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Professional standards in public relations: A survey of educators
Abstract
A survey instrument operationalizing twenty-four elements of professional performance was administered to 291 public relations educators across the nation, yielding a 43.6 percent response rate. Respondents assessed the extent to which a standard of professionalism currently exists for each of the twenty-four items. Educators tended to view writing/editing and graphics/production skills, ethical guidelines, accreditation, and ''public relations as advocacy'' as enjoying well-established standards. Licensing, location of public relations on the organizational chart and inclusion of public relations in the dominant coalition were viewed as most lacking in a standard of professional performance. The twenty-four items factored into six: dimensions. Assessments of professionalism along these six factors differed significantly as a function of sex, region, tenure of teaching, size of institution, and whether the educator was accredited by PRSA. Comparing educators' assessments with practitioners' views expressed in an earlier national survey, it is dear that professional standards in public relations have pet to have coalesced among educators or practitioners. Given the influence that educators have on the future of the field, it is imperative that educators work to elevate the profession by promulgating professional standards among their students. This study, conducted under the auspices of the Yarbrough Public Relations Laboratory, is a follow up to results of a survey of practitioners reported in the article titled ''Developing Standards of Professional Performance in Public Relations'' published in Public Relations Review in 1996.
... The state of public relations education is frequently under scrutiny, which is understandable since educators and practitioners alike want to ensure that public relations students receive a comprehensive education that will benefit the field. Some argue that because public relations is a relatively new field, a common curriculum has not been formed regarding the range and content of courses, especially at the undergraduate level (Caudill, Ashdown, & Caudill, 1990;Sallot, Cameron, & Weaver-Lariscy, 1997, 1998. Brody (1985) asserted that public relations education is a hybrid of academic and professional influences with little consensus as to how best meet the needs of both scholars and practitioners. ...
... Professionalism. The nature of professionalism is nebulous to most individuals in public relations, regardless of academic and professional status, although a study by Sallot, Cameron, and Weaver (1997) found that educators have a clearer idea of professionalism than practitioners. Regardless, Hornaman and Sriramesh (2003) found that the least agreed upon area of public relations education was professionalism, but that educators and practitioners agreed public relations education is the best tool in helping public relations grow into a profession. ...
... But how uniform is the industry in reality? According to a study by Sallot, Cameron, and Weaver-Lariscy (1997), educators have a clearer understanding of what professionalism is, and another study by the same team (1998b) showed that educators are also more optimistic about standards in the field than practitioners are. ...
... This study, which is inspired by Frandsen and Johansen's (2008) study in Denmark, aims to evaluate the contributions of consultants from PR agencies. Adapting indicators to assess professionalism proposed by Lages and Simkin (2003) and Sallot, Cameron and Lariscy (1997) and integrating them with variables from the contingency theory (Pang, Jin, & Cameron, 2010), this study seeks to examine: (1) the level of expertise of consultants in offering crisis management consultancy; (2) the level of experience of consultants offering crisis management consultancy; and (3) the value and expedience of the consultancy services offered. Findings showed that agencies in Singapore hired consultants based on skills such as writing, speaking and ability to manage the media. ...
... Adapting and integrating indicators to assess professionalism proposed by Lages and Simkin (2003), Sallot et al. (1997), and related public relations literature, this study seeks to examine: (1) the level of expertise of Singapore consultants in offering crisis management consultancy; (2) the level of experience of the consultants; and (3) the value and expedience of the consultancy services offered. The research design comprised two stages. ...
... • College degree/education (Cameron et al., 1996;Pang et al., 2010;Sallot et al., 1997). ...
... stated that because educators have a strong influence on the future of the field, they are responsible for teaching professional standards to their students, which will in turn elevate the profession. They also argued that there is minimal agreement among educators and professionals about what constitutes professionalism (Sallot et al. 1997). In addition, Hazleton & Long (1988) argued that in order to contribute to the profession, public relations students need to learn about the unique functions and processes of the field. ...
... Some authors have argued that because public relations is a relatively new field, a consensus has not been formed regarding the topics that public relations students should be taught and the courses that should be offered in undergraduate education (E. Caudill et al. 1990, VanLeuven 1989a, Sallot et al. 1997. ...
... He also noted that public relations curriculum is outdated. Sallot et al. (1997 found in two studies that educators and practitioners have distinct views on professional standards, and they argued that in order to improve education, practitioners and educators need to come to a consensus about those professional standards, including education. Consensus is important because without it, students do not receive uniform training, which leads to confusion about the roles and functions of public relations practitioners. ...
... 7. Estabelecer relações continuadas com instituições de ensino superior (quer seja através da oferta de estágios quer da participação em workshops ou seminários). Sobre o papel da educação superior em RP para elevar o status da profissão pode-se observar que muitos autores advogam a necessidade de treino especializado e continuado (Grunig 1989;Sallot 1997Sallot , 1998Turk 1989;Van Leuven 1989) e também, a urgência de chegar a um consenso sobre o qual o curriculum de educação em RP ideal (Sallot 1997(Sallot , 1998Van Leuven 1989 ). Sallot et al (1997Sallot et al ( , 1998a descobriram que educadores e profissionais têm visões diferentes sobre a profissão e concluíram que, para melhorar a educação, primeiro é necessário estar de acordo sobre quais são os padrões profissionais e qual o curriculum de RP mais apropriado. Certamente que a falta de consenso torna difícil definir exactamente o que são as RP e como podem contribuir para o sucesso das organizações. ...
... 7. Estabelecer relações continuadas com instituições de ensino superior (quer seja através da oferta de estágios quer da participação em workshops ou seminários). Sobre o papel da educação superior em RP para elevar o status da profissão pode-se observar que muitos autores advogam a necessidade de treino especializado e continuado (Grunig 1989;Sallot 1997Sallot , 1998Turk 1989;Van Leuven 1989) e também, a urgência de chegar a um consenso sobre o qual o curriculum de educação em RP ideal (Sallot 1997(Sallot , 1998Van Leuven 1989 ). Sallot et al (1997Sallot et al ( , 1998a descobriram que educadores e profissionais têm visões diferentes sobre a profissão e concluíram que, para melhorar a educação, primeiro é necessário estar de acordo sobre quais são os padrões profissionais e qual o curriculum de RP mais apropriado. Certamente que a falta de consenso torna difícil definir exactamente o que são as RP e como podem contribuir para o sucesso das organizações. ...
