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Linguistic and cultural barriers to intercultural communication in foreign subsidiaries
Abstract
This study examines the causes and consequences of linguistic and cultural barriers to inter-cultural communication in Nordic subsidiaries in Japan. Interviews with 30 Nordic (Finland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden) expatriates and 29 Japanese employees show that the main linguistic barriers to intercultural communication were lack of a shared language and low motivation to improve foreign-language proficiency. The main cultural barriers were collectivism, and status and power differences. Combined, the consequences of these barriers were extensive reliance on language intermediaries, information filtering, in-group/out-group categorization, receiver-centred communication and incongruent supervisor-subordinate expectations. The interviews suggest that linguistic and cultural barriers have a differentiated impact on intercultural communication.
... For example, Monks (1996) described how the HRM director of an Irish subsidiary of a French bank admitted that HCN employees seldom paid any attention to documents written in French due to their limited French proficiency. Another study in Nordic MNC subsidiaries in Japan suggests that HCN employees had limited ability to absorb information transferred from HQ due to their limited corporate language proficiency (Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011). ...
... The positive correlation between department top manager and language-sensitive recruitment (r = 0.17, p < 0.01) suggests in line with a previous study that expatriate managers tend to place more emphasis on HCN language proficiency than HCN managers (Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011). The positive correlation between language-sensitive recruitment and language training (r = 0.17, p < 0.01), in turn, suggests that both of these language-oriented HRM practices are used in MNC subsidiaries. ...
... y p < 0.10. absorb transferred knowledge in MNC subsidiaries (Monks, 1996;Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011). Second, this paper contributes to the theory and research on knowledge transfer in MNCs by its language-based perspective of knowledge transfer. ...
Are multinational corporations able to enhance the development of absorptive capacity in foreign subsidiaries through language-oriented human resource management (HRM) practices? Taking into account that a shared language enhances absorptive capacity and that many multinational corporations are multilingual entities, this question is relevant but given little focused attention in international business research. In this paper, we hypothesize that two language-oriented HRM practices – language-sensitive recruitment and language training – enhance absorptive capacity in foreign subsidiaries. In addition, we hypothesize that interunit knowledge transfer partially mediates the positive relationship between these language-oriented HRM practices and absorptive capacity. Analyses of survey data derived at three points in time from 574 foreign subsidiary units in Japan provide support for these hypotheses.
... Interaction adjustment refers to expatriates' adjustment with the language and socialization processes in a host country, which facilitate these individuals to comfortably interact with HCNs (Waxin, 2004). While expatriates remain uncertain and anxious in a host country environment in early experiences (Nadeem and Mumtaz, 2018), communication and exchange of ideas with HCNs lead to the adjustment of expatriates (Peltokorpi and Clausen, 2011;Varma et al., 2016b). ...
... These findings are also consistent with the expatriation literature, which suggests that trust development between expatriates and HCNs fosters social learning and challenges their existing beliefs (Lee and Schneider, 2020;Mao and Shen, 2015). Similarly, intercultural communication reflects intergroup memberships through heightened feelings of connectedness between expatriates and HCNs (Mao and Shen, 2015;Peltokorpi and Clausen, 2011). However, the findings did not support the relationship between shared vision and common social identity. ...
Purpose
This article examines the impact of expatriates' interaction adjustment and conducive work environment (i.e. trust, shared vision and intercultural communication) on the development of a common social identity between expatriates and host country nationals (HCNs) using the social identity theory (SIT). It also investigates whether increased trust, shared vision and intercultural communication mediate the relationship between expatriates' interaction adjustment and development of a common social identity.
Design/methodology/approach
Dyadic data were collected from 93 Chinese expatriates and 239 Pakistani HCNs using a three-wave time-lag design. A multilevel model was estimated using Bayesian estimation technique in the Mplus software.
Findings
Empirical evidence suggests an inverse relationship between expatriates' interaction adjustment and the development of a common social identity between expatriates and HCNs. Further, trust and intercultural communication led to a positive impact on the group memberships between expatriates and HCNs. However, no support was found regarding the mediating role of trust, shared vision and intercultural communication in this empirical research.
Originality/value
The existing literature focuses mainly on change experiences of expatriates during international assignments. However, the current study goes beyond this and investigates the individualized change experiences of HCNs. Further, empirical evidence in this research found a negative relationship between expatriates' interaction adjustment and the development of a common social identity between expatriates and HCNs, which needs to be examined further.
... The previously mentioned study by Van Bakel et al. (2015) also highlighted communication barriers as a factor that influences the relationship quality between expatriates and their local host. This factor is also found in other studies; several qualitative studies have documented the lack of a shared language as a barrier to intercultural communication (Chang & Smale, 2014;Peltokorpi, 2006Peltokorpi, , 2007Peltokorpi, , 2010Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011;Shimoda, 2013;Sriussadaporn, 2006), which makes it more difficult to build meaningful relationships with HCNs (Fee et al., 2015;Shen & Kram, 2011), receive social support from 'local friends' (Wang & Nayir, 2006), and which may also impede adjustment to interacting with HCNs, as has been shown for expatriates in China andHong Kong (Selmer, 1999, 2006;Zhang & Peltokorpi, 2016). ...
... Several qualitative studies focused on these interactions, often from an international business communication per- spective, and describe possible sources of conflicts -i.e. perceptions, norms, and practices -for these interactions in various national contexts such as Japan, Oman, Thailand and China ( Hong et al., 2016;Jassawalla et al., 2004;Neal, 2010;Peltokorpi, 2006Peltokorpi, , 2007Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011;Shimoda, 2013;Sriussadaporn, 2006;Wingrove, 1995). Furthermore, Neal (2010) suggested that Omani cultural tolerance and use of humour in the workplace are important reasons for the good relations between expatriates and HCNs. ...
There has been a growing interest in the potentially positive impact of expatriate interactions with host country nationals (HCNs) in International Human Resource Management (IHRM). This paper provides a comprehensive overview of this relatively new body of literature, and organises the empirical research with regard to antecedents and outcomes of expatriate-local (E-L) interactions at four different levels of analysis: individual, dyadic, group, and societal level. A literature search resulted in the selection of 74 articles, published between 1990 and 2016, which focus on E-L interactions that influence the success of an organisation. The overview shows most of the research has been done at the individual level of analysis, examining the impact of contact with HCNs on expatriate adjustment and performance. Several avenues and suggestions for future research are listed; an important starting point for future research is to clearly delineate which aspect of expatriate-local interactions is investigated – the frequency, depth, or breadth of the contact. This review counterbalances the predominant IHRM focus on expatriates as sole actors in expatriate success by specifically including another important stakeholder, the HCN. It further provides directions and a research agenda for future research on expatriate-local interactions.
