Person-Centered Examination

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2018

Parents use different forms of control to direct children toward their own demands and expectations; however, the literature on Latina parenting has demonstrated mixed findings on the influence of control on child outcomes (Halgunseth, Ispa, & Rudy, 2006). This study tested how maternal control relates to child dysregulated defiance within the cultural context experienced by Latina mother–child dyads. Participants included 122 adolescent mothers of Puerto Rican-origin and their toddlers. Highlighting the importance of ecologically valid and culturally sensitive methods of behavioral observation, mother and child behavior were observed during a clean-up task; mothers also reported on their levels of U.S. acculturation and Puerto Rican enculturation. Using person-centered analyses, we identified groups of mothers by parenting behaviors (i.e., guidance, control, positive affect) and cultural orientation (i.e., acculturation, enculturation). Results revealed four subgroups of mothers with distinct associations to child defiance: (a) enculturated/controlling, (b) bicultural/guiding, (c) bicultural/controlling, (d) acculturated/controlling. Toddlers of the mothers in the acculturated/controlling subgroup displayed greater defiance toward their mothers than those of mothers in the enculturated/controlling subgroup, even though the groups displayed similar levels of control behaviors and positive affect. Toddlers of the enculturated/controlling and the bicultural/guiding mothers displayed similar low levels of defiance, suggesting 2 different parenting approaches with favorable consequences for child behavior in adolescent mother and toddler dyads. Implications for culturally informed research and tailored services for young Latina families are discussed.

CHANGING THE NARRATIVE FOR VULNERABLE CHILDREN: Strengthening ACT systems

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2018

Louise Freebairn

The ACT Children and Young People Death Review Committee (the Committee) is established under the Children and Young People Act 2008 to work towards reducing the number of deaths of ACT children and young people. A key task of the Committee is to undertake research aimed at preventing child deaths. The legislation requires the Committee to report to the Minister on the number, age and sex of children and young people who died during the year. In addition to this the Committee must report on children and young people who, within 3 years before their death were, or had a sibling who was, the subject of a child protection report and on any other matters considered relevant. Research has consistently found that the youngest children are the most vulnerable to early and often preventable deaths (Frederick, Goddard & Oxley 2013; Welch & Bonner, 2013). Consistent with this finding, the Committee’s Annual Reports highlight the high number of deaths of children occurring in the perinatal period and the early years of childhood within the ACT (ACT Children and Young People Death Review Committee, 2017 & 2018). Given the above, it is important that service providers and the Canberra community are made aware of the possible risk factors in the deaths of children aged 0 to 3 years. A purposive sample consisting of eleven children aged 0 to 3 years who died in the ACT prior to 2014 and who were subject to a closed coronial inquiry were selected for this review. A mixed method approach was used in the collection of data. Descriptive statistics regarding the characteristics of child deaths were obtained from the Child Death Register and National Coronial Information System. A constant comparative thematic analysis of the qualitative data contained in Child and Youth Protection Service, ACT Housing, ACT Health and ACT Policing files, where available, was conducted. The review considered 16 risk factors associated with increasing a child’s vulnerability. These factors are found at the individual, parent, community and socio-economic ecological level and include domestic and family violence, drug and alcohol use, housing instability, mental health, physical health and low income. It is also important to emphasise that the small cohort of children and the findings of this review are not representative of all child deaths in the ACT. Nonetheless, the Committee found that the complex characteristics of the lives of the 11 children echo extensive findings in national and international research. All the children experienced one or more risk factors. Analysis of 16 principle risk factors evident prior to birth and in the time leading to each child’s death indicates that for six of the 11 children, life was chaotic with 12 or more risk factors being present. The Committee makes 19 recommendations related to improving system responses to reducing the vulnerability of children aged 0-3 years. The recommendations relate to the policy and practices of government and non-government organisations.

Infants’ Social Experiences in Three African Sociocultural Contexts

Article

Oct 2016

This study introduces a peri-urban context of poverty to the study of child development in Africa in contrast to the more typical assessments in middle-class and rural contexts. Spot observations were used to assess universal caregiving behaviors toward seventy-six 3-month-old infants. Results show that middle-class infants experienced distal parenting behaviors instantiated by mothers, whereas rural children experienced proximal parenting practices in interactions with others. Infants growing up in poverty had mothers and other caretakers involved at mostly low levels. They experienced low levels of body contact, body stimulation, and object stimulation, and high levels of face-to-face positions. The study indicates that caregiving in the context of poverty does not necessarily follow familiar pathways and needs to be contextualized accordingly.