... 7. Estabelecer relações continuadas com instituições de ensino superior (quer seja através da oferta de estágios quer da participação em workshops ou seminários). Sobre o papel da educação superior em RP para elevar o status da profissão pode-se observar que muitos autores advogam a necessidade de treino especializado e continuado (Grunig 1989;Sallot 1997Sallot , 1998Turk 1989;Van Leuven 1989) e também, a urgência de chegar a um consenso sobre o qual o curriculum de educação em RP ideal (Sallot 1997(Sallot , 1998Van Leuven 1989 ). Sallot et al (1997Sallot et al ( , 1998a descobriram que educadores e profissionais têm visões diferentes sobre a profissão e concluíram que, para melhorar a educação, primeiro é necessário estar de acordo sobre quais são os padrões profissionais e qual o curriculum de RP mais apropriado. Certamente que a falta de consenso torna difícil definir exactamente o que são as RP e como podem contribuir para o sucesso das organizações. ...
Com esta investigação ambiciona-se analisar o estatuto da profissão de relações públicas em Portugal através da variável ensino superior em Comunicação/Relações públicas. A partir de um estudo empírico aplicado a profissionais e docentes pretende-se definir as forças e fraquezas do ensino ministrado na preparação dos futuros profissionais, não só numa perspectiva pedagógica-científica mas também do próprio mercado de trabalho. Nos resultados obtidos sobressai o consenso, entre professores e profissionais, sobre o perfil ideal de um licenciado em Comunicação/Relações públicas quanto às suas competências técnicas e características profissionais. Também é visível acordo na análise do elenco curricular, sobretudo na necessidade premente de atribuir maior relevo a determinados conteúdos programáticos. Por outro lado, apesar de concordarem sobre os principais critérios que podem permitir elevar o estatuto profissional das relações públicas a percentagem de profissionais que considera os licenciados preparados para entrar no mercado de trabalho é consideravelmente mais baixa do que a dos educadores. Palavras-chave: Relações públicas,ensino, profissão.
... Moreover, "academic roles are performed in various disciplinary settings with different cognitive bases, different norms and value systems, and different research traditions" (Kyvik, 2013, p. 527). Educators play a key role in the preparation of future generations that aim at high standards and ensure that the profession earns its desired and warranted respect (Sallot et al., 1997). Educators can reduce workplace tensions by teaching students about the current job performances and by creating a learning community that comprises students (Todd, 2014). ...
... In a young public relations profession, academic research serves to nurture professional public relations practices (Sallot et al., 1997). However, academics and professionals continue to discuss how educators can better serve the profession and how professionals can profit from the ideas produced in academic research (Grunig, 1979). ...
This study aims to investigate the opinions and perceptions of senior Turkish public relations practitioners on the knowledge, skills, competencies, and personal attributes of public relations academics and public relations curriculums. A total of 20 semi-structured interviews were conducted with public relations practitioners working in corporations or consultancies. Results show that the top knowledge areas for public relations practitioners include sociology, psychology, and communication, the most prominent skills include communication skills, IT skills, and visioning, the most important personal attributes include good image, sensitivity/humanity, and life-long learner, and the top competencies are performing and creating. Practical knowledge is as important as theoretical knowledge. Public relations professionals have respect for public relations academics, appreciate their input, but they suggest that the public relations curriculum should be improved and that the graduates should be better informed. This paper also reveals how a dialogue can be established between Turkish public relations academics and professionals. The collected data were analyzed under the guidance of Wengers’ communities of practice framework, and suggestions for forming communities of practice were proposed by taking the dimensions of events, leadership, connectivity, membership, learning projects, and artifacts into account. By providing data from Turkey, the findings of this work can help us improve industry–academia ties and subsequently contribute to the professionalization of public relations.
... The need for consensus among scholars, educators and practitioners about a uniform public relations curriculum has been debated. Some authors have argued that because public relations is a relatively new field, consensus has not yet been formed on the range and content of courses, especially at the undergraduate level ( Caudill et al. 1990;Sallot et al. 1997Sallot et al. , 1998aVanLeuven 1989a). Caudill et al. (1990) argued for consensus on teaching goals and the body of knowledge. ...
... In two studies, Sallot et al. (1997Sallot et al. ( , 1998a found that educators and practitioners have distinct views on professional standards, which prompted them to argue that in order to improve education, they need to agree on professional standards and an appropriate public relations curriculum. A lack of consensus has made it hard to define exactly what public relations is and what (and how) it can contribute to organizations. ...
This study attempts to evaluate the efficacy of undergraduate public relations programmes in the United States. The study surveyed 155 public relations educators and practitioners to determine their impressions on factors such as whether students are being imparted the knowledge and experience to become public relations practitioners, the knowledge and skills respondents thought students ought to possess to become successful professionals, the skills new graduates should possess, and the characteristics of the public relations profession. Results revealed agreement among educators and practitioners about the subjects that should be taught in undergraduate public relations programmes, including the knowledge and skills recommended by the Commission for Public Relations Education. Respondents did not agree on the best career plan for future public relations professionals. However, a majority felt that majoring in public relations with a minor in business was the best thing for students who want to work in this field. Respondents felt that not all of the subjects they deemed important were currently being taught in all public relations programmes. Both practitioners and educators agreed that graduates were well trained in the use of new technologies for public relations. However, the percentage of practitioners who felt that graduates were prepared to enter the public relations profession was considerably lower than educators.
... undergraduate studies in PR, throughout Europe. Many authors advocate the necessity of specialized and continuous training and furthermore urgency in reaching a consensus about what is the perfect PR curriculum (Grunig 1989;Sallot 1997Sallot , 1998Turk 1989;Van Leuven 1989) to legitimize the profession in society. Sallot et al. (1997Sallot et al. ( , 1998 discovered that educators and practitioners have different views about the profession and concluded that, in order to improve the education, it is first necessary to reach an agreement about what the professional standards are and what PR curriculum is the most appropriate. ...
... Many authors advocate the necessity of specialized and continuous training and furthermore urgency in reaching a consensus about what is the perfect PR curriculum (Grunig 1989;Sallot 1997Sallot , 1998Turk 1989;Van Leuven 1989) to legitimize the profession in society. Sallot et al. (1997Sallot et al. ( , 1998 discovered that educators and practitioners have different views about the profession and concluded that, in order to improve the education, it is first necessary to reach an agreement about what the professional standards are and what PR curriculum is the most appropriate. ...
