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Sicomoro, Grevillea, Roble rojo americano, Pino piñonero, Castaño, Ruil y Cerezo americano, nuevas alternativas para producir madera de alto valor
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... As a result of these plantation activities, a total of 100 ha were established in Chile in different regions, settings (isolated trees, groves and forest plantations) and management conditions. Since the 1990's, a series of studies on stone pine were performed to assess its potential as an alternative crop to forest species (Pinus radiata D. Don or Eucalyptus sp.) or some fruit species (almonds or other higher water demanding species) for the Chilean Mediterranean zone, confirming its ecological adaptation expressed through a vegetative growth superior to the one presented in the main distribution areas across the world (Loewe et al., 1998;Loewe and González, 2003;Loewe et al., 2012bLoewe et al., , 2014b). Potential areas for its cultivation in the country were studied by Ávila et al. (2012), showing that the species can grow in more than 8.6 million hectares and that there are over 4.8 million hectares suitable for medium and high pine nut production level. ...
... In the 1990s, stone pine potential as an alternative forest crop for the Mediterranean zone of Chile was studied, and its ecological adaptation was confirmed (Loewe et al., 1998). Suitable cultivation areas were assessed to cover as much as 1.3 million hectares up to 1,000 m a.s.l. ( Loewe and González, 2003), but later, the species was found to survive at above 2,000 m a.s.l. and that clay soils are less restrictive in Chile than mentioned by Gandullo and Sánchez-Palomares (1994). Despite the species' sensitivity to soil conditions (Court-Picon et al., 2004;Mutke et al., 2007a, c;Mutke et al., 2013), it has been reported that Stone pine can grow over more than 8.6 million hectares, with over 4.8 million hectares being suitable for medium and high levels of pine nut production (Ávila et al., 2012). ...
Stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) is a Mediterranean species characterized by great phenotypic plasticity, high tolerance to a wide range of environments and low genetic variability; it is also of great economic importance conferred by its edible seeds, the pine nuts, one of the most expensive and exclusive nuts worldwide. Advances in semi-intensive or intensive management for its cultivation as a fruit tree, however, have been limited, with fruits being harvested mostly from natural forests. This can be attributed to the long fruit development cycle (42 months), with one-, two- and three-year-old cones being present simultaneously on the tree, which makes nutritional and hydric management more challenging than in other fruit or forest trees, among other causes.
This thesis studied stone pine growth and fruiting along a climatic gradient in Chile; species variability through morphometric, chemical, Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) and molecular analyses (proteomic); species adaptation by assessing growth and fruiting response of European provenances in central Chile; and the effects of fertilization and irrigation on fruit production and growth.
Growth was examined in 4,094 trees located in 129 sites distributed across Coquimbo and Araucanía regions in Chile, via several climatic variables, whose relative contribution was assessed through regression trees and linear models. Three macrozones (MZs) showing marked growth differences were defined in the species distribution range: North, South and Dry Coast MZs. In the South MZ, growth rate was the highest for height (35 cm year-1) and DBH (1.50 cm year-1), whereas in the Dry Coast MZ, the species showed the lowest growth rate in height and DBH (23 and 0.87 cm year-1 respectively). Height growth was favored by winter thermal oscillation above 14°C, annual rainfall above 1,400 mm year-1, an annual average temperature below 14°C and a spring water deficit below 400 mm. DBH growth was also favored by an average annual temperature below 14°C and by a minimum average temperature below 6.6°C.
Fruiting was analyzed by recording cone number per tree (CN) on 3,464 trees distributed along a climatic gradient in Chile. Cone weight at harvest (CW) and in-shell pine nut number per cone (IS) were measured on 76 superior trees. Climatic and biometeorological
variables, defined based on 11 physio-phenological reproductive phases, were related to fruit production traits. Fruiting showed marked differences among MZs. The highest values of cone productivity (32 kg tree-1) and CN (62 cones tree-1) were recorded in the South. Stone pine cone production throughout Chile was favored in decreasing importance by autumn thermal oscillation below 12°C, spring hydric deficit lower than 345 mm, spring rainfall above 65 mm and annual thermal oscillation below 12°C. It was also favored by a minimum temperature above 7°C and a hydric deficit below 200 mm in the female flowering period, by a rainfall below 70 mm during male flowering and a thermal oscillation below 6°C during differentiation of reproductive shoots.