Maternal interactive behaviors, mothers’ history of childhood adversities, and parental sense of competence

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2024
CURR PSYCHOL

The present study aimed to examine the mothers` interactive behaviors with their children related to their history of adverse experiences at childhood and parental sense of competence. The sample was composed by 47 mothers and their children of 2-to-5-year-old. One observational session of mother–child interactions was recorded. In another session, the questionnaires (Adverse Childhood Experience [ACE] and Parental Sense of Competence Scale [PSOC]) were applied. Parenting Interactions with Children coded the maternal interactive behavior: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO). The sample was divided according to Medium–High- and Low-PICCOLO performance into two situations respectively (free- and structured-play). The results showed that maternal interactive behavior performance in both situations was similar in the medium–high and low groups, independently of the mothers` history of adversities at childhood and sense of parental competence. In conclusion, mothers showed overall positive interactive behavior patterns, also in all specific domains, and a high level of parental sense of competence, independently of recollected adverse maternal childhood experiences.

Inconclusive evidence for an increasing effect of maternal supportiveness on childhood intelligence in Dunkel et al. (2023): A simulated reanalysis

Article

Apr 2024
INTELLIGENCE

ปัจจัยที่มีอิทธิพลต่อการตอบสนองความต้องการของทารก ในมารดาที่มีบุตรคนแรก

Article

May 2017

จีรันดา อ่อนเจริญ

Listening to mothers’ voices of children’s play challenges and changes during social distancing

Article

Feb 2023

This study explores how mothers in the US described challenges to their children’s (ages birth to eight) play experiences at home during social distancing due to the COVID-19 virus. Understanding their lived experiences is valuable because it will add insight into the effects of this unique time period on the critical role parent-child interactions play in children’s physical, social, and emotional well-being. Using a phenomenological design, interviews with 14 mothers revealed a common experience in which play efforts were altered at times due to challenges related to social distancing and COVID-19. Four themes described these challenges: Lack of Parent Resources and Support, Work and Child Care Balance, Children’s Struggles with Social Isolation, and Children’s Uncertainty Regarding COVID-19. Mothers believed it was their responsibility to keep their children engaged in play as part of their childcare duties. They struggled to balance work and childcare, did not always enjoy playing with their children, and desired alone time to recover during this challenging time. They sought to best meet their children’s needs but had to make allowances to their parenting practices and play attitudes. The authors discuss how more intensive parenting philosophies could be difficult to sustain when society does not operate as usual.

LA SENSIBILITÉ MATERNELLE LORS DU PLACEMENT : ASSOCIATIONS AVEC LA RÉUNIFICATION FAMILIALE ET LES CARACTÉRISTIQUES INDIVIDUELLESMATERNAL SENSITIVITY IN THE CONTEXT OF CHILD PLACEMENT: ASSOCIATIONS WITH FAMILY REUNIFICATION AND MATERNAL CHARACTERISTICS

Article

Jan 2022

Understanding the Role of Parental Control in Early Childhood in the Context of U.S. Latino Families in the 21st Century

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2022

Marta Benito-Gomez

This review focuses on the role of parental control in the sociocultural context of U.S. Latino families with young children in the 21st century. The review begins with a historical overview of the concept of parental control and a summary of theoretical approaches to the study of parenting in context. Associations between different forms of parental control and children’s adjustment are summarized, with special attention to cultural considerations and the role of maternal warmth in research involving Latino families. Variability and inconsistencies within the literature on parental control within this population are discussed. The review concludes by discussing future directions for research on this topic, and implications of this literature to move the field toward a better understanding of parenting behaviors and its effects on child functioning in families from different ethnic backgrounds in the 21st century.

Maternal postpartum stress and toddler developmental delays: Results from a multisite study of racially diverse families

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2019

Maternal psychosocial stress during pregnancy can adversely influence child development, but few studies have investigated psychosocial stress during the postpartum period and its association with risk of toddler developmental delays. Moreover, given the expanding diversity of the U.S. population, and well‐documented health and stress disparities for racial and ethnic minorities, research examining the effect of postpartum stress on risk of developmental delays in diverse populations is of critical importance. In this study, data from the Community Child Health Network provided the opportunity to test maternal postpartum stress as a predictor of toddler risk of developmental delay in a sample of African American, Latina and non‐Hispanic White women and their toddlers (N = 1537) recruited in urban, suburban, and rural communities. Postpartum maternal stress over 1 year was operationalized as perceived stress, life events, and negative impact of life events. Regression results revealed higher risk of developmental delays in toddlers whose mothers experienced more negative life events, greater negative impact of events, and higher perceived stress over the year. Prenatal stress, pregnancy/birth complications, and postpartum depression did not explain these associations. Maternal postpartum stress may contribute to increased risk for developmental delays and is an important target for psychosocial intervention.