This article studies the Portuguese reality with regard to higher educa- tion in public relations, in order to define the strengths and weaknesses in the teaching given in the preparation of future practitioners, from a pedagogical perspective and also in the job market itself. As such, the study was divided into two principal moments. In the first place, a comparative analysis of curriculums currently in force in the offer of undergraduate studies in PR in Portugal was made and then in second place, the perception of practitioners and educators was investigated as to the teaching provided. Thus, the main objective of this article is to investigate if the bachelor degree in PR meets the primary target of preparing students for an entry-level position in PR and to ‘advance over the course of their careers into leaderships roles” (Commission on Public Relations Education, 2006: 43).
... But the solution of the problem of training people who are able to independently and creatively solve practical problems after leaving higher school is vital and possible. It requires cooperative efforts of industrial and scientific organizations and universities to urgently change the situation (Sallot et al., 1997;Danchikov et al., 2021). ...
The problems of organizing interactive learning in higher education are discussed, taking into account the prospective introduction of new educational standards. It is noted that the emphasis on the use of professional standards in the existing conditions will lead to a decrease in the creative component of graduate training, and the lack of the possibility of real practice will lead to dogmatism and scholasticism. The high dynamics of technical and technological transformations and transformations of the economic sphere in the Russian Federation against the background of global challenges demonstrates the discrepancy between the paces of individual training of high-class professionals. According to the author, the problem is not the transition beyond the boundaries of habitual work; the main attention should be paid to the "smart" future. Complex technologies require significantly more time than before to master the profession. Domestic specialized education should certainly be linked to the spatial development of Russia, which has a huge territory and corresponding local-territorial specifics. Job security – as a tactical emphasis disappears irrevocably within the borders of the region and the industry, giving way for adaptation to the market of local labor and also rapidly and freely moving capital.
... Un 8,9% de los artículos de la muestra revisada se enfoca sobre los contenidos y orientaciones de la formación académica y técnica para el rol (Berkowitz & Hristodoulakis, 1999;Culbertson, 1985;Sallot, Cameron, & Lariscy, 1997), la influencia de la institucionalización en el rol profesional a través de las universidades, asociaciones y modelos institucionalizados de roles (Krohling Kunsch & Nassar de Oliveira, 2009;Molleda & Athaydes, 2003;Sha, 2011) y algunos pocos artículos enfocan el aprendizaje y la socialización del rol a lo largo de la carrera del profesional (Powell & Pieczka, 2016). ...
Este artículo parte de los enfoques profesionales en los estudios de las relaciones públicas y da cuenta de las diferentes tipologías y formas de concebir el rol profesional, desde las primeras investigaciones sobre este campo disciplinar, con los estudios de Glen M. Broom y David M. Dozier en la década de 1980, hasta la actualidad, en que los cambios tecnológicos y el contexto mundial generan nuevas expectativas para el desempeño de este rol. La revisión se enmarcó en las publicaciones científicas de la colección principal de Web of Science que fueron clasificadas según su enfoque fuera sobre el desempeño del rol de los profesionales, sobre la situación en la que se desempeña el rol, o sobre la dinámica de los roles profesionales. En este trabajo se concluye que la mayoría de las tipologías sobre el rol del profesional de las relaciones públicas se basa en las declaraciones de los profesionales sobre las actividades desempeñadas y sobre las funciones o aportes del rol a las organizaciones. Entre los asuntos que atiende la literatura sobre el rol del profesional de las relaciones públicas predominan: las tensiones entre el rol del profesional de las relaciones públicas y el periodista; la discriminación según el sexo del profesional; las propuestas de tipologías de rol, y la descripción de las competencias y habilidades que se requieren para el desempeño del rol.
Palabras clave: relaciones públicas, comunicación organizacional, rol profesional, tipología de roles.
... Several researches on the difference in attitudes towards the skills and knowledge necessary for future public relations professionals between academics and practitioners were conducted. Research done by Sallot, Cameron, and Lariscy (1997) and Sallot (1998) discovered distinctive and different views that academics and practitioners have about the profession. These authors came to the conclusion that, in order to improve education in this field, they have to agree and reach an agreement on professional standards in public relations and then to define the most appropriate public relations curriculum. ...
The extremely rapid development of technology raises the importance of leaders of higher education institutions, as well as educators teaching public relations, to monitor scientific developments of the profession, market trends, and in particular, the needs of employers who will in the future employ recently educated personnel. This element is even more pronounced during times of global crisis in the communications industry where the number of jobs is decreasing, and the increase in criticism of educational institutions, which can be summarized in the claim that educational programs are not adapted to market needs. Guided by this situation, in this paper, the authors analyze the interrelationship between the academic community and employers in the communications industry, and compare their views on the issue of knowledge, skills and competencies which communication professionals must possess in order to be successful in this profession. The main research question is to what extent the views on the quality of education of future PR professionals differ from the perspective of employers and the academic community.
... While traditional agenda-setting research has focused on how the media infl uence public opinion, agenda building examines what contingent conditions affect this process (Johnson et al., 1996). Such contingent conditions come from news editors, policy makers, PR practitioners, and the interests of audiences (Sallot, Cameron, & Lariscy, 1997;Sheafer & Weimann, 2005;Walters, Walters, & Gray, 1996). Political actors have also been identifi ed as infl uencers but in varying degrees (Wanta, Stephenson, Turk, & McCombs, 1989), which has suggested the existence of intervening variables, such as the personality of the politician (Wanta et al., 1989), the nature of the issue and real-world events (Johnson et al., 1996;Walgrave & Van Aelst, 2006). ...
This chapter discusses media performance during the democratization process in the Eastern African countries of Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Rwanda, which form a regional union called the East African Community (EAC). The analysis is inspired by over 200 seminal academic studies and expert texts from various disciplines, mostly on East Africa, to assess how these governments influence media performance during their wave of democratization. The chapter examines a range of issues that demonstrate the autocratic means of building a government agenda, such as restrictive press laws, sectarianism, election malpractice, political and ethnic violence, and influence peddling. It shows how this agenda-building approach exercised by the EAC member states undercuts the contributions of the media to the democratization process. The authors demonstrate how the emergence of independent media and religious institutions in some of the EAC member states constitute the most vigilant and influential part of civil society. Further, the argument is that media performance is most successful when its agenda mobilizes citizens to challenge the structures of authoritarian rule by promoting human rights, economic empowerment, and the rule of law.