... First, a lack of understanding of the differences in cultural orientations (see Hofstede 1980Hofstede , 2001 between the expatriate (parent country nationals) and host country nationals contributes to poor intercultural communication. A study examining why Nordic (Finland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) expatriates perform poorly in Japan concluded that poor appreciation of cultural barriers such as collectivism, status, and power distance hindered cooperation between the Nordics and Japanese (Peltokorpi & Clausen 2011). As a result of communication challenges arising out of cultural differences, there was information filtering, in-group/out-group categorizations ("us vs. them" mentality), and incongruent expectations between the Nordics and the Japanese. ...
... Managers also lack motivation (and open mindedness) to acquire intercultural skills, and often cite the lack of opportunities to utilize these skills (cf. Black & Mendenhall 1990;Fischer 2011;Peltokorpi & Clausen 2011). Moreover, multinational firms frequently do not plan in advance or actively prepare expatriates for international assignments. ...
Globalization and talent flow around the world have resulted in greater demands on managers and leaders to adapt to different cultures. This chapter explores the role of intercultural communication in the world of business. Intercultural competence refers to the interaction that occurs when two or more cultural groups come together and is part of a broader set of global management competencies, which includes culture and communication. We document how intercultural communication, as a part of intercultural competence, is crucial for facilitating international trade and business and managing a multicultural workforce in an era of globalization. Multinational firms benefit when leaders and managers demonstrate intercultural competence in international business activities such as expanding to foreign market expansion, negotiating with host country nationals, and in managing foreign subsidiaries. Intercultural competence is also essential for managing a multicultural workforce and realizing the benefits of diversity such as greater creativity and innovation. We conclude with emerging issues in intercultural communication and identify ways to develop intercultural competence for managers and leaders.
... Only 14% reported that they did not use any foreign languages at work. Even so, only a few competency frameworks explicitly mention language skills (Barham & Oates, 1991;Caligiuri, 2006;Coulson-Thomas, 1992); if mentioned at all, in most cases they are only referred to in passing as social interaction and adjustment to the host country on the part of expatriates (Haslberger et at., 2006) or as communication or negotiation skills with colleagues and other representatives of the host country (Peltokorpi, 2010;Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011). ...
... Perhaps surprisingly, language competence has received limited attention in previous research on geographical mobility and international careers (Nicholson & West, 1988;Suutari, 2003). While it has been considered a selection criterion for international assignments (Dowling, Festing, & Engle, 2008;Kristensen, 2004;Selmer & Lam, 2004), a factor affecting expatriate adjustment and integration into the host country (Selmer, 2006), and a key element of the expatriate's ability to communicate across cultural boundaries (Peltokorpi, 2010;Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011), it has not been picked up by career scholars per se. This may be because of the dominant position of English as a lingua franca. ...
This conceptual paper offers a novel, language-centered perspective on career mobility. Previous research on the boundaryless career has emphasized physical rather than psychological career mobility. We focus on the latter as it is an antecedent of physical mobility that has high predictive power. Findings in the field of international business show how the introduction of a new corporate language creates a glass ceiling preventing individuals whose language proficiency is insufficient from pursuing career opportunities within the organization. Nevertheless, these effects have not been systematically conceptualized. On the basis of an interdisciplinary literature review of careers, person-environment fit, and language-centered work in international business, we develop a theoretical model which explains psychological career mobility as an outcome of language misfit. We propose the construct of language misfit and argue that language misfit steers, shapes, and redirects psychological career mobility through job dissatisfaction.
... It is thus not surprising that proficiency in the corporate language is shown to provide power-and career-related benefits to HCNs in subsidiaries (San Antonio, 1987). In contrast, HCN managers are shown to place less emphasis on language requirements in recruitment practices, especially in small subsidiaries (Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011). While one or a few bilingual HCNs can be responsible for inter-unit communication in small subsidiaries, it is feasible to assume that large/established subsidiaries need to have more HCNs proficient in the MNC-level language because of increasing inter-unit information flows (Gupta & Govindarajan, 2000). ...
... This is problematic, because these HCNs often have important roles as language nodes. While this high turnover might be partly due to low employment security (Ono, 2007) and internal promotion opportunities in foreign subsidiaries in Japan (Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011), our findings suggest that HCNs' foreign language proficiency contributed to this job-hopping phenomenon. Although not as strongly aligned with foreign language proficiency, limited internal career advancement opportunities, combined with low organizational attachment and external job opportunities, are also shown to contribute to high voluntary turnover rates in foreign subsidiaries in Singapore (Reiche, 2007). ...
This study adopts a recontextualization perspective on language policies and practices in wholly owned foreign subsidiaries. Drawing on a field study of 101 subsidiaries in Japan, we develop a contingency model that distinguishes between four different types of recontextualization with characteristic language policies and practices: developing/locally adaptive, developing/globally integrated, established/locally adaptive, and established/globally integrated. Our analysis shows how each of these four types is accompanied by specific problems and challenges. In particular, it elucidates five important aspects of language implementation: (1) the emergence of language praxis from the interplay of headquarters strategies and local responses; (2) the hybridization of language practices; (3) the central role of key actors such as subsidiary presidents in recontextualization; (4) the pervasive power implications of language policies and practices; and (5) the multifaceted implications for strategic human resource management. By so doing, our analysis opens up new avenues for context-specific and practice-oriented studies of language in multinational companies.
... 77 Second, cultural differences between countries, especially language and religious beliefs, often affect the convenience of communication and the level of trust among collaborating members, thus diminishing international collaborative endeavors. [78][79][80] That is to say, even during non-pandemic periods, collaboration between distant countries is inherently less convenient. During the COVID-19 pandemics, with the implementation of intensive lockdown measures and travel restrictions, the collaboration between distant countries becomes even more challenging. ...
The field of mRNA vaccines has witnessed rapid development in recent years, leading to significant changes in global scientific collaboration. In this study, a bibliometric and social network analysis was conducted to reveal the evolution of global scientific collaboration in mRNA vaccine research. Altogether 6974 articles published since 2010 were retrieved and categorized into Period 1 (2010-2019), Period 2 (2020-2021) and Period 3 (2022-2023). During Period 2 and 3, there was a significant rise in the proportion of publications involving domestic inter-institutional cooperation (42.0%, 54.0% and 59.1%, respectively in Period 1, 2, and 3), while a significant decrease in international cooperation (32.1%, 23.7% and 21.0%). More countries participated in international collaboration during Period 2 and 3, with the US, the UK and Germany remaining top three throughout all periods, while some other countries like Italy, Japan, and China experiencing significant shifts. Significant correlations between collaboration type and publication impact and between geographical distance and collaborative publication counts were detected. Furthermore, significant changes in research focuses and institutions that are major contributors in the mRNA vaccine development have been observed. In conclusion, the mRNA vaccine field has experienced rapid development over the past decade, with significant evolutions of global scientific collaboration detected in our study.