Cone weight was favored by an annual average temperature above 14°C, annual rainfall above 507 mm and an annual hydric deficit below 914 mm; at a maximum temperature higher than 23°C and a hydric deficit lower than 774 mm during embryo development also increased cone weight, as well as an accumulated rainfall higher than 14 mm during the 2 year-old conelet growth period.
IS was significantly increased by an annual hydric deficit below 914 mm and a maximum autumn temperature lower than 19°C, along with a maximum temperature above 24°C during 2 year-old conelet growth, as well as by accumulated rainfall during three key periods (values above 53 mm in induction of male primordia, 78 mm in 3 year-old cone growth and 133 mm during cone ripening). Therefore, water supply is recommended to mitigate the negative impact of water deficit on fruit productivity.
Species variability was studied based on morphological, chemical, NIRS and molecular characterization of stone pine fruits harvested from the three growth MZs. The morphometric analysis showed that stone pine selected trees from the different MZs differed in cone size and pine nut morphometry, and cone to kernel yield. Chemical composition assessed at the MZ level and for 38 selected trees was similar to values reported for the species in the main producing countries, (34.1-35.5% protein, 44.2-40.2% lipids and 4.7-4.4% ash respectively). Chemical composition of selected trees was homogeneous among MZs, with the exception of oleic acid, which was higher in the South MZ, and potassium, which was higher in the Dry Coast MZ. The analysis by macrozones showed that the North MZ had the highest ash content and the Dry Coast MZ the highest values of moisture, protein and lipids. Average phytosterol content reached 2,113 μg/g oil and tocopherols 113 μg/g oil. Stand-alone NIRS measurements were employed for identifying pine nut geographical origin by testing different sample presentations (in-shell and shelled pine nuts, and humid and dried flour). This analysis demonstrated the potential of this technology, since it is proved to be a rapid and accurate method for predicting the geographical origin of pine nuts in Chile; indeed, 87.8% of samples from the three MZs were correctly classified at the cross-validation stage, and the best model was obtained with shelled pine nuts. Proteomic analysis also allowed us to differentiate populations growing in the three macrozones of the species in Chile, and proved to be a useful tool to detect variability between populations of different environments, with seven proteins being identified as population markers. Proteins related principally to nutrient reserve, heat shock stress, glycolytic processes, oxidoreductase and peroxiredoxin activity, and in lower proportion, to carbon fixation and ATP binding, were identified, with 12% remaining unidentified. In summary, the present analysis of stone pine populations in Chile, involving different techniques, showed that the species variability is determined by geographical and climatic factors as a gene expression probably associated with adaptive strategies.
Growth and cone production of six European stone pine provenances established in central Chile were analyzed at the age of 19 years and survival during the first 7 years. The studied provenances significantly differed in cone number per tree and weight, and DBH, height and crown diameter growth. Provenances were separated into three groups, according to growth and productive variables: Italian and Slovenian; Andalucía and Sierra Morena (Spain); and Meseta Castellana (Spain), the latter showing the highest growth and productivity. Individual cone production was positively correlated with cone weight and growth variables.
Afterwards, individual and combined effects of fertilization and irrigation on growth and fruiting, and their correlation, were assessed in plantations located in central Chile. In a 30 year-old plantation (Cáhuil) treatments consisted of control, spring and autumn fertilization, spring and summer irrigation, and combined fertilization and irrigation; and in a 16 year-old plantation (Toconey), treatments included control and spring fertilization. In Cáhuil fertilization had a positive effect one year after application (23.5% superior height growth and 82.3% superior 1 year-old conelet production vs control); after two consecutive years of application, a significant influence on DBH (17.5% superior vs control), height (20.4% superior), and 1 year-old conelet production (36.4% superior vs control) was observed, independently of the hydric status of the trees. Irrigation enhanced fruiting but did not affect growth. The maximum 1 year-old conelet number was observed in fertilized and irrigated plots (60% superior). In Toconey, tree growth in fertilized plots was higher (41% superior height and 29% crown diameter), and bore 94% and 2.4 times more cones vs the control 3 and 4 years after fertilization. Fertilization also affected cone size, increasing the quantity of heavier cones during the two following harvests. Both cultural practices, applied either individually or combined, are useful tools to enhance fruit production in young and adult stone pine plantations, with a stronger response if applied at younger ages.