... While Public Relations are today considered a profession, which, as a matter of fact, plays even an important function in an organization; the debate on whether public relations is a 'true' profession continues to persist. Although public relations scholars acknowledge the importance of professionalism in public relations (Grunig & Hunt, 1984;Sallot et al., 1997Sallot et al., & 1998Cameron et al., 1994;Stacks et al., 1999;L'Etang & Pieczka, 1996, L'Etang, 1999, 2003White & Mazur, 1995), public relations is still seen as a common occupation for a number of reasons. ...
This study aims to examine and understand the effectiveness and credibility of advertising and public relations in the form of editorial coverage. This study involves three main groups, namely prominent practitioners in public relations and advertising as well as independent party who does not belong to either of these categories of practitioners. Guided by the Source Credibility Theory, this exploratory study emphasises on key measure of credibility in finding the overall effectiveness of public relations over advertising. Findings of this study provide ground for constructive argument on the co-relations, effectiveness, estrangement and togetherness of the much debated topic of public relations versus advertising. The main basis of the comparison is based on credibility, and the data focused on three central themes: contribution to brand knowledge and brand image, adequacy of public relations and advertising, and concerns of public relations and advertising practitioners. In short, both public relations and advertising can employ contextual strategy by working together to reach consumers in the most creative and tactical manner. © 2015, Jurnal Komunikasi Malaysian Journal of Communication. All Rights Reserved.
... Pang and Yeo (2012) further drew insights from other public relations literature. First, studies on practitioners identified key professional skills: education and continued training; research skills; ethics; technical skills; and accreditation/licensing (Cameron, Sallot, & Lariscy, 1996;Sallot, Cameron, & Lariscy, 1997) Second, Lages and Simkin's (2003) study further argued for three levels of professionalism, at the individual practitioner level, at the agency level, and at the industry level. Across the three levels were key competencies such as opportunity to engage in managerial public relations activities; understanding the strategic needs of clients; conforming to industry standards; length of stay in the job; qualifications; and quality of PR graduates. ...
The aim of this article is to compare the state of crisis consultancies in Singapore and Denmark. Adapting and integrating indicators to assess professionalism, the study seeks to examine: 1) the level of expertise of public relations consultants in offering crisis management and communication consultancy to private and public organizations; 2) the level of experience of the consultants; and, 3) the value and expedience of the consultancy services offered to the clients. The research design comprised two stages. First, archival search of the websites of the public relations agencies that professed to offer crisis consultancy in the two countries was conducted. Second, the agencies that claimed to offer such services were contacted and a series of qualitative in-depth interviews with senior executives was conducted. The findings identified important differences and similarities between crisis consultancies in Singapore and Denmark.
... In social identity work in the CM area there is evidence of different perspectives from different groups in the industry. For example, as Sallot, et al. (1997Sallot, et al. ( & 1998 point out, educators and practitioners differ in their views on what is 'professional', and suggest that a focus on values and ethics in training courses and in education is vital (Sriramesh & Hornaman, 2006). This echoes the normative CM literature, which argues that the role of accountability both in teaching and industry practice is central (Xavier, Patel, Johnston, & Sambath, 2004). ...
... Additionally, Pieczka (2000, p. 212) observes that in PR, the use of the term "professionalism" is normally linked to the expression of a need to improve the standing of the industry-with negative consequences for its image. Sallot, Cameron, and Weaver-Lariscy (1997) point to certain PR industry literature which is more polemical, arguing, for example, for -or against -ethics and social responsibility, or licensing. Such articles, according to Cameron, Sallot, and Weaver-Lariscy (1996, p. 46), are thought-provoking and useful in thinking about professionalism. ...
Professionalism is a contentious topic in journals serving a wide range of disciplines, both internationally and in South Africa. However, there is seldom concrete empirical research into professionalism—which limits the usefulness of this debate. In response, the present study empirically investigates the perceptions of South African public relations (PR) practitioners regarding professionalism. The questionnaire-based survey shows that the professionalism problem for PR practitioners in South Africa is twofold. Firstly, the South African PR governing body has not taken ownership of the issues regarding professionalism amongst its members. Secondly, practitioners themselves are making little effort to professionalize their activities. Both parties agree on the importance of professionalization, but claim that the onus is on the other party to promote it. This situation is untenable: professionalization should be actively encouraged so as to maximize the impact of the PR profession in South Africa.
... One-third (n ¼ 8) of the respondents were females of which 50 per cent (n ¼ 4) had a post graduate degree of which two-thirds (n ¼ 6) had a background in mass communication. Cameron et al. (1996) and Sallot et al. (1997Sallot et al. ( , 1998 developed and tested a series of 45 items that operationalized the PR professional behaviour. Forman and Argenti (2002) report a tight connection between strategy and communication in Corporate Communication: At the Center of the Global Organization and present best practices impacting the bottom line in six global diverse industries. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to report empirical research about the chronological development of the organizational structure, functions (functional groups) and competencies of the corporate communication(/public relation) – CC(/PR) department of the central public sector enterprises (CPSEs) in India. This paper also attempts to identify the specific organizational goals that influence CC(/PR) departmental structure and its effectiveness.
Design/methodology/approach
In total, 34 selected CPSEs reflecting most of the salient features of the public sector in India are identified. Key personnel (or designates) in the CC(/PR) departments are contacted to take an online survey that is built after analyzing previously reported instruments appropriate in this context. Analyses are conducted using SPSS 10.0.
Findings
Data analysis shows that in many PSUs, the development of full‐fledged CC departments is still at a nascent stage; however, in other PSUs development of CC is already streamlined with company vision and is mature as a division. Key acceptable PR roles include communication for the desired perception among target audience and brand sustainability. In established CC departments, CC is a strategic management tool, synchronizing all intentional forms of internal and external communications, thus helping the PSUs to define its corporate image and improve corporate performance. Through the built‐in measurement systems, PSUs are encouraged to become global players.
Originality/value
The paper empirically measures the efficiency of CC(/PR) departments of 34 operating CPSEs concerned with the development of the engineering industry in India. This paper would be of value to researchers and practitioners seeking to promote, practice or influence the structuring of CC(/PR) departments.
... For the within-subjects analysis of this study, the differences due to different status of participants (public relations practitioners) as professionals working in the industry (public relations agency or firm, corporate, nonprofit organization, government, and others; N = 116) or professionals working in educational institutes (N = 8) were examined, because differences in practitioners and educators' opinions on EFFECTS OF THREAT TYPE AND DURATION the professional standards of public relations were found in previous studies (Sallot, Cameron, & Lariscy, 1997, 1998a, 1998b. ...