... Firms that operate in multiple countries tend to have great difficulty adapting to foreign markets due to the -liability of foreignness,‖ which arises from differences between firms' home-country environments and host countries' environments, and result in firms in host countries incurring higher costs than local firms (Zaheer and Mosakowski, 1997). For instance, firms that operate in certain host countries do not easily acquire legitimacy in these countries' local contexts, and encounter obstacles when attempting to coordinate employees from the populations of these foreign countries, due to these countries' cultures differing from that of firms' home country (Peltokorpi and Clausen, 2011). In this regard, MNCs must often invest substantial capital to overcome the -liability of foreignness‖. ...
Previous studies suggest that multinational corporations (MNCs) are likely to participate in more philanthropic activities because these activities could facilitate their operation in host countries. Focusing on a sample of Chinese MNCs between 2006 and 2019, this study investigates whether more diversified firms have higher corporate philanthropic giving (CPG), and the moderating effect of host-country environments. The results indicate that there is not a significant relationship between firm's global diversification and CPG. Nonetheless, we find that a host country's cultural distance, institutional quality and country risk negatively moderate the global diversification–CPG relationship, while a host country's economic growth positively moderates this relationship. Our findings suggest that although global diversification increases the incentives for Chinese firms to engage in philanthropy, it also constrains on their involvement in such activities. Furthermore, the precise effect of global diversification on a firm's CPG is conditional on the environment of its host country, and the host country that has large cultural difference to home country, good institutional quality, high risk and bad economic prospect leads to decrease in MNCs' CPG. Our study provides new evidences for the determinants of CPG in MNCs from emerging markets.
... Paternalistic relationships are common among individuals at different levels of a hierarchy in high PD cultures. In classroom situations, some studies have shown that those from high PD cultures have a lower motivation to improve their foreign-language proficiency, preferring more ingroup-centred communication (Peltokorpi and Clausen, 2011). ...
... Paternalistic relationships are common among individuals at different levels of a hierarchy in high PD cultures. In classroom situations, some studies have shown that those from high PD cultures have a lower motivation to improve their foreign-language proficiency, preferring more ingroup-centred communication (Peltokorpi and Clausen, 2011). ...
This study examines the instructional preferences exhibited by students in an Australian and a Zimbabwean setting, and how cultural conditioning can reflect in the instructional design choice. Using graphical and textual presentations of an experiment with three instructional designs and 217 undergraduate students, this study empirically examines student understanding of financial accounting in the two countries. Students' performance scores and reported mental effort ratings were used to determine the instructional preference. The findings of this comparative study show that Australian accounting students prefer graph and text designs aligned with a low power distance (PD) while Zimbabwean students prefer graph and text designs associated with a high PD. The sample used in this study came from first-year undergraduate students studying introductory accounting at two different universities from two different countries (Australia and Zimbabwe). The results may not be generalisable to other universities although similar patterns were found to be consistent with students' cultural orientations. In addition, there may be other factors that motivate students' learning and affect their performance and that should therefore be considered. The results suggest that students learning in different cultural contexts learn better with different instructional formats, requiring educators to consider different formats of instructional material. This study is the first to offer accounting educators insights on one major dimension of cultural variation, using instructional material designed according to cognitive load theory principles in a cross-cultural context.
... Variations in language levels may constitute a major barrier for the refugees' learning process. According to Peltokorpia and Clausen (2011) language barriers act against intercultural communication, create a sense of isolation, and have a negative influence on the interaction process. Such differences in the language level between Lebanese and Syrian students may complicate the mission of the teachers and create put them in a situation where they are required to resort to solutions which might not be suitable to all parties involved. ...
The purpose of the study is to examine the difficulties encountered in the education of Syrian refugees in Lebanon, particularly those related to classroom management and cultural differences between teachers and students. The sudden migration of Syrian students to Lebanon has necessitated great changes, and Lebanese schools have been facing the challenge of catering for the refugees’ educational needs. Interviews were conducted with twelve teachers in the elementary level at three official schools in the Shouf area.An interview guide was prepared by the researcher to direct the interviews towards the needed targets. The outcomes revealed that Instructional and management strategies are likely to fall short of achieving their aim if not planned in a way to respond to the cultural factors which characterize the parties involved in the educational process. In addition, ensuring that students possess the academic capabilities needed to grasp the material explained in class is a priority in the educational mission.Curriculum reformation has to take into consideration the needs of all learners since the system, as it is now, is not fair for Syrian students.
... Compared to such noticeable cultural markers as phenotype and language, cultural values function as less overt but more decisive criteria of social categorization, considering their substantial impact on individuals' choice and evaluation of social interaction (Hecht et al., 2005;Liu, 2015;Liu & Kramer, 2018;Liu, Volčič, & Gallois, 2015;Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011;Schwartz & Struch, 1989;Schwartz, Struch, & Bilsky, 1990). At the core of cultures, cultural values can generate differences through making distinctive of an individual's group characteristics, explicitly or implicitly (Liu, 2015). ...
Focusing on 35 American migrants’ experiences in mainland China, this study provides a new conceptual understanding of international migrants’ Other-identity formulated in and through intercultural encounters. Guided by grounded theory, this study demonstrates that American migrants’ Otherness was frequently triggered by their divergences from Chinese cultural values’ emphasis on individuals’ conformity to interdependence, group interests, group cohesiveness, homogeneity and unequally distribution of power and status within a social structure. As the Other in mainland China, American migrants adapted themselves to Chinese society via diverse strategic positioning, which eventually contributed to the differential formation of an integrated identity during immigration.
... Paternalistic relationships are common among individuals at different levels of a hierarchy in high PD cultures. In classroom situations, some studies have shown that those from high PD cultures have a lower motivation to improve their foreign-language proficiency, preferring more ingroup-centred communication (Peltokorpi and Clausen, 2011). ...
Purpose
This study aims to examine the instructional preferences exhibited by students in an Australian and a Zimbabwean setting and how cultural conditioning can reflect in the instructional design choice and the effect on the learning process.
Design/methodology/approach
Using graphical and textual presentations of an experiment with three instructional designs and 217 undergraduate students, this study empirically examines student understanding of financial accounting in the two countries. Students’ performance scores and reported mental effort ratings were used to determine the instructional preference.