Finally, this thesis proposes an intensive management model for stone pine cropping for fruit production in Chile, including techniques commonly used in horticulture, such as fertilization, irrigation, weed control, grafting and different pruning types, including root pruning.
Overall, the scientific results obtained have confirmed the general hypothesis of this doctoral thesis, i.e., stone pine is well adapted to soil and climate of Chile within a wide range of environmental conditions, and has a production capacity that allows us to predict productive levels similar to or higher than those in its native habitat, which makes the species cultivation an important productive alternative for the country.
This thesis makes a valuable scientific contribution to the advancement of stone pine knowledge in several aspects relevant for its domestication, opening new research topics that should be addressed in the future.
... Suitable cultivation areas were assessed to cover as much as 1.3 million hectares up to 1000 m a.s.l. (Loewe & González 2003), but Stone pine was later found to survive at above 2000 m a.s.l. Despite the sensitivity of the species to soil conditions (Gandullo & Sánchez-Palomares 1994, Court-Picon et al. 2004, 2013 it has been reported that Stone pine can grow over more than 8.6 million hectares, with over 4.8 million hectares being suitable for medium and high levels of pine nut production (Ávila et al. 2012). ...
... In August 1994, 2-year-old P. pinea seedlings grown in 210 cm 3 containers in coco fiber-peat-vermiculite (2:1:1) substrate were planted at the experimental site. Mean seedling height before transplanting was 44 ± 7 cm, and mean collar diameter was 0.9 ± 0.12 cm (Loewe & González 2003). The planting area was prepared via complete ploughing and ripping on the plantation line at 30-40 cm depth, and planting was performed manually following a systematic spatial pattern distribution (2×3 m) with an initial density of 1667 trees ha -1 . ...
Pinus pinea is characterized by phenotypic plasticity, tolerance to harsh soils and climates, but low differentiation in growth parameters and low genetic variability. Growth and cone production of six European stone pine provenances (two from Italy, three from Spain and one from Slovenia) were analyzed in a field trial experiment established in central Chile. The study evaluated height, diameter at breast height (DBH) and crown diameter growth of 147 nineteen-year-old trees per provenance, as well as fruiting variables (i.e., number of cones per tree and cone weight). Survival over the first 7 years was also evaluated. Provenances significantly differed in cone number per tree, cone weight, height and DBH growth, and crown diameter growth. Provenances were grouped according to growth and production variables: one group included the Italian and Slovenian provenances, the second group Andalucía and Sierra Morena (Spain), and the third included Meseta Castellana (Spain). Individual cone production was positively correlated with cone weight and other growth variables. Meseta Castellana provenance showed the highest growth and productivity. Our results provide useful information for the selection of P. pinea provenances to be used in new plantations in central Chile.
... Stone pine was introduced in Chile more than a century ago by European immigrants, who used it for dune and soil improvement and livestock shading (Loewe and González 2003). The species provides an attractive option to Chilean producers, especially for the high value of its shelled nuts (Loewe and González 2007;Soto et al. 2008), with prices that have been increasing worldwide from €25 kg -1 in 2010 to €45 kg -1 in 2013, and also for the highly demanded biomass generated as by-product from its processing (Cruz 2008). ...
Pinus pinea is native to the Mediterranean basin, being an interesting species due to its high-value edible pine nuts (prices between €20 and €45 kg⁻¹), its ability to adapt to differing environmental conditions and its relative fast growth in Chile. The species was introduced to Chile more than one century ago by European migrants, who used it for dune stabilization, soil improvement and livestock shading. Agroforestry systems including stone pine and agricultural crops (forage oat and potatoes) and sheep grazing for mutton production were tested in two experimental plots located in El Carmen, Biobío region. The plots were evaluated during 5 years after planting. Crop yields were lower than the region average, reaching nearly 60% of national average yields of forage oat and 66–86% of potato. Forage production in these plots was not enough to sustain permanent grazing; however, sheep grazing in regulated periods contributes to mutton production. Grazing reduces weed and shrub growth, fire risk and the cost of periodic mechanical cleaning. Stone pine annual growth in height and diameter at collar height (ground level) were on average 50 and 2.5 cm, respectively, and was found to be a suitable species for agroforestry systems. Net present value was almost seven times higher in the agroforestry system than in pure stone pine plantations; therefore, this system can contribute to the local and national economy.