The parent/caregiver involvement scale – Short form is a valid measure of parenting quality in high-risk families

Article

Feb 2019
INFANT BEHAV DEV

Measures of parenting quality that are valid among high-risk families are needed for research and program evaluation. This study investigates the functioning of the Parent-Caregiver Involvement Scale –Short Form (P/CIS-SF) in a high-risk sample. The P/CIS-SF measures several behaviors pertaining to both “amount” and “quality,” as well overall “impressions” of parenting. Participants were 170 six-month-olds and their mothers who were at risk for child abuse, impoverished, single, young, and had multiple children. Mother-infant interaction was videotaped in the home during semi-structured play. These high-risk parents scored in the midrange on most P/CIS-SF items, indicating that mothers engaged with their infants for approximately 50% of the semi-structured play session and the engagement tended to be of moderate quality. There were no floor or ceiling effects with the exception of “teaching behavior” which was rare among these parents. Analysis revealed that while “amount” and “quality” are interrelated, they capture distinct aspects of parenting. Validity of P/CIS-SF scores was indicated by correlation with Ainsworth’s sensitivity scale and the Emotional Availability Scales intrusiveness subscale. P/CIS-SF scores also correlated with maternal education, but were independent of maternal risk (i.e., depression, drug use, domestic violence, and child abuse) within this high-risk sample. Implications are that the P/CIS-SF is valid for measuring parenting quality in high-risk families and is able to distinguish between dimensions of parenting, making it useful for targeted interventions.

Bedingungen sensitiver Mutter-Kind-Interaktionen

Chapter

Jan 2016

In der frühen Kindheit gelten sensitive Mutter-Kind-Interaktionen als besonders förderlich für die sprachliche, kognitive und sozio-emotionale Entwicklung des Kindes. Sensitivität ist dabei definiert als ein Verhalten, das auf kindliche Bedürfnisse und Interessen angemessen reagiert und Bezug nimmt (Ainsworth et al., 1974). In internationalen Studien konnten Merkmale des Kindes, der Mutter und des Kontexts für dieses Interaktionsverhalten als ursächlich identifiziert werden. Hinsichtlich kindlicher Einflüsse gilt es, insbesondere die aktive Rolle in der Interaktion selbst zu berücksichtigen, um der dyadischen Natur von Sensitivität Rechnung zu tragen. Daher wird in diesem Beitrag anhand repräsentativer Daten des Nationalen Bildungspanels der Frage nachgegangen, welche situationsspezifischen und generellen Merkmale im deutschen Kontext für sensitives Interaktionsverhalten relevant sind. Zu diesem Zweck wurden Videoaufnahmen halb-strukturierter Interaktionssituationen von Müttern mit ihren sieben Monate alten Kindern angefertigt und analysiert. Anschließend wurden mittels bivariater und multivariater Verfahren die relevanten Bedingungen der sensitiven Mutter-Kind-Interaktion ermittelt. Das sensitive Interaktionsverhalten bewegte sich durchschnittlich auf einem mittleren Niveau. Sozio-ökonomische Kontextmerkmale (wie Einkommensarmut und der mütterliche Bildungshintergrund) erwiesen sich als relevante Prädiktoren. Andere Merkmale der Mutter, wie ihr Alter und die erlebte psychische Belastung, sowie das alltäglich erlebte Temperament des Kindes, wiesen keinen oder lediglich einen geringen Zusammenhang auf. Als relevantester Prädiktor zeigten sich Merkmale des Kindes in der Interaktionssituation. Damit unterstreichen diese Ergebnisse die aktive Rolle des Kindes in der Interaktionssituation und bestätigen im Wesentlichen internationale Befunde.

Einfluss eines schwierigen frühkindlichen Temperaments auf die Qualität der Mutter-Kind-Interaktion unter psychosozialen Risikolagen

Article

Mar 2018

Quality of early home learning environment, especially of maternal interaction behaviour, strongly influences child development. The study investigated whether this quality is reduced by difficult child temperament in presence of cumulated strains of maternal coping capacities. We draw on 2190 cases of the Starting Cohort 1 of the German National Educational Panel Study (NEPS) when children were 6-8 months old. Quality of parent-child-interactions was assessed in the household context by video-codings of semi-structured play situations, other variables via computer assisted interviews. While the relationship in the non-risk sample was very low, the risk-sample (with at least 3 cumulated strains) children's negative affectivity but not their regulatory capacities clearly reduced interaction-quality. This suggests that difficult temperament poses an additional developmental risk for children growing up under difficult circumstances.