Findings
The findings of this comparative study show that Australian accounting students prefer graph and text designs aligned with a low power distance, (PD) while Zimbabwean students prefer graph and text designs associated with a high PD. Deep-rooted cultural values and modes of thinking need to be considered in the learning processes.
Research limitations/implications
The sample used in this study came from first-year undergraduate students studying introductory accounting at two different universities from two different countries (Australia and Zimbabwe). The results may not be generalisable to other universities, although similar patterns were found to be consistent with students’ cultural orientations. In addition, there may be other factors that motivate students’ learning and affect their performance, and those should therefore be considered.
Practical implications
The results suggest that students learning in different cultural contexts learn better with different instructional formats, requiring educators to consider different formats of instructional material.
Originality/value
This study is the first to offer accounting educators insights on one major dimension of cultural variation, using instructional material designed according to cognitive load theory principles in a cross-cultural context.
... Past research has revealed that expatriate job performance during global assignment plays an important role in the success of MNCs (e.g., (13,14). Expatriate cultural adjustment has received attention because expatriates may face cultural challenges while working for MNCs (15). Unsuccessful cultural adjustment by expatriates is one of the top three most commonly cited reasons leading to the failure of global assignments (9).To improve performance and cultural adjustment, researchers attest to the importance of several individual factors and competencies in predicting cultural adjustment and job performance (e.g., (4,16). ...
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of self-motivation and competencies towards job performance of expatriates working within the ICT sector in Malaysia. Additionally, this study examines the mediating effect of cultural adjustment. A survey strategy associated with a quantitative method using a self-administered questionnaire was carried out. Data was collected through simple random sampling from a sample of 301 expatriates. The AMOS software developed for analyzing the Structure Equation Modeling (SEM) was utilized. Emotional and job related competencies were found to have a significant effect on expatriate job performance. However, the impact of self-motivation on job performance was found to be not significant. The findings also supported the role of cultural adjustment as a mediator. The theoretical framework emerging from this study support the results from some earlier studies and also brings out several new ideas such as the importance of competencies and cultural adjustment. The findings have significantly contributed to the advancement of knowledge as it is evident that expatriate emotional and job related competencies facilitate job performance and cultural adjustment. By investigating self-motivation and competencies, this study informs organizations on ways they can implement improvements in the areas of expatriate hiring, training and support practices. It is recommended that organizations consider both emotional and job related competencies and implement suitable HR policies when selecting, training and motivating the right candidate.
... Besides language, cultural values function as less overt determinants of social categorization based on their impacts on social interaction (Hecht et al., 2005;S. Liu, 2015;Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011). At the core of cultures, cultural values generate differences by virtue of marking an individual or a group distinct, explicitly or implicitly (S. ...
Acculturation’s impact on migrating individuals’ cultural identity is one of the foci of intercultural communication research. Many intercultural communication studies deliberately place ethnic identity at the core of identity research to avoid using racial identity. Influenced by the difference-as-problem viewpoint, sojourners’ and immigrants’ Other-identities are often viewed as abnormal, deviant, and alien and therefore should be managed, reduced, and even eliminated. However, critical scholarship has revealed that the sense of being the Other is the main theme of sojourners and immigrants. Drawing upon postmodern, postcolonial, and hermeneutic approaches, sojourners’ and immigrants’ 3 types of Other-identities are conceptualized in this review, and their embeddedness in asymmetric power structures is explained. These ideas emerge from social categorization processes that use both phenotypic and cultural markers as primary categorizing criteria. Consequently, the view held by biculturalists is refuted, and elaboration is presented about the ways migrating individuals—in intercultural encounters—enrich their sense of Self through integrating their Other-identities into their Self-identities, producing fused identities.
... Language is chosen for two reasons. First, cultural theory did not acknowledge the influence of language competency in intercultural communication (Babcock & Du-Babcock, 2001;Peltokorpia & Clausen, 2011). Second, the world of business has become more globalized and intercultural encounters are likely to reside with individuals speaking different national languages and with varying degrees of English language competency. ...
Objectives: Multinational corporations headquartered in Asia have steadily taken a greater market share in the global marketplace. This growth will continue, and Asia will be the leading economic force in the 21st century. This article attempts to provide a critical review of the literature of international business and business communication in Asia over the last two decades. Methods: This paper describes and reviews intercultural communication and business research and theory development in Asian multinational corporations. It traces the development of cultural, linguistic, and international business streams of research and theory development. Existing models and frameworks that can guide research and theory building are presented to lead to a unified theory of Asian business communication. Results: It was shown how distinct management and communication systems developed in Japan, Korea, overseas Chinese countries , and Mainland China. These streams were largely independent and are now going through an initial period of integration. Conclusions: There are hopeful signs for expanded research and theory building on Asian business communication. Scholarship and research is shifting to Asia as a way of following the movement of global business communication. A comprehensive framework , theories, and models are needed in order to guide future research endeavors in this increasingly diverse and complex globalized business communication environment and to provide a more complete and comprehensive explanation of international and Asian business communication.
... In previous studies looking into language use in international teams, the focus has been the common language that is used within the team for communication. For instance, there are studies that highlight the importance of having a common language that all members can communicate in, or the importance of lingua franca, or even the use of translators or interpreters in communication (Chidlow, et al., 2014;Janssens, & Steyaert, 2014;Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011;Zander, Mockaitis, & Harzing, 2011). Furthermore, some researches discuss that a presence of a language barrier or incompetence in the common language can possibly affect "trust formation" or knowledge transfer (Peltokorpi, & Vaara, 2014;Tenzer, et al., 2014). ...
... In particular, their findings showed that 464 although employee functional diversity-the range of things employees do 465 in organizational communities (Garnier, Navas, & Grigulis, 2016)-is 466 positively related to an innovative climate in low-power-distance cultures, 467while it was negatively related to an innovative climate in 468 high-power-distance cultures. An additional example of this is that those 469 from collectivistic high-power-distance cultures show lower motivation to 470 improve their foreign-language proficiency because they prefer more 471 in-group-centered communication(Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011). What's 472 more, Mitchell, Smith, Seawright, and Morse (2000) theorized that at the 473 societal level, people in high-power-distance cultures are less likely to start a 474 new business because it is perceived that only elites engage in such ven-475 tures. ...
This chapter discusses the cultural dimension power distance and how it relates to business and face. Power distance is described as a receiver perceptions that is part of the cultural imprint that affects responses to others and is correlated with collectivism. The association between power distance and unjust world beliefs, power, hierarchy, maintaining the status quo, direct communication (those who are powerful), indirect communication, consultation expectations, harmony, cooperation, passivity, innovation, motivation, and paternalism is explained in this chapter. Other topics relating to business such as leadership, superior-subordinate relationships, teams, participation, and petty tyranny are deliberated on as well.