The contingency theory of public relations relies heavily on the concept of threat without fully developing the concept as well as its operationalization. This study addresses this weakness through the exposition of 2 key dimensions of threats in crises as threat type and duration, and empirically testing their effects on public relations practitioners' cognitive appraisal of threats, affective responses to threats, and the stances taken in threat-embedded crisis situations. A Web-based experiment on 116 public relations practitioners was conducted using a 2 (external vs. internal threat type) × 2 (long-term vs. short-term threat duration) within-subjects design. The findings revealed the main effects of threat type and threat duration on threat appraisal, emotional arousal, and degree of accommodation. Interaction effects indicated that external and long-term threat combination led to higher situational demands appraisal and more intensive emotional arousal.
... This includes seminars, conferences, access to research, and continuing education. Membership in a professional organization is a common metric of professionalism because these organizations provide standards and guidelines (Sallot, Cameron, & Weaver Lariscy, 1997). Using this metric, government communicators lag behind corporate communicators in professional development (Liu & Horsley, 2007). ...
This study investigates the differences and similarities in communication practices between the public and private sectors. Through a survey of 976 government and corporate communicators, 12 organizational attributes previously identified in research on the government communication decision wheel (Liu & Horsley, 2007; Liu & Levenshus, 2008) were tested. The results indicated differences between the two groups in budgets, political influence, communication frequency, public pressure, interaction with other organizations, media coverage frequency, media coverage evaluation, and impact of legal frameworks as they relate to communication practices. No significant differences in diversity of publics, opportunities for professional development, participation in organizational leadership, or management support for communication between the two groups were found. The findings allowed for refinement of this developing model of government communication.
... In developing a battery of items to measure professionalism in public relations, Cameron, Sallot, and Weaver Lariscy (1996) combined elements of both approaches. Their instrument has been used in a number of subsequent studies (Gupta, 2007;Sallot, Cameron, & Weaver Lariscy, 1997. Using factor analysis, Cameron et al. (1996) identified several dimension of professionalism including skills and activities; salary levels; use of research; the role of public relations within the organisation; ethics; racial and gender equity; accreditation and licensing; and, education. ...
It is almost a decade since the last empirical study of Australian public relations appeared in the academic literature. This paper reports on a survey conducted immediately prior to the onset of the global financial crisis aimed at revealing the state of public relations in Australia. In particular, the study investigated levels of professionalisation in terms of such criteria as the strategic orientation of public relations, its position within organisational hierarchies, and the importance placed on ethics and professional development. The findings show Australian PR professionals to be highly educated, comparatively well paid and frequently in positions of influence with their CEOs. Paradoxically despite these strengths, the profession in Australia does not seem to have outgrown public relations’ pervasive identity crisis.
This Paper examined the fundamental make-up of Agenda-Setting theory and its significance on how media shape public opinions and attitudes towards issues being discussed by the media. It also considered the connection of agenda setting in media practice and politics of some West African countries such as Nigeria, Ghana and Mali. Relying on raw materials collected directly from the founding fathers and pioneers of Agenda Setting theory, Professors Emeritus Maxwell E. McCombs and David Weaver, the research also investigated the existence of Agenda Setting principles in Nigeria, Mali and Ghana and found that media are subjective in their agenda setting roles as their contents are largely influenced by the politicians. Also, it was discovered that history which is the raw material of any meaningful empirical engagement was neglected in Agenda setting theory research and that is why the author came up with Times Travel Agenda (TTA). The paper recommended that the media needs to do more than make news or other issues available for public consumption; they should be alive and kicking in their watchdog roles.KeywordAgenda settingAgenda buildingAgenda meddlingTimes travel agendaPolitics
This article analyzes growth strategies in the context of digital transformation in all political, social, and economic scopes that were accelerated by the pandemic. The article also focuses on the specific case of digital native brands which have emerged in a disruptive way. The study was carried out by using electronic surveys from April 2020 to November 2021 of 50 professionals in leading technology companies and startups. The study takes into account the results obtained in research carried out during the last 8 years by combining both the methods of in-depth interviews and documentary analysis in tracking the strategies of technology companies. The results show that growth strategies in digital economy are focused on decision making based on data combined with creative actions such as digital content, influencer marketing, media, events, and newsjacking. This growth strategy is applicable to all areas, especially politics.
Professional; is a person, who has higher education and transforms this education into a specialization powered with knowledge, skill, and ability. They apply it to a certain practice and gain an independent activity aspect, using this as professionalism. However, other than freelance professionals, there is also a high demand for professionals, who carry out their professions in an organized structure. These professionals have problems in the organizational process. Academics, who work in an organized structure in the university, are professionals confronted with such problems. In this qualitative study that carried out with the academicians, the data is prepared according to half-structured interview technique and content analysis. The study was conducted with managing and non-managing advanced career stage academics. Problems such as self-rule, control, organizational and professional leave of employment and problems with gender bias and administration were observed. The core problem is the mental contraction of academics. Although being professionals and intellectuals, they are facing problems due to being government workers. It was observed that these problems overlap with the field of literature partly, however with some differences in regards to time and process.
In the literature, there has not been any scale to determine the occupational anxiety of Public Relations expert candidates. Therefore, the aim of this study is to develop "Public Relations Professional Concern Scale (PRPCS)" to determinethe professional concerns of the candidates for PR professionals.As a result of interviews with senior students who were educatedin Public Relations Departments of various universities with the help of experts in their field, a survey form was created.The scale developed as a result of the analysis was found to be a 5 factor structure. There are 15 items in the first factor, 10 items in the second factor, 6 items in the third factor, 7 items in the fourth factor and 6 items in the fifth factor.Relevant factors are namedas "task and workplace-centered anxiety", "economic and work / life-centered anxiety", “occupational adequacy and confidentiality-centered anxiety”, “uncertainty-centered anxiety” and “instability and lack of self-confidence”.Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients for the factors are 0.91, 0.88, 0.86, 0.84, 0.74. The Cronbach alpha coefficient for the overall scale is 0.95. The test-retest reliability value is 0.93. The scale obtained is capable of measuring the concerns of public relations expert candidates. It is thought that the relevant research is important in determining the relevant concerns of public relations expert candidates in transition from University for occupational life and in predicting what can be done on the subject.
This paper discusses the issue of professionalism and excellence in public relations in the Arab World. Professionalism has been described as a set of parameters that improve the image, and social impacts of an occupation. The professionalization of PR requires a body of knowledge, a domain of expertise, a high social status, accountability toward the public, a code of ethics and education as a means of testing competence and maintaining standards. After forty years of public relations practice, the Arab World has a long way to go to achieve professionalism and excellence. The profession lacks professional bodies, well educated and trained practitioners. PR in the Arab World suffers from a negative perception from society, an environment hostile to transparency, one way communication, absence of managerial role and research.