Ethnic Differences in Mothering Qualities and Relations to Academic Achievement

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2017

Although qualities of mothering behavior have been consistently linked with children’s academic outcomes, mothers from different ethnic groups may emphasize different dimensions with their children. The present investigation aims to evaluate and compare the dimensionality of mothering in low-income African American (n = 151) and Mexican American (n = 182) mothers during early childhood and its predictive utility for children’s academic achievement. Video-recorded mother–child interactions with children at 2½ and 3½ years of age were rated using 6 mothering quality items from a widely used global rating system. A bifactor measurement model of these 6 items yielded a general sensitive support factor and a specific intrusive-insensitive factor. The bifactor model fit the data significantly better at both time points than either a single-factor or a 2-factor model. Invariance testing supported the stability of the measurement model across the 2 time points. Invariance testing by ethnicity indicated differences in factor loadings as well as mean levels of the specific factor of intrusive-insensitivity. The specific factor reflecting intrusive-insensitive mothering at age 2½ years was associated with poorer subsequent reading achievement for African American but not Mexican American children, suggesting the specific factor reflected qualitatively different parenting constructs for the 2 ethnic groups. Critical examination of what constitutes more optimal parenting yielded both similar and dissimilar characteristics and their relations across culturally different groups of families. Such knowledge should contribute to the development of more effective interventions for ethnically diverse families.

Predicting Cognitive-Language and Social Growth Curves From Early Maternal Behaviors in Children at Varying Degrees of Biological Risk

Article

Full-text available

Nov 1997

Growth modeling was used to examine the relation of early parenting behaviors (averaged across 6 and 12 months) with rates of change in children’s cognitive-language and social response and initiating skills assessed at 6, 12, 24, and 40 months. Groups of full-term (n = 112) and very low birth weight children, divided into medically low (n = 114) and high risk (HR; n = 73), were included to evaluate whether children who vary in their rate of development are influenced in different ways by early parenting styles. Parenting behaviors that were sensitive to children’s focus of interest and did not highly control or restrict their behaviors predicted greater increases and faster rates of cognitive-language and social development, with relations stronger for the HR versus the other two groups. These maternal behaviors may provide the support all infants need to establish an optimal early foundation for later development and the specific support HR children need to learn in spite of early attentional and organizational problems.

Adolescent Mothers in Later Life

Article

Full-text available

Sep 1987

Parenting and Children's Behavior at 36 Months: Equivalence Between African American and European American Mother - Child Dyads

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2009

Objective. This study examines the similarity of parenting and the associations between maternal behavior and child problem and prosocial behavior across two racial groups. Design. Using data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care (SECC), analyses included an examination of the comparability of maternal and child behavior between African American (n = 123) and European American (n = 953) families using multiple-group mean and covariance structures analysis (MACS). Observational data from two mother - child activities and maternal report of child behavior were used to construct three parenting and four child latent constructs. Results. Comparable measures of parenting (Responsive, Harsh, and Intrusive), child problem behavior (Externalizing and Internalizing), and child prosocial behavior (Compliance and Expressiveness) were found using partial invariance methods across racial groups. The associations between harsh, intrusive and responsive parenting and child behaviors were found to be similar across racial groups. Conclusions. Generality in the organization of parenting and similarity in their association to child behavior obtain across racial groups.

Boosting Children's Memory by Training Mothers in the Use of an Elaborative Conversational Style as an Event Unfolds

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2003

An experimental methodology was adapted to examine children's language skills and mothers' conversational styles during a specified event as they are linked to the children's event memory. Thirty-nine preschoolers (mean age = 46.82 months) were pretested and grouped as having high or low language skills. Children in each group were then randomly assigned to either maternal-style training or no training conditions. Trained mothers were instructed to use 4 specific conversational techniques to enhance children's understanding of unfolding events: Wh- questions, associations, follow-ins, and positive evaluations. When observed engaging with their children in a specially constructed camping activity, trained mothers did indeed use these elements of style more than untrained mothers. Moreover, assessments of the children's memory after 1-day- and 3-week-delay intervals indicated substantial effects of both maternal training and children's language skills on remembering.

Fathering in Infancy: Mutuality and Stability Between 8 and 16 Months

Article

Full-text available

May 2006

Objective. This longitudinal investigation explores how fathers engage with their infants, how their behaviors matter within and across developmental time, and how demographic and social factors affect the quality of the father infant relationship. Design. Participants were 74 racially and ethnically diverse, low-income fathers from the Father and Newborn Study (FANS) and their 8- and 16-month-old infants (36 boys, 38 girls). Father - infant interactions were videotaped during semistructured free play in participants' homes. The quality of father - infant interactions was assessed using Likert-type ratings of fathers' and infants' behaviors. Fathers also rated their relationship with their infant's mother. Results. Two factors of father engagement emerged at each age (Responsive - Didactic and Negative - Overbearing), 2 factors of infant behavior at 8 months (Mastery, Social - Communicative), and 3 factors of infant behavior at 16 months (Mastery, Social, and Communicative). Responsive - Didactic fathering was concurrently associated with infant behaviors at both ages; although fathering at 8 months only marginally predicted infant 16-month Social behaviors. Fathers who were older, more educated, married to their partners, and who had higher incomes were more Responsive - Didactic at 8 months. Fathers' age and the quality of the mother - father relationship predicted fathers' Responsive - Didactic behaviors at the 16-month assessment. Conclusions. Fathers' responsiveness is important to infants' social and communicative behaviors, and the mother father relationship influences fathering during the formative period of infancy.