... The notion suggests that expatriate workers in China require some different strategies for managing their careers than those used by expatriates working in the West. In fact, those working for local organizations in China or in any other culturally distant career context should have a well-developed cultural understanding and strong communicative abilities [42]. Moreover, self-efficacy, marital status, and family attachment are vital antecedents, covariates, and consequences of attractiveness to expatriate workers [43], [44]. ...
... Tens of thousands of foreign IT workers find employment in Japan, despite it being considered a difficult host culture for expatriate workers [1] and hard for foreign companies to communicate in [2]. Despite the recognition of challenges, there is a lack of information on IT workers meeting the difficulties of Japan. ...
This multiple case based empirical study expands the knowledge around North American software and IT workers in Japan as well as the expatriate literature and discussion of cognitive schemata in cross cultural settings. The study includes eleven individuals, nine of them in software. Evidence of selection, rejection, and adjustment of cognitive schemata found in Japan's business world is presented. Changes in schemata drive cultural adjustment and acculturation. North American software and IT workers in Japan must maneuver through unfamiliar and often complex schemata to motivate, lead, manipulate, and communicate with coworkers and partners and thereby gain success.
... A high incidence of the host-country language in the home country (or the opposite) increases the possibility of hiring people with the necessary language competence as well as finding local counterparts proficient in the home-country language. Several studies demonstrate the empowering and disempowering effects of language skills in MNCs (Brannen, 2004;Harzing, Ko¨ster, & Magner, 2011;Henderson, 2005;Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011;Vaara, Tienari, Piekkari, & Sa¨ntti, 2005). On the one hand, language skills are a source of power because people competent in language are in a favorable position. ...
Language commonality and barriers are often taken as exogenous given variable and independent of the context; however in this chapter we investigate the factors determining perception of language barriers. As such we are responding to the question of when do managers perceive language barriers and which business contexts foster the perception of language barriers and which do not? Language serves different purposes and entails different communicative requirements depending on the context in which it is used. In addition, language has multiple dimensions and we argue that the different dimensions of language vary in their importance depending on the specific context, where the contextual variation in this case is related to the operation mode chosen in the foreign market. More specifically, we argue that language distance (relatedness in language) matters when the firms conduct business abroad through their own employees, while language incidence (accuracy in language) is critical when operating through a local agent. The different use of language implies a need for different language skills. The combination of the operation mode and the availability of people with the needed language skills will affect managers' perception of language barriers. The hypotheses are tested on a large data set encompassing 390 multinational corporations headquartered in Finland, South Korea, New Zealand, and Sweden that have undertaken a business operation in a foreign country.
... For this study, we selected negotiators working in the IT industry from Finland and Japan as these two countries are distant in almost every way, geographically, linguistically, and in the measures of widely used cultural comparison tools (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2005;Ojala, 2015;Peterson, Wood, & Smith, 2008;Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 2012). As geographies with relatively homogenous populations, Japan and Finland are more likely to reveal variations when compared (Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011) than locations where ideas, experiences, and personal origins mingle more freely. In addition, even though both nations are technology leaders, the industries in these countries differ significantly. ...
The existing literature emphasizes the importance of negotiation skills in the field of IT.
However, negotiation and negotiation styles in the IT industry have received limited attention.
This original empirical research compares the negotiation schemata of Finnish and Japanese
IT business people. The study identifies negotiation schemata used in one or both culture
groups. Negotiators with greater experience and power in the negotiation process command
more schemata. However, neither population enjoys the full range of negotiation schemata.
Business negotiators in or out of IT and these cultures may benefit from knowing the schemata
and the results of matching and mismatching.
http://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/jitim/vol24/iss3/6/
... Although multi-national corporations (MNCs) leverage virtual teams, short-term relocations, and local recruitment to meet the growing global demands (PricewaterhouseCooper (PWC), 2006) the use of an expatriate workforce continues to grow (Brookfield, 2012). While many companies moved to a "wait-and-see" position regarding international relocation volumes as a result of the global financial crisis Cultural barriers also exist such as ignorance of cultural conventions, status differences, and differences in the definitions and expectations of friendship (Peltokorpi and Clausen, 2011). ...
Purpose
– Expatriate workforces are growing as a result of globalisation and the considerable cost associated with expatriation is a strong incentive to identify which employees are most likely to adjust to the host nation. One area relevant to cross-cultural adjustment is interpersonal needs. The theory of fundamental interpersonal relations orientation as measured by the fundamental interpersonal relations orientation-behaviour (FIRO-B) may offer insights as to the relationship between interpersonal needs and cross-cultural adjustment. The paper aims to discuss these issues.
Design/methodology/approach
– In total, 180 paper and pencil measures of the FIRO-B and expatriate adjustment scales (general, work, and interaction) were distributed via informed international associates and convenience and snowball sampling. In total, 112 expatriates from the UK (44 percent), South Africa (22 percent), India (20 percent), and other nations (14 percent) returned completed questionnaires.
Findings
– Expatriates with higher levels of wanted affection were higher on all subscales of cross-cultural adjustment. Those who wanted and expressed the need for inclusion were significantly higher in interaction adjustment while those who expressed and wanted control were less adjusted to work.
Research limitations/implications
– The cross-sectional design limits the extent to which these findings can be interpreted as causal and the small sample size may limit the generalisability of the findings and common method via self-report may also inflate inter-relationship. However, the underlying theoretical premise would strongly support the hypothesised directional relationships in the normal population. A number of factors beyond the scope of this study may play a fundamental role including cultural similarity.
Practical implications
– Whilst not predictive, and acknowledging that environmental factors may vary, these results give an indication that interpersonal needs are related to successful adjustment in expatriates. As such these findings could be used to help inform the recruitment and training of expatriates in areas of interpersonal interaction taking into consideration intrapersonal needs.
Originality/value
– No study to date has explored the inter-relationship between the interpersonal needs and expatriate adjustment. This is the first paper to do so and identify that there is a significant association between expatriate’s motives for interaction and their level of cross-cultural adjustment.
... Although multi-national corporations (MNCs) leverage virtual teams, short-term relocations, and local recruitment to meet the growing global demands (PricewaterhouseCooper (PWC), 2006) the use of an expatriate workforce continues to grow (Brookfield, 2012). While many companies moved to a "wait-and-see" position regarding international relocation volumes as a result of the global financial crisis Cultural barriers also exist such as ignorance of cultural conventions, status differences, and differences in the definitions and expectations of friendship (Peltokorpi and Clausen, 2011). ...