Master's thesis: University of Missouri (2007)
This study provides an empirical evidence on the impact of globalization on Nigeria's Agricultural output and also highlights the implications for rural development. The data used covered 1981-2000 and were obtained from secondary sources. The descriptive and multiple regression analyses were used to ascertain the extent and direction of relationship between Agricultural production in Nigeria and openness, GDP growth rate, inflation rate and population growth rate. The study revealed that agricultural share of the GDP was highest (41.00 percent) in the first quarter of liberalization. The crop sub sector remained the dominant contributor to agriculture's share of GDP, followed by livestock, fishery and forestry in that order. The study revealed that the economy is still mono-dominated by the oil sector. The study revealed that about 60 percent of the variation in the ratio of agriculture to GDP was explained by degree of openness or globalization, exchange rate and inflation. These three explanatory variables are negatively related to the ratio of agriculture to GDP. The study revealed that it is unlikely for Nigeria to be fully integrated into the global economy given its peculiar features and state of the economy. Nigeria cannot afford to fully liberalize trade in the face of poor export performance. Nigeria has to restructure her economy, liberalize, deregulate and democratize her institutuions. This calls for a redefinition of the government roles,and liberaqlization of the private sector which is at the center of globalization. The government are to provide the basic infrastructure especially in the rural areas, efficient and transparent administration, good governance friendly investment environment, macro-economic and political stability and level playing ground for economic activities in order to realize the positive impact of globalizsation on Nigerian agricultural output and the diversification drive of the economy.
This paper aims to determine perceptions of PR practitioners and academics on the status and standard of the professionalism of public relations from perspectives of the sociology of the profession and strategic management. The research is conceptualised based on Weber's notion of rationalisation and Wilensky's model of professional development with the purpose of increasing professionalism for a public relations profession. Exclusive jurisdiction, the standardisation of professional services, the regulation sanction, and the role of professional associations are seen as critical elements in developing the professional standards. In-depth interviews and document analysis were employed, describing academics and practitioners' perceptions on the several key themes of communication management. They were the meaning of public relations and corporate communication, the knowledge and skills acquired, the current functions of profession, continuous professional development, accreditation and licensing. This findings revealed that although public relations has low recognition from top management, there is a growing interest in studying and practising this field at the technical and managerial levels. Most informants rejected that public relations is about entertaining clients or indulging in a 'dine and drink' activity only. Instead, many stressed on a transition of public relations from technical function (media relations) to managerial functions focusing on strategic management. Specifically, practitioners were more likely to see that public relations moves from grasping knowledge of journalism focusing on media relations and events management to holistic knowledge of business acumen to access boardroom for their managerial participation. The future of public relations is largely depended on recruiting the new talents and calibre of practitioners whose distinctive knowledge and skills of this profession are well grasped in venturing the globalisation challenges.
Our exploratory research into contemporary PR practice in Vietnam is underpinned by 12 semi-structured interviews with senior Vietnamese PR executives from various agencies. We selectively use professionalism as an underlying theoretical framework to explore key areas of PR as a profession in Vietnam by considering the impact of environmental variables such as culture and the media system. This paper provides a current snapshot of how an industry introduced by Western multinational corporations has adapted to the Vietnamese context. Demand for PR in Vietnam is still mostly driven by multinational corporations to promote products through media relations. Many Vietnamese companies are unsure about investing in PR due to a limited understanding of what it is, misperceiving the practice as advertorial placement due to a widely entrenched "envelope culture". We have found interpersonal relationships during and outside of official work hours are highly valued for effective PR practice, and that clients mostly rely on agencies to implement execution rather than advise on long-term strategies. Our findings underscore the need for the establishment of a professional association and more PR training courses to increase understanding about the relatively new Vietnamese PR industry and guide its future development.
As the first quantitative examination of perceived public relations professional standards in China using an online survey, this study was designed based on the standards of professional standards inventory Cameron, Sallot, & Lariscy (1996) constructed and tested among practitioners in the U.S. The survey results suggest six dimensions of perceived standards of professional performance: (1) role and function in organizational strategic planning, (2) sufficiency in professional training and preparedness, (3) gender and racial equity, (4) situational constraints, (5) licensing and organizational support, and (6) participation in the organizational decision-making team. Four dimensions of public relations roles were also identified by the survey participants: (1) brand promotion facilitator, (2) public information specialist, (3) media relations counsel, and (4) conflict management expert. Primary practice area was found to affect how Chinese practitioners perceive the six clusters of professional standards and the four identified public relations roles. These findings provide insights for both practitioners and researchers on how Chinese public relations practitioners view public relations as a profession and how the profession currently holds its professional standards in China.
Public relations and communication management has been recently recognised as a business management discipline. However, scientific research in a particular discipline needs to be extended theoretically and methodologically in order to make a substantial contribution to the body of knowledge in its field. Does academic research on public relations professionalism utilise a mixed research methods approach? This longitudinal study is aimed at mapping out the analysis of literature on academic research regarding public relations professionalism across the United States, Europe and Asia. The paper begins by outlining the research philosophy and strategy to give an overview of conventional research methods. A proposed mixed research method then is addressed, and finally a discussion is conducted and the implications of study outlined.
We argue that the existing public relations and communication models do not adequately account for the unique environmental characteristics of the public sector. By reviewing the public sector environment literature, we identify 8 attributes that affect government public relations: politics, focus on serving the public, legal constraints, extreme media and public scrutiny, lack of managerial support for public relations practitioners, poor public perception of government communication, lagging professional development, and federalism. We then review 5 existing public relations models, arguing that none of these models fully incorporates the unique environmental characteristics of the public sector. We conclude by proposing a new model: the government communication decision wheel.
This study provided descriptive information on the types of writing tasks conducted by public relations practitioners. The public relations literature differentiates the roles of public relations technicians and managers according to tasks. Generally, technicians spend more time on writing tasks, whereas public relations managers spend more time on strategic planning. This study surveyed 200 public relations practitioners in New England and investigated whether the type of writing and over-all time spent writing vary with years of experience. Two important findings emerge from this study. First, the nature and quantity of writing tasks do not vary substantially with years of experience. However, the percentage of the day spent writing does decline with experience. This finding indicates that higher levels of writing efficiency come with writing experience. The second finding shows that female practitioners spend a higher percentage of their workday on writing tasks than do their male counterparts.Philip Napoli is an Assistant Professor in the Graduate School of Business at Fordham Unviersity. Maureen Taylor is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, NJ. Gerald Powers is a Professor at Boston University’s College of Communication.