Beyond Rough and Tumble: Low-Income Fathers' Interactions and Children's Cognitive Development at 24 Months

Article

Full-text available

May 2002

Objective. The purpose of this investigation was to explore associations between father-child interactions and children's cognitive status in an underrepresented group of low-income, ethnically diverse families. Design. Participants were 65 inner-city fathers and their 24-month-old children (34 boys, 31 girls). Father-child interactions were videotaped for 10 min at home during semistructured free play, and mental scale scores on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development were obtained on children. The quality of father-child interactions was assessed using 14 Likert ratings of fathers (e.g., responsiveness, language quality, and intrusiveness) and 12 of children (e.g., play, participation, emotional regulation, and communication). Results. Factor analyses revealed 2 patterns of engagement in fathers (Responsive-Didactic and Negative-Intrusive) and 3 in children (Playful-Communicative, Social, and Regulated). Thirty-six children scored within normal limits on the MDI and 29 scored in the delayed range. Together, fathers' and children's factor scores explained more than 25% of the variance in children's performance on the MDI. Logistic regressions indicated that fathers with high scores on the Responsive-Didactic factor were nearly 5 times more likely to have children within the normal range on the MDI than were low-scoring fathers. Conclusions. These findings point to the importance of considering fathers' role in early cognitive development, particularly in low-income families in which children begin to exhibit significant declines in their second and third years. Positive father-child interactions appear to obviate cognitive delay.

Adult attunement and child availability: Interaction of mother and caregiver with three-year-old kibbutz children

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2000
INFANT MENT HEALTH J

Relationships of mother and nonmaternal caregiver with 33 three-year-old kibbutz toddlers were investigated. Attunement and intrusiveness of these caregivers in their contact with children were determined by analysis of discrete child–adult interactions rather than by a global assessment of their relationships. The validity of these adult attunement scores was examined first by comparison of the attunement and intrusiveness scores of mother and of caregiver, and second by determining their association with independent scores of child availability to each of these caregiving adults. Results tended to support the validity of the present measures of adult attunement to the child. They indicated that in cases of disagreement mothers were more attuned than nonmaternal caregivers to the signals of the child, and the level of adult attuned agreement to the child was positively associated with cooperative attempts of children to involve caregivers in their activities © 2000 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.

The Effects of Infant Child Care on Infant–Mother Attachment Security: Results of the NICDH Study of Early Child Care

Article

Full-text available

Aug 1997
CHILD DEV

The aims of this investigation were to determine whether Strange Situation attachment classifications were equally valid for infants with and without extensive child-care experience in the first year of life and whether early child-care experience, alone or in combination with mother/child factors, was associated with attachment security, and specifically with insecure-avoidant attachment. Participants were 1,153 infants and their mothers at the 10 sites of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. Mothers were interviewed, given questionnaires, and observed in play and in the home when their infants were from 1 to 15 months of age; infants were observed in child care at 6 and 15 months and in the Strange Situation at 15 months. Infants with extensive child-care experience did not differ from infants without child care in the distress they exhibited during separations from mother in the Strange Situation or in the confidence with which trained coders assisted them attachment classifications. There were no significant main effects of child-care experience (quality, amount, age of entry, stability, or type of care) on attachment security or avoidance. There were, however, significant main effects of maternal sensitivity and responsiveness. Significant interaction effects revealed that infants were less likely to be secure when low maternal sensitivity/responsiveness was combined with poor quality child care, more than minimal amounts of child care, or more than one care arrangement. In addition, boys experiencing many hours in care and girls in minimal amounts of care were somewhat less likely to he securely attached.