... Although IB literature contains numerous examples of companies struggling to adapt to unfamiliar socio-cultural contexts, there are not many systematic investigations that take a linguistic perspective Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011;Tenzer, Pudelko, & Harzing, 2013;Tietze, 2008). Brannen (2004) was probably the first to refer to the semantic dimension of the liability of foreignness, a prominent topic in IB research. ...
Using ethnographic evidence from the former Soviet republics, this paper examines a relatively new and mainly unobserved concept in international business literature: the phenomenon of communication disengagement that manifests itself in many emerging markets. We link it to the deficiencies of the local professional business discourse rooted in language limitations, which reflects a lack of experience with the market economy. This hampers cognitive coherence between foreign and local business entities, adding to the liability of foreignness as certain instances of professional experience fail to find adequate linguistic expression, and complicates cross-cultural adjustments, causing multinational companies (MNCs) financial losses. We contribute to the IB literature by examining cross-border semantic sensemaking through a retrospectively constructed observational study. We argue that a relative inadequacy of the national professional idiom is likely to remain a feature of the business environment in post-communist economies for some time, and therefore should be factored into business strategies of MNCs. Consequently, we recommend including discursive hazards in the risk evaluation of international projects.
... For example, Hofstede's dimensions of power distance have been shown to have a strong negative relationship with innovation scores (Rinne, Steel, & Fairweather, 2012). An additional example is that those from collective high power distance cultures have a lower motivation to improve their foreignlanguage proficiency, preferring more in-group-centered communication (Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011). Paternalistic relationships between those at the different levels of a hierarchy are also common (Dorfman & Howell, 1988). ...
Based on a meta-analysis of 60 empirical studies, a systematic review and integrative analysis of the empirical research on the effects of cultural values on communication is provided. The most commonly stated hypotheses pertaining to the links between cultural values and communication are summarized and quantitatively tested by the means of meta-analysis. Specifically, the analyses assessed the direct effects of cultural values (individualism, masculinity, power distance, uncertainty avoidance) on communication patterns (indirectness, self-promotion, face-saving concerns, attitudes to silence, openness, interruption, personal space, high-context communication, deception, dramatism, and ritualism). Significant results showed that: (1) individualism is positively related to direct communication and self-promotion, and negatively related to sensitivity and face-saving concerns and the propensity to use deception; (2) high power distance is positively related to sensitivity and face-saving concerns and indirect communication and negatively related to a propensity to interrupt; (3) masculinity is positively related to a self-promoting communication style and direct communication and negatively related to sensitivity and face-saving concerns; and (4) uncertainty avoidance is positively related to both sensitivity and face-saving concerns. Finally, a moderator analysis indicated that cultural effects are stronger for men and culturally tight societies. The small dataset and the a possibility of systemic omission of relevant data due to the file-drawer problem is a threat to validity of the reported findings, so this report should be taken as a meta-analytic summary of the available empirical evidence and not as conclusive results.
... India and Taiwan Sarkar and Huang, 2012 Japan Sutherland and Dos Santos, 2010; Peltokorpi and Clausen, 2011 Malaysia Teh et al, 2012 South Korea Cherry, 2010; Baek et al, 2012 Taiwan Mao and Hsieh, 2012 Internationalisation Asia Rugman, 2010 China Kung and Wen, 2012 India Balasubramanyam and Forsans, 2010 Japan Horn et al, 2010; Endo and Ozaki, 2011; Landi, 2011 Thailand Thirawat et al, 2011 Knowledge, Learning, Innovation China Chen et al, 2011; Liu et al, 2011; Demir and Fjellstro¨m, 2012; Deng et al, 2012; Pearce, 2012 Japan Branzei et al, 2011 Japan and US Ueki et al, 2011 Southeast Asia Iguchi, 2012 South Korea Giroud et al, 2012; Ryoo, 2012 Taiwan Tseng, 2011 Vietnam Anwar and Nguyen, 2010 Others China Fetscherin et al, 2010 Japan Chu et al, 2010; Daniel et al, 2011; Wen et al, 2012 Pakistan Moosa et al, 2010 Editorial ...
Chinese students nowadays have more opportunities to engage in interactions with people from different cultures, but meanwhile, their performance in authentic intercultural communications may be impeded by a variety of barriers. In this study, we qualitatively explored and summarized various types of barriers of intercultural communication as perceived by 40 Chinese students, based on Rozkwitalska’s (2010) model. The findings revealed a series of universal barriers that coincided previous studies (e.g., lack of confidence, shyness, feelings of remoteness, nonproficient use of functional language), and enriched Rozkwitalska’s (2010) model with newly identified barriers (e.g., lack of stress tolerance, self-centered communication, protection of face, discrepant performance concerning SES and age). Our study examined intercultural communications in a more comprehensive manner and made an attempt to develop a well-established, coherent frame of theory-building in international education research. Practical implications for educators and schools are discussed.
Globalization increases national culture and language diversity, which, if well managed, can benefit organizational performance. National culture is comprised of both language and country of origin, yet until relatively recently research has tended to focus on one or the other. We use person-organization fit theory and the meaning-based model of advertisement experience to propose that other-group orientation, a characteristic supportive of a pro-diversity climate, influences the relationship between language and national culture diversity recruiting messages and perceived person-organization fit. We used two randomized field experiments, one with 458 currently or recently employed people and one with 327 real job seekers, to test our model. Language and national culture diversity messages independently decreased perceived fit among those lower in other-group orientation and increased perceived fit among those higher in other-group orientation. A combined language and national cultural diversity message had the strongest effect by both decreasing fit perceptions among job seekers lower in other-group orientation and increasing fit perceptions among those higher in other-group orientation. These results refine both existing theory on and the practice of recruiting for pro-global diversity values by demonstrating that the relationship between recruiting message wording about an employer’s pro-national culture and pro-language diversity values and person-organization fit is moderated by other-group orientation. These findings can help employers better understand how recruiting messages can play a strategic role in hiring pro-global diversity talent.
Scientific research has been increasingly globalized over the past decades. Each country may choose to collaborate more closely with some countries than others, resulting in non-trivial structural patterns in international collaboration networks. While the structure of the collaboration networks among countries has been widely studied, the origin of such structure still lacks of systematic exploration. Analyzing bibliometric data from six disciplines, this paper reveals four categories of significant drivers for the collaboration closeness between countries, namely science, economy, geopolitics, and culture respectively. Countries with large and equivalent scientific sizes, as well as economic sizes, are more likely to collaborate closely with each other. In particular, comemberships in intergovernmental organizations largely promote close collaboration in science. Cultural links, including the shared language and religion, also facilitate close collaboration between countries. The analytical results shall provide insights on policy-making regarding the design of national research systems and international collaboration strategies.