... 3e6), and new plantations are increasing. Since the 1990's, several studies on the species were developed to assess its potential as a productive fruit forest species for the Mediterranean areas of Chile, confirming its adaptation expressed through a superior growth and fruiting to the one presented in the main distribution areas across the world (Loewe, Delard, Gonz alez, Mutke, & Fuentes, 2012, 2014, Loewe, Balzarini, Alvarez, Delard & Navarro-Cerrillo, 2016Loewe & Gonz alez, 2003). Three differentiated growth macrozones were defined for the species in Chile according to growth patterns (Loewe, Delard, Balzarini, Alvarez, & NavarroCerrillo, 2015). ...
... Up to 2010, stone pine was established in nearly 100 ha in different regions, settings (isolated trees, groves and plantations) and under different field managements. Those areas have been partially studied for assessing stone pine potential as a fruit tree, confirming its ecological adaptation and productive potential (Loewe et al., 1998;Loewe and González, 2003). ...
Pinus pinea L. is a Mediterranean species of economic importance due to its edible seeds, the pine nuts that have high market value. We analyzed fruit productivity by recording cone number per tree (CN) on 3464 trees distributed along a climatic gradient in Chile. Cone weight at harvest (CW) and in-shell pine nut number per cone (IS) were measured on 76 superior trees. Climatic and biometeorological variables, defined based on 11 physio-phenological reproductive phases, were related to fruit production traits. Results showed marked differences among North, South and Dry coast areas. The highest values of cone productivity (32 kg tree −1) and CN (62 cones tree −1) were recorded in the South. Stone pine cone production throughout Chile was favored by spring minimum temperature above 7 • C; annual thermal oscillation below 12 • C and late summer temperature below 6 • C during differentiation of reproductive shoots; and a high spring rainfall, except during male flowering period. Accumulated rainfall above 14 mm during 2 year-old conelet growth produced heavier cones. IS significantly increased when accumulated rainfall during cone ripening was above 133 mm. Therefore, water supply would be recommended as a cultural practice to mitigate the negative impact of reduced water availability on fruit productivity.
... or Eucalyptus sp.) or some fruit species (almonds or other higher water demanding species) for the Chilean Mediterranean zone, confirming its ecological adaptation expressed through a vegetative growth superior to the one presented in the main distribution areas across the world (Loewe et al., 1998(Loewe et al., , 2014Loewe and González, 2003). Potential areas for its cultivation in the country were studied by Ávila et al. (2012), showing that the species can grow in more than 8.6 million hectares and that there are over 4.8 million hectares suitable for medium and high pine nut production level. ...
Se analiza el comportamiento de 6 procedencias europeas de pino piñonero (Lombardía, Toscana, Eslovenia, Meseta Castellana, Andalucía Occidental y Sierra Morena) en un sector de la zona central de Chile, y se relaciona su desarrollo con clases de sitio españolas. También se analiza el impacto de factores climáticos y de diferentes prácticas de manejo. Los resultados muestran que las procedencias españolas presentan una mejor adaptación, y que la especie presenta una gran potencialidad en la zona estudiada.
Six European Stone Pine provenances from Spain, Italy and Slovenia planted in a common garden trial in central Chile are compared regarding juvenile growth in height. Results show that Spanish origins presented a better adjustment to the semiarid climate conditions at the test site, but overall the species presents a great potential in the studied zone, with obvious interest as tree crop for pine nut production.
Key words: Chile, introduced species, Mediterranean Stone Pine, Pinus pinea, provenance trial.
(8) (PDF) Introducción del pino piñonero, Pinus pinea L., en Chile. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308167839_Introduccion_del_pino_pinonero_Pinus_pinea_L_en_Chile [accessed Apr 08 2020].