Depression in First-Time Mothers: Mother-Infant Interaction and Depression Chronicity

Article

Full-text available

May 1995

Married, middle-class women who met diagnostic criteria for depression and a comparable group of nondepressed women were videotaped interacting with their infants at home at 2, 4, and 6 months. When depression was defined in terms of 2-month diagnosis, there were no differences between depressed and comparison mothers or babies in either positive or negative interaction during feeding, face-to-face interaction, or toy play. However, women whose depressions lasted through 6 months were less positive with their infants across these 3 contexts than women whose depressions were more short-lived, and their babies were less positive during face-to-face interaction. These data highlight the need to distinguish between transient and protracted depression in evaluating depression effects on the mother–infant relationship and infant outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Mother–infant interaction and development of individual differences in children's cognitive competence

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1984

Assessed the antecedents of individual differences in children's cognitive/language competence at age 24 mo using multivariate methods at ages 6, 13, and 24 mo in 121 Ss. Assessments included detailed observations of mother–children interaction, standardized tests of child cognitive development (including the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment and the Bayley Mental Scale of Infant Development), and examiner and maternal ratings of child sociability. There were meaningful patterns of continuity in the child and especially mother behavior factors across ages, and mother–child warm, verbal interactions at each age were associated with a composite index of child competence at 24 mo. A path analysis showed that altogether, 40% of the variance in competence outcome was explained by the 4 variables in the model (interaction at 3 ages and SES). The analysis also showed that the original bivariate correlation between interaction at 6 mo and later competence could be explained by continuity in interaction qualities at 6 and 24 mo rather than as a direct effect. However, the 13-mo interaction showed both a direct path to competence and an indirect one via age 24-mo interaction. SES had a modest significant correlation with competence, but in the path analysis this was dissipated in nonsignificant paths to the interaction variables. Partial correlations suggested that child developmental competence and sociability at earlier ages did not mediate the relationships between mother–infant interaction and later child competence. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Specificity in Mother-Toddler Language-Play Relations Across the Second Year

Article

Full-text available

Mar 1994

Relations among specific aspects of language (comprehension and production, semantics, and utterance length) and relations between language and symbolic play were evaluated when children were 13 and 20 mo of age. The contributions of maternal stimulation to toddler performance and whether associations among toddler abilities might be explained by maternal behaviors were also examined. Although measures of toddler language covaried, language–play associations in toddlers were specific to semantic aspects of language. Associations between mother and toddler behaviors emerged and tended to be specific: Maternal language related to toddler language, and maternal play related to toddler play. Moreover, relations among toddler abilities maintained after maternal influences were partialed. The multidimensional structure of language and specificities in language–play associations are discussed with reference to models of early representational development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Current Patterns of Parental Authority

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1971

Diana Baumrind

Attempted (a) to replicate or modify parent-child relationships found in 2 previous studies by D. Baumrind (see record 1967-05780-001) and D. Baumrind and A. E. Black (see record 1967-10271-001); and (b) to differentiate further among patterns of parental authority and measure their effects upon the behavior of preschool children. Data were based upon observational procedures, and were analyzed for boys and girls separately. Ss were 146 white preschool children and their families. Results include the following: (a) authoritative parental behavior was clearly associated with independent, purposive behavior for girls but only associated with such behavior for boys when the parents were nonconforming; (b) authoritative parental control was clearly associated with all indexes of social responsibility in boys compared to authoritarian and permissive parental control, and with high achievement in girls, but not with friendly, cooperative behavior; and (c) contrary to expectations, parental nonconformity was not associated with lack of social responsibility in either boys or girls. (45 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

The Relations of Maternal Social Support and Family Structure With Maternal Responsiveness and Child Outcomes Among African American Families

Article

Full-text available

Nov 1996

The social support networks and family structure of 62 low-income African American mothers were related to proximal and distal measures of the mother's parenting style and to the children's social and cognitive development. Women with larger support networks tended to be more responsive in interactions with their infants and to provide more stimulating home environments than mothers with smaller social networks. Activity level was the only infant outcome significantly related to social support. Family structure was not associated with either maternal or child outcomes in these analyses. These results support a systems model of parenting behavior and child development by indicating that maternal caregiving may be positively influenced by supportive social networks.

Physical Discipline Among African American and European American Mothers: Links to Children's Externalizing Behaviors

Article

Full-text available

Nov 1996

The aim of this study was to test whether the relation between physical discipline and child aggression was moderated by ethnic-group status. A sample of 466 European American and 100 African American children from a broad range of socioeconomic levels were followed from kindergarten through 3rd grade. Mothers reported their use of physical discipline in interviews and questionnaires, and mothers, teachers, and peers rated children's externalizing problems annually. The interaction between ethnic status and discipline was significant for teacher- and peer-rated externalizing scores; physical discipline was associated with higher externalizing scores, but only among European American children. These findings provide evidence that the link between physical punishment and child aggression may be culturally specific.

“Maternal Depression and Child Development.” [Annual Research Review]

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2006
J CHILD PSYCHOL PSYC

The Psychology of Parental Control: How Well-meant Parenting Backfires

Book

Dec 2002

Wendy S. Grolnick

Reintroducing parental psychological control.