This paper describes and reviews intercultural communication and business research, theory development in Asian multinational corporations. It traces the development of cultural, linguistic, and international business streams of research and theory development.
Research on global communication competence, intercultural competence, and communicative competence relies heavily on second-hand data collected through surveys and interviews due to the limited first-hand access researchers have to naturally occurring data. This chapter reports on a case where Japanese researchers needed access to authentic critical incident scenarios for the development of a situational judgment test to be used to assess the Global Business Discourse Competence (GBDC) of Japanese business practitioners. The development of these scenarios was dependent on the collection of naturally occurring data from business interactions on job sites. However, access to such data was problematic because of the unpredictability of incidents and the strong concerns by the participant business corporations concerning the privacy and confidentiality of their people and processes. The solution was to devise a series of simulated vignettes using data from multiple sources including interviews, focus group meetings and surveys. Researchers used feedback from subject matter specialists and pre-test participants to revise the vignette scripts to ensure that they accurately represented real incidents typically taking place on job sites. This chapter raises the questions of authenticity in business discourse data and the extent to which simulations can evidence real-time communicative events in critical-incident cases.
Purpose
This study aims to explore how a change in the staffing configuration of foreign subsidiaries affects subsidiary performance by focusing on staffing localization.
Design/methodology/approach
The relationship between localization and subsidiary performance is analyzed from the perspective of human capital. Hypotheses are tested using a panel data set of foreign direct investment by Japanese multinational enterprises.
Findings
The analysis demonstrates that localization has a positive effect on subsidiary performance when subsidiaries can access a pool of competent local managers in the host country. It also shows that when competent local managers are highly available, localization has a positive effect on subsidiary performance under high cultural distance. In comparison, when the availability of competent local managers is limited and cultural distance is high, localization has a negative effect on subsidiary performance.
Originality/value
Using human capital theory, this study theorizes how localization, which is a change in the configuration of human capital toward a reliance on local-specific human capital, enhances subsidiary-specific advantages. It introduces the effects of changes in the configuration of human capital over time, into studies on subsidiary staffing. In addition, from a different viewpoint than previous studies, this study proposes one possible path where human capital leads to organizational performance. Specifically, it shows that a change in the configuration of human capital affects subsidiary-specific advantages, which eventually impacts subsidiary performance.
Purpose
The purpose of this conceptual literature review is to investigate how language factors have been studied in the expatriate literature, and how cross-fertilisation with the broader language-sensitive international business and management field may facilitate integrated research of language in global work.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper is based on a thematic review of expatriate research and international business and management literature. The findings are structured through Reiche et al. 's (2019) three-dimensional conceptualisation of global work, after which two frameworks are developed to conceptualise how language connects the three dimensions – actors, structures and processes.
Findings
The literature review demonstrates that language-related topics are yet to gain status in the expatriate tradition, and the majority of studies, which do consider linguistic factors appear largely dissociated from the growing community of language research in the broader international management and international business fields. However, once consolidated, the literature reveals that language is present in all dimensions of global work. A processual view of corporate language management highlights the central role of human resource management (HRM), while a dynamic multi-level perspective indicates that language may form bidirectional relationships between the three dimensions of global work.
Originality/value
Due to the segmentation between language-sensitive research in the expatriate and international business/management traditions, few studies have considered the HRM implications of global mobility and the multifaceted nature of language at work. This conceptual literature review brings both perspectives together for a more contextualised and holistic view of language in international workforces.
This chapter, Chapter 9 of Communicating Across Cultures at Work 4th edition, presents the argument that intercultural communication is problematic in particular ways. It describes the wide range of barriers that apply. Section 9.1 describes the language barrier, Section 9.2 those barriers, such as the outgroup co-variation effect, that are ‘universal’, but apply with particular force in intercultural situations. Section 9.3 describes prejudice, discrimination and harassment and discusses their negative consequences for individuals, organizations and work communication. Section 9.4 describes those obstacles that can arise because people from different cultures and subcultures often do communicate differently. Section 9.5 shows how cultural differences in psychological factors and processes can create barriers to intercultural communication. Section 9.6 introduces two specifically work-related types of barrier – heterogeneity of work groups and task-related conflict. Section 9.7 considers the barriers to intercultural communication created by negative or weak organizational policies regarding diversity, and the contrary effect of strong positive policies. Section 9.8 explains the particular barriers that can arise during mediated intercultural work communication.
Firms may pursue greater equity ownership in foreign manufacturing subsidiaries to limit internal costs of coordinating and communicating with culturally dissimilar host-country partners. We offer that this relationship is strengthened when a firm’s multinational network is more geographically dispersed, or dispersed in terms of national cultural contexts, because a highly dispersed multinational network may also make coordination difficult. With a panel of 7422 firm-year observations (1993–2016) from 541 foreign manufacturing subsidiaries (32 Japanese parent automotive firms), we find the positive cultural distance and equity ownership relationship is positively moderated by geographic and cultural dispersion within parent firms’ multinational networks.
This paper explores the assumptions underlying the core concept of language used in the growing field of language‐sensitive research in international management. We reviewed 92 articles on the topic of language(s) in multinational corporations published during the period 1997‐2015, and applied a linguistic lens to uncover how these articles “talk about language”. The assumptions found in these articles can be grouped into three complementary categories that take a structural, functional or social practice view of language. We go beyond the review by also reflecting on the consequences that these underlying assumptions have for the study of language in multinationals. We consider the social practice view the most promising one, and propose a future research agenda for advancing it and thereby contributing to theorizing about the multinational corporation more broadly.
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This paper examines the relationship between high performance work practices (HPWPs) and cross-cultural dimensions to debate the effectiveness of HPWPs in cross-cultural settings. Using systematic review, 140 articles were identified on HPWPs and cross-cultural human resource management. Synthesizing the two literature areas results in four key findings. Many HR practices labelled as HPWPs are affected by national cultural dimensions. Also, several practices labelled as HPWPs have not been a part of the cross-cultural HR literature, and that limited studies in both area focus on the impact of cultural compatibility on outcomes. Finally, a few selected cultural dimensions have dominated the cross-cultural HR literature. Thus, more work is needed to: understand the role of national culture on effectiveness of HPWPs; increase coverage of HPWPs in the cross-cultural HR literature; understand the impact of cultural compatibility of HR practices and HPWPs on outcomes; and, incorporate additional cultural dimensions in future work.