Public relations is evolving in India and the profession is gaining acceptance and recognition. This study is an attempt to measure the extent of professionalism in India and how much consensus, if any, exists regarding professional standards among practitioners in agencies and those in corporations. It also identifies the influence of demographic factors on the standards in the profession.
The use of the term professionalism in public relations (PR) is normally linked to the expression of a need to improve occupational standing (Pieczka, 2000). However, for decades, scholars and practitioners alike have argued about ways to enhance the professionalism and prestige of PR (Sha, 2011b). In general, this paper will discuss the current competencies practised by PR practitioners in some of the countries in Europe and Asia. Based on a literature review, the best competencies will be identified, in order to provide guidelines for a developing professional competencies model that is consistent with the culture and environment of PR practitioners.
Purpose
– To advance the cultural approach to public relations research and practice through linking societal culture and occupational culture of public relations to the communication practices of practitioners, in the aim of understanding the contribution made by public relations to the development of contemporary cultures.
Design/methodology/approach
– The discussion identifies some of the limitations of recent thinking regarding the nature public relations within a global context, particularly as regards professionalisation. An alternative framework for international research is then proposed – one which advocates understanding public relations as an occupational group and emphasises the need to recognise the role of public relations practitioners as agents, or “intermediaries” in the development of culture.
Findings
– Rather than focus on developing codes of practice, it is recommended that the public relations industry should establish its current functions and potential for meeting human needs within differing cultural contexts.
Originality/value
– The paper advocates a fresh approach to the debate surrounding international professionalisation of public relations.
Surveys public relations educators nationwide. Finds (1) little consensus about professional standards in public relations among educators and practitioners; and (2) both educators and practitioners held their peers in comparatively low esteem. Offers 10 recommendations to reorient and reemphasize the content of courses. (RS)
Public relations has been licensed in Brazil since 1967. Federal and regional councils enforce the law on a limited basis, and penalize those who do not comply with legislation. This article summarizes the evolution of public relations licensing and presents the opinions of registered professionals in southern Brazil. Participants clearly agreed that licensing benefits their clients and organizations and should be maintained. Respondents also agreed that licensing legitimizes the profession, enhances its reputation, and benefits practitioners. Participants did not feel that licensing makes it difficult for other people to practice public relations illegally. Federal and regional councils continue to strengthen procedures to promote and enforce a recently improved definition of public relations and its functions. Consequently, an amendment to the law was written through national gatherings of professionals and educators.
An agenda-building model was examined for the question of Africa and terrorism. A path analysis compared real-world events
(deaths and attacks attributed to terrorism), presidential emphasis, media coverage, and foreign aid for 20 African nations.
Results show a clear agenda-building trend—when nations were emphasized with a terrorism frame. Presidential emphasis of nations’
involvement in terrorism influenced media coverage and the policy agenda. The findings also suggest that deaths attributed
to terrorism influenced the news and policy agendas. Media coverage of nations with a terrorism frame influenced the policy
agenda. Only one significant path coefficient was found in the analysis of agenda setting without terrorism framing: The more
President Bush mentioned a nation in his public statements, the more The New York Times covered the country.
Interviews with public relations practitioners in organizations with Web sites explored perceptions about the value of the World Wide Web as a communications tool, and how it fits into the communications mix. Practitioners believe a Web site symbolizes an organization’s competitiveness, enhances an organization’s image, and increases the practitioner’s personal sense of professionalism. However, they often have responsibility for a Web site without additional resources to maintain it and do not see it as a high priority on their to-do lists. Practitioners must juggle issues such as skepticism about the value of their site, inefficient evaluation methods, and control of the site.Laura Newland Hill is Development Researcher at Endicott College and a graduate of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville; this article is based on her master’s thesis research, directed by Candace White. Candace White is assistant professor of Public Relations at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
Two-hundred-fifty-one responses to a battery of 45 professional standard items indicate that public relations professionals randomly surveyed from across the nation tend to underestimate the current state of professional standards in the field. This state of affairs, described in coorientation theory as pluralistic ignorance, suggests that our field may actually hold higher standards and greater confidence in standards than we commonly attribute to our peers. Following the third-person effect, respondents tended to view themselves as better able to withstand pressures and outdated thinking than their peers. In fact, practitioners held their peers in comparatively low esteem, viewing others collectively as somewhat naive, unprofessional and unenlightened in comparison to their own personal self-images. While female practitioners are generally less sanguine about gender and racial equity in public relations, women tend to be more optimistic about standards for ethics and professional functions such as planning and research. Women also tended to be less harsh in their ratings of peer professionalism, while also attributing lower values to others. This study, conducted under the auspices of the Yarbrough Public Relations Laboratory, is a followup to preliminary results of the survey of practitioners reported in the article titled "Developing Standards of Professional Performance in Public Relations" published in Public Relations Review in 1996. Preliminary results of a followup survey of educators was reported in the article "Professional Standards in Public Relations: A Survey of Educators" published in Public Relations Review in 1997.
Monica Walles commentary on codes of ethics from five national public relations associations What happened to public responsibility? The lack of society in public relations codes of ethics, in the last issue of PRism (2003), made several useful points about potential conflicts of duty, and the manner in which the various codes are silent on the duty of the professional to the public interest. Indeed, it is this very notion of service to the community, and the upholding of the public interest against private interests--or the singular interest of publics--which is at the core of any definition of what it means to be a profession (Sallot, Cameron, & Lariscy, 1997). Issues arising from Walles discussion of conflicts of duty, as well as several broader questions about the nature and functions of ethics codes, are discussed further here and illustrated by the recent and controversial Timberlands case from New Zealand.
This study contrasts how men and women in public relations perceive a global standard of justice with how they experience justice issues instrumentally. Many of the differences that exist between men and women in public relations may be explained by the inherent differences between symbolic and instrumental beliefs about these issues.The general impression derived from a survey of the literature is that the ideal of justice and the reality of women's experiences continue to diverge in many areas, despite considerable progress. (D. H. Broom, 1984, p. xv)
We present a new formulation of the equations of motion used in smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH). The spatial resolution
in SPH is determined by the smoothing length, h, and it has become common practice for each particle to be given its own adaptive smoothing length, hi. This has the advantage that the dynamic range that may be spatially resolved is greatly increased, but also has the drawback
that additional terms which account for the variability of the smoothing lengths should be included in the particle equations
of motion in order to satisfy conservation requirements. We refer to these additional terms as ∇h terms. The difference between our approach and that of previous implementations is that these ∇h terms have now been included in the equations of motion, whereas they had previously been neglected. This is achieved by
defining a functional form for the his that depends on interparticle distances only, and then deriving the equations of motion using a Hamiltonian formalism.