Chapter

Jan 2002

Brian K. Barber

Adolescent Mothers in Later Life

Book

Sep 1987

This landmark study traces the life histories of approximately 300 teenage mothers and their children over a seventeen-year period. From interview data and case studies, it provides a vivid account of the impact of early childbearing on young mothers and their children. Some remarkable and surprising results emerge from this unique study of the long term adaptation to early parenthood. It also offers refreshing insights into the unexplored connections between mothers' careers and the development of their children. Adolescent Mothers in Later Life will be an invaluable resource for all those interested in teenage pregnancy.

MATERNAL TEACHING STRATEGIES IN CHICANO AND ANGLO-AMERICAN FAMILIES - THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE AND EDUCATION ON MATERNAL-BEHAVIOR

Article

Jan 1980

LM LAOSA

MARRIAGE, ADULT ADJUSTMENT, AND EARLY PARENTING

Article

Oct 1989

38 couples maries avec un premier ne de trois mois sont etudies pour analyser l'impact de la qualite des liens maritaux (niveau de communication du couple) sur la qualite parentale (plaisir, acceptation, sensibilite et perception)

ANALYSIS AND REPLICATION OF MOTHER-CHILD RELATIONS AT 2-YEARS OF AGE

Article

Jan 1979

A Conceptual Approach to Early Mental Development

Chapter

Jan 1983

Robert B. McCall

One of the major preoccupations of our discipline is the study of mental development. Our thinking has been focused on several broad issues, namely, (1) the relative contributions of heredity and environment, (2) individual differences and the species-general developmental stages of mental development, and (3) consistency and change.

Play in parent-child interactions

Article

Jan 2002

Parent–child conversations during play

Article

Nov 2012

The language of mothers, fathers, and children was examined in 50 low-income families. Mother–child and father–child dyads were videotaped separately during play when children were 2;0 years old. Language transcriptions were coded for communicative diversity, word types, and grammatical complexity in parents and children. Mother–child and father–child conversations were similar and were strongly correlated at the dyad level, although differences emerged in the repetitions of children’s utterances, closed-ended questions, affirmations, and action directives. Mothers’ and fathers’ language related to children’s language in specific ways. Individual children experience relatively enriched or impoverished language environments, rather than one parent “compensating” for the other. This may explain why some low-income children lag in their language development early on, whereas others are “on track.”

Low-Income Children's School Readiness: Parent Contributions Over the First Five Years

Article

Dec 2009

Early development is likely influenced by quality of early parenting and improvements or declines in quality over time. Little is known about how changes in different dimensions of parenting influence child outcomes, nor the relative sizes of associations when considering several aspects simultaneously. These questions are addressed in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project (N = 1273). Assessments occurred when children were 1, 2, 3, and 5 years old. Parent supportiveness (videotaped play interactions), home learning environment (observed), and depressive symptoms and parenting stress (self-report) were assessed. Children's school readiness at age 5 was assessed via receptive vocabulary, letter–word knowledge, observed emotion regulation, approaches toward learning, and behavior problems. In this low-income sample, early parenting as well as change over time predicted school readiness. Associations mostly followed predictions from the family stress model and cognitive stimulation models; learning environment and maternal supportiveness were most strongly associated with child vocabulary and letter–word knowledge, although supportiveness was also linked with observed emotion regulation, and learning environment early on was also linked with emotion regulation, and early learning environment was also linked with emotion regulation, and early learning environment was also linked with behavior problems and approaches toward learning. Depressive symptoms and parenting stress were more strongly associated with behavior problems, although early parenting stress was also associated with approaches toward learning and emotion regulation.

Maternal Depressive Symptoms in Relation to Dimensions of Parenting in Low-Income Mothers

Article

Jan 2002

Relations between maternal depressive symptoms and parenting were examined in low-income, inner-city mothers and their 18- to 24-month-old toddlers. Maternal depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) depression inventory, and 3 dimensions of parenting were assessed from maternal interviews and home visits: (a) provision of age-appropriate play materials, (b) organization of the home environment, and (c) quality of mother-child interactions. Maternal depressive symptoms related inversely to the quality of mother-child interactions, but did not relate to the provision of play materials and organization of the home environment. High scores on the CES-D were associated with less sensitivity, engagement, affection, and more rigidity in mothers; with less compliance, affection, engagement, and gentleness in children. In addition, higher CES-D scores were associated with less mutual communication, reciprocity, and enjoyment in the dyad. Neither socioeconomic status, maternal IQ, nor absence-presence of a partner related directly to parenting. These findings suggest that maternal depressive symptoms play a key role in the quality of mother-child interactions.