In Chile, indigenous forests (mostly Nothofagus sp. and Acacia caven) and plantations of fast-growing exotic species cover 13.5 and 2.4 million ha, respectively. The latter consists principally of Pinus radiata and Eucalyptus sp., but also include cherry (Prunus avium), poplar (Populus sp.), and walnut (Juglans regia). The main silvopastoral systems that have been established in the temperate zone of the country, excluding arid, semiarid and Patagonian regions, are in: (1) an old Nothofagus forest in the foothills of the Andes, (2) a second-growth “Roble” (Nothofagus obliqua) forests of the Andes, with the objectives of rejuvenating the over-mature forests, and evaluating the quantity and quality of pasture that is sown under different tree coverages. The Pinus radiata-based silvopastoral systems are the most common system adopted by smallscale agroforestry producers in the Mediterranean Chile in diverse environments from semiarid to humid zones. Furthermore, because of the expanding markets for pine nuts and timber of several hardwood species, several experimental trials were established in the past 20 years between the Valparaiso and Los Lagos regions, including exotic species such as cherry, walnut, poplar and stone pine (Pinus pinea). Through regular income from the sale of diverse woody and non-woody forest products, these innovative silvopastoral systems help improve the quality of life and wellbeing of small farm owners in temperate Chile.
El presente documento informa sobre las características más relevantes de los productos originados de plantaciones mixtas orientadas a la producción de madera de alta calidad. El uso de madera de alto valor, como el nogal, cerezo, fresno, castaño, arce y otras, se utilizan en la confección de muebles de alta calidad y estilo, chapas decorativas paneles de calidad, culatas de armas, tornería, instrumentos musicales, etc. A nivel artesanal, la madera más apreciada por el comercio es la rústica de montaña, dura, pesada y de fibra corta. La madera de fibra y estructura más larga, menos pesada, poco resistente y de color más claro, como la que se origina en plantaciones especializadas de arboricultura, es la más requerida a nivel industrial.
This study evaluates three important parameters of biodiversity in first generation Scots pine forests on sandy soils: herbal layer, natural regeneration and stand structure. The research was undertaken in the Belgian Campine Region, where the original oak-birch forest had been destroyed in the course of time and finally been replaced by monocultures of Scots pine. These pine forests are characterised by a low biodiversity. In maturing stands of this type, however, a spontaneous increase of biodiversity is noticed. Herbal species diversity is very limited in all age classes. Spontaneous establishment of Scots pine seedlings is presently a widespread phenomenon in aging stands. Different regeneration patterns are found. Mainly due to the lengthening of the rotation in combination with the ingrowth of several hardwood species, the homogeneous Scots pine stands are gradually and spontaneously transformed into heterogeneous mixed stands, featuring a noticeable increase of biodiversity. Nevertheless, selected human interventions may further increase biodiversity. The fundamental management principles are discussed: avoidance of big disturbances, lengthening of the rotation period, use of native tree species, utilization of natural regeneration, protection of small valuable biotopes and permanent monitoring.
Pinus pinea pollen grains were collected in San Rossore Natural Park and Pisa town centre, central Italy, characterized by different types and levels of pollutants. Pollen from San Rossore had a higher germination rate (80%) than that from Pisa (40%). -from Authors
We investigated the effects of low-intensity, prescribed spring surface fires at varying intervals in a widely spaced, mature red pine plantation growing on a high quality sandy loam soil in northern Lower Michigan. Measurements of overstory characteristics, as well as the composition and development of the herbaceous and woody understory, were taken in unburned plots and during the seventh growing season following a single burn, the second growing season following the last of two burns at 5 yr intervals, and the growing season immediately following the last of four burns 2 yr intervals. Except for loss of a few trees due to crown scorch early in the study when fuel loadings were high, the red pine overstory was minimally affected by fires at any return internal. Compared to unburned plots, fire had no effect on total species richness or percent cover of ground flora < 1.4 in tall, but species composition shifted; cover of mosses and lichens declined and black cherry seedlings increased at the two shortest fire intervals. Although percent cover of grasses, bracken fern, and Rubus spp. appeared to increase following fire, the clumped distribution of vegetation and interplot variability in overstory density obscured the statistical significance of these trends. Species richness and density of stems in the woody understory (> 1.4 m tall but < 10 cm dbh) declined abruptly as burning interval decreased and number of burns increased. Fewer than two woody understory species, on the average, persisted on plots burned every 2 yr, whereas nearly 12 grew on unburned plots. Postburn conditions were conducive to the re-establishment of black cherry and paper birch in the understory; density of all other major species dropped sharply after more than one fire. As time after the last fire increased, however, red maple, choke cherry, and white ash densities began to recover slowly, largely by sprouting. The significance of these findings to red pine managers in the Lake States is discussed.