A number of test calculations, designed to compare the effects of including and ignoring these ∇h terms, are presented. We find that the inclusion of the ∇h terms has no detrimental effects on the ability of SPH to model known problems such as one dimensional shock-tubes or the
adiabatic collapse of cold gas spheres, with reasonable accuracy, and may in some cases lead to improvements in their qualitative
outcome. For problems on which SPH has been shown to perform rather badly, because of poor energy conservation, we find that
inclusion of the ∇h terms results in a dramatic improvement. In particular, non-conservation of energy during a head-on collision between identical
polytropes can occur at the level of ΔE ≈ 10 per cent when the ∇h terms are neglected. When the ∇h terms are included, however, this error reduces to ΔE ≈ 0.8 per cent.
Managers are more likely to find satisfaction in their public relations jobs than are technicians, this survey of 649 public relations specialists from 46 states and the District of Columbia finds, with women somewhat more likely to consider their work significant. Women are also more likely to feel overworked. The study employed Likert scales and charted those aspects of work which public relations specialists find most satisfying. Among most desired aspects of PR jobs are freedom to use skills creatively and to make on-the-job independent judgments. Variety was highly valued. The survey found that most respondents had a basic college degree and about half either had a graduate degree or had worked (or were working) on one.
The Review has a policy of leading each issue, whenever possible, with a commentary, rather than an article based on empirical research. Often these commentaries have been by leading practitioners, but contributions are welcomed from academics and others concerned with this field. We hope these commentaries will inspire further discussion and rebuttals, and we welcome letters to the editor in response.
In keeping with our policy to lead each issue of the Review with a professional commentary as often as possible, this piece provides a comment countering Dr. Brad E. Hainsworth's presentation in the last issue of the Review ("Professionalism in Public Relations," Winter 1994, p. 311). We invite professionals and academics to submit commentaries to the Review.
Systems theory has been successfully used to characterize behavior in a myriad of disciplines. Its transformational model of describing organizational processes can, and has, been used to delineate the decision-making process fruitfully.All that is needed to adapt this model to ethical decisionmaking is to identify the relevant inputs and the proper decisionmaking levels within the model at which these inputs should be considered.This is an especially useful tool for aiding the public relations practitioner in an ordering of stakeholder claims and a balancing of obligations based on the role and function of the practitioner.Dr. Bivins is an associate professor in the School of Journalism at the University of Oregon.
Discusses a survey of Midwestern state legislators showing that legislation calling for the licensing of public relations practitioners faces an upward struggle for enactment. Describes a poll of Wisconsin lawmakers indicating that requirements for registration or certification fare best, claiming that licensing is a last resort measure. (JD)
Argues that the key to recognizing public relations as a profession will be turned by social and environmental events and the profession's response to them. Discusses the need to convey a common sense notion of the value of public relations activities to corporate executives. Outlines a working document of professional standards of public relations in organizations.
Argues that organizations representing professionals in the public relations field have a serious responsibility to define and elevate the practice. Urges licensing in addition to accreditation, claiming that codes of ethics and accreditation programs alone are insufficient for weeding out those who engage in "professional malpractice." (JD)
This study of "sensitization" in panels and before-after designs finds evidence that contamination occurs. It also yields support for some of its predictions based upon the coorientation model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this article, Donald K. Wright attempts to chart the “professionalism” of public relations by comparing practitioners' rankings of occupational values with criteria associated with the concept of professionalism. He breaks down the rankings into scores for accredited and nonaccredited practitioners, and concludes that, while accredited practitioners are ranked as being more professional than their nonaccredited colleagues, the level of APR “professional orientation” is still very low.Dr. Wright suggests that “true professional status might not exist for public relations until there is some form of legal certification of practitioners.”
A survey instrument derived from sixty in-depth interviews was administered to 598 public relations professionals across the nation with a 42 percent response rate. Based on a review of literature and the interview phase of the current study, twenty-four elements of professional performance were operationalized in the survey. Survey respondents assessed the extent to which a standard of professionalism currently exists for each of the twenty-four items.Respondents tended to view ethical guidelines, accreditation and writing/editing skills as enjoying well established standards. Licensing, location of public relations on the organizational chart and inclusion of public relations in the dominant coalition were viewed as most lacking in a standard of professional performance. The twenty-four items factored into eight dimensions. Assessments of professionalism along these eight factors differed significantly as a function of age, education, race and both length and geographic region of practice of public relations.
A person exposed to a persuasive communication in the mass media sees this as having a greater effect on others than on himself
or herself. Each individual reasons: “I will not be influenced, but they (the third persons) may well be persuaded.” In some
cases, a communication leads to action not because of its impact on those to whom it is ostensibly directed, but because others
(third persons) think that it will have an impact on its audience. Four small experiments that tend to support this hypothesis
are presented, and its complementary relationship to a number of concepts in the social sciences is noted. The third-person
effect may help to explain various aspects of social behavior, including the fear of heretical propaganda by religious leaders
and the fear of dissent by political rulers. It appears to be related to the phenomenon of censorship in general: the censor
never admits to being influenced; it is others with “more impressionable minds” who will be affected.
APR, is Assistant Professor. Dr. Glen T. Cameron is Associate Professor and Director of Research Are PR Counselors Trusted Profes-sionals?
- A G Example
- E Gitter
- Jaspers
All three authors are with the Department of Advertising/ Public Relations, Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Georgia, Athens. Dr. Lynne M. Sallot, APR, is Assistant Professor. Dr. Glen T. Cameron is Associate Professor and Director of Research, James M. Cox, Jr. Institute for Newspaper Management Studies. Dr. Ruth Ann Weaver Lariscy is Associate Professor. (1993), pp. 15, 31. See, for example, A. G. Gitter and E. Jaspers, " Are PR Counselors Trusted Profes-sionals? " Public RelationsQuarterly 27 (1982), pp. 28-31;
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The Case for Licensing PR Practitioners
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Opinions, Perception, and Social Reality
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