Maternal Teaching Strategies in Chicano and Anglo-American Families: The Influence of Culture and Education on Maternal Behavior

Article

Jun 1980

Luis M. Laosa

The study examined (a) whether differences exist between Chicano and Anglo-American families in the strategies that mothers use to teach their own children, and (b) whether such differences, if they exist, are likely to persist or disappear as a result of effective social change toward increased educational and occupational equality in the society where the 2 groups coexist. 83 Chicano and Anglo-American mothers were observed in their homes teaching cognitive-perceptual tasks to their own 5-year-old children. Significant differences in maternal teaching strategies were found between the 2 cultural groups. Results also showed that these differences appear to be the result of differences in the average level of formal education attained by the mothers in the 2 cultural populations. These results suggest that the observed differences in maternal teaching strategies may disappear as women in the 2 cultural groups attain similar levels of formal education.

Analysis and Replication of Mother-Child Relations at Two Years of Age

Article

Sep 1979

This study adopted the same cross-dimensional approach to the study of mother-child interaction that was used by Clarke-Stewart in 1973. Its major purpose was replication: replication of the 1973 study with different children at a different age (2-2½ years) and replication in a series of four different samples (N's = 14, 30, 31, and 35). Variables included measures of children's cognitive, language, and social development and mothers' attitudes, ability, and behavior, assessed in standardized tests, semistructured situations, and natural observations. Like the 1973 study, this study revealed a general competence cluster for children comprising IQ, language level, and interaction with mother. It was most closely correlated with the mother's positive and responsive interaction and language to the child. The child's sociability to adult strangers was related to mother-child interaction and the mother's attitude and activities, but sociability to another child was not correlated with maternal variables. Replicability in the four samples was examined in terms of methodological independence of variables, comparability of measures, p levels for correlation coefficients, differences in sample sizes and means, and predictability of relations from prior research and theory.

Externalizing Behavior Problems and Discipline Revisited: Nonlinear Effects and Variation by Culture, Context, and Gender

Article

Jul 1997

Debate continues regarding the magnitude and importance of parenting effects on the development of children's externalizing behavior problems, in, spite of the evidence that environments (as well as genes) contribute to individual differences in these behaviors. Research has demonstrated an association between harsh physical discipline and child aggression and conduct problems, a likely causal mechanism that probably operates as a shared environmental factor. We offer four hypotheses about the relation between discipline practices and child externalizing problems that may resolve same debate and help lead toward a more comprehensive understanding of how and when discipline practices will make a substantial difference: 1. The association between discipline and child aggression includes a nonlinear component. 2. The parent behavior-child behavior link varies across cultural groups. 3. Parental discipline effects on children vary according to the context of the broader parent-child relationship. 4. The discipline effect is maximized in same-gender parent-child dyads. Discussion focuses on the role of children's mental representations of discipline experiences as a mediator of discipline effects, and research implications with respect to sampling, measurement, and analytic strategies are noted.

Patterns of attachment: A Psychological Study Of The Strange Situation

Article

Jan 1979

Ethological attachment theory is a landmark of 20th century social and behavioral sciences theory and research. This new paradigm for understanding primary relationships across the lifespan evolved from John Bowlby's critique of psychoanalytic drive theory and his own clinical observations, supplemented by his knowledge of fields as diverse as primate ethology, control systems theory, and cognitive psychology. By the time he had written the first volume of his classic Attachment and Loss trilogy, Mary D. Salter Ainsworth's naturalistic observations in Uganda and Baltimore, and her theoretical and descriptive insights about maternal care and the secure base phenomenon had become integral to attachment theory. Patterns of Attachment reports the methods and key results of Ainsworth's landmark Baltimore Longitudinal Study. Following upon her naturalistic home observations in Uganda, the Baltimore project yielded a wealth of enduring, benchmark results on the nature of the child's tie to its primary caregiver and the importance of early experience. It also addressed a wide range of conceptual and methodological issues common to many developmental and longitudinal projects, especially issues of age appropriate assessment, quantifying behavior, and comprehending individual differences. In addition, Ainsworth and her students broke new ground, clarifying and defining new concepts, demonstrating the value of the ethological methods and insights about behavior. Today, as we enter the fourth generation of attachment study, we have a rich and growing catalogue of behavioral and narrative approaches to measuring attachment from infancy to adulthood. Each of them has roots in the Strange Situation and the secure base concept presented in Patterns of Attachment. It inclusion in the Psychology Press Classic Editions series reflects Patterns of Attachment's continuing significance and insures its availability to new generations of students, researchers, and clinicians.

The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population

Article

Jun 1977
APPL PSYCH MEAS

Lenore Sawyer Radloff

The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.

Mother and Caregiver Sensitivity Over Time: Predicting Language and Academic Outcomes With Variable- and Person-Centered Approaches

Article

Jul 2006
MERRILL PALMER QUART

Maternal Responsiveness, Intrusiveness, and Negativity During Play with Infants: Contextual Associations and Infant Cognitive Status in A Low‐Income Sample

Abstract

No full-text available