The chapter explores salient issues regarding Confucian values that occu-py politeness behaviour of the Vietnamese in Vietnamese – Anglo-cultural inter-actions in intercultural contexts in Vietnam. We will present an analysis of the lit-erature on the impact of Confucian values on Asian communication and Vietnamese politeness, broadly interpreted, and then describe the empirical data of how Confucian values have an impact on the fundamental motivational concerns underlying politeness behaviours of Vietnamese working in intercultural contexts. From the findings, relevant implications for the teaching of English as a foreign language in various Asian Confucian cultures in general and in Vietnam in partic-ular are suggested in order to prepare English language learners better for intercul-tural communication contexts.
The communication process of encoding, sending a message, and decoding its correct meaning is a vital part of successful management and if not done correctly can effect an organization's profitability. In today's global environment, this process is challenged by cultural differences in communication patterns and technological issues that impact both interpersonal and organizational communications.
As organizations expand internationally and their foreign operations become more dispersed, differences in “natural” languages start to influence communication within and beyond their boundaries. In order to cope with these challenges, multinational companies (MNCs) have implicit or explicitly formulated language policies for corporate communication, documentation, and interaction (Marschan-Piekkari, Welch, & Welch, 1999). Empirical research on MNCs has highlighted various communication, staffing, and training-related challenges that accompany language policies (Tietze, 2008). However, less is known about the implementation of language policies and practices in foreign subsidiaries (Kingsley, 2010; Sharp, 2010). In particular, there is a paucity of knowledge of the ways in which contextual factors affect this implementation and the associated dynamics.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to reveal the subjective perspectives on the development process of perceived employability (PE) among Western self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) working for a local organisation in China.
Design/methodology/approach
– This empirical qualitative study is based on 23 in-depth interviews of Western SIEs, both repatriated and those who seek to continue their careers in local Chinese organisations in China.
Findings
– This study adds to the current understanding of PE development by highlighting how the long-term PE development of Western SIEs is not only impacted by the perceptions of lost and acquired resources, but also by the host-country cultural context, which contribute to the levels and development of PE as a personal resource.
Practical implications
– The findings of the study are highly relevant because today’s labour markets and the employability of skilled professionals are increasingly shaped by international career contexts. These are also emerging number of individuals who independently seek career opportunities in cross-cultural career and labour market settings. The findings also help explain why SIEs in cross-cultural career settings often express negative feelings when asked to review their assignments.
Originality/value
– This study is one of the first to explore the career trajectories of Western SIEs, and to address the dynamic aspect of PE from the perspectives of the conservation of resources theory and non-local employees in cross-cultural career settings.
Despite a plethora of research on various antecedents of expatriate cross-cultural adjustment and effectiveness,
relatively little is known how expatriate host country language proficiency affects cross-cultural adjustment.
Drawing on 74 in-depth interviews with expatriates and their host country national (HCN) colleagues, we
conducted an inductive study to provide a contextual account of expatriate host country language proficiency
effects on work and non-work related adjustment in China. Our findings suggest that expatriate host country
language proficiency has complex HCN interaction, social support, and network-related effects on work and
non-work related adjustment. By demonstrating the multifaceted effects of language on work and non-work
related adjustment, our inductive approach shifts the focus from previous predetermined general, work, and interaction adjustment facets to dimensions reported by expatriates and their HCN colleagues.
The available literature on self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) is generally based on the assumption that SIEs are protean in character and manage their careers independently. The current qualitative empirical study offers an alternative to this assumption, using 23 interviews with Western SIEs employed by local organizations in China to examine how and why SIEs target obtaining a labour market fit through career self-management behaviour, particularly in culturally distant career contexts. The assessment of the career self-management behaviour of Western SIEs was undertaken using King's framework (2004). Three approaches to self-management behaviour were identified based on the motivation and outcome expectations of SIEs: labour market entry, employability maintenance and career advancement. The research illustrates the flexible and dynamic nature of career self-management behaviour and reflects individuals' revised career expectations and the employment context of the host country. The findings contribute to the extant theory on SIEs by illustrating emerging means of realizing international careers in cross-cultural career contexts, and the significance of third-party initiatives supporting expatriation facilitated by the Internet and social media.
Corporate Communication Management (CCM) is an important concept within the
communication and marketing discipline. The term corporate communication came to the
attention of the general public more than 40 years ago, due to changes in global business
environments. Although corporate communication received great attention from scholars and
the business community, its complex concepts are still unclear. Furthermore, many scholars
believe there are influences of corporate culture, ICT diffusion innovations and corporate
leadership on corporate communication and its impact to organisational performance, yet
there is a paucity of studies on the validation of this theoretical assumption. Therefore, the
purpose of this study is to address this gap by providing an elevated understanding of the
concept of CCM and its antecedents, and in consequence, focus on organisational
performance from the managerial perspectives.
This study employs a two tier mixed-method research process involving qualitative and
quantitative approaches. The first tier commences with a semi-structured interview (with 12
respondents) to refine a conceptual framework developed based on existing literature. Then,
content validity (with 10 expert opinions) and pilot test (with 35 respondents) follow, to
develop a measurement scale with good validity and reliability. The second tier involves
online survey data (with 223 respondents) and secondary data (from Thomson DataStream) to
test the research hypotheses and proposed conceptual model. In this stage, structural
equation modelling (SEM) is employed. Results indicate a very good fit to the data, with
good convergent, discriminant and nomological validity and reliability stability.
The findings of this research show that corporate culture, ICT diffusion innovation and
corporate leadership are factors that influence CCM directly. While CCM correlates
positively with financial performance, it has no effect on mission achievement. Corporate
culture was found to have a positive relationship with mission achievement but negative
relations with financial performance. Furthermore, ICT diffusion innovation demonstrates a
positive association with mission achievement. Despite corporate leadership having a positive
relationship with mission achievement, there was no effect on financial performance.
Therefore, this study answered the antecedents and consequences of CCM, and they were
vii
found to be influential factors. In addition, the study demonstrates that managers rely on
internal factors such as corporate culture, ICT diffusion innovation and corporate leadership
to predict and assess CCM.
The findings have implications for knowledge of theories and practices, and also contribute in
the development of a model that explains the CCM functions and shows that functions have a
definite positive impact on financial performance. Furthermore, the research adds an insight
to a growing body of communication literature (primarily corporate communication) and
makes recommendation for future research directions.
Despite their alleged communication, control, coordination, and learning-related benefits, little is known of factors that affect language policies in multinational corporations (MNCs). In this paper, I draw on agency theory to focus on the effect of MNC subsidiary top manager nationality on subsidiary language policy. Specifically, I hypothesize that subsidiaries with expatriate top managers have more language policies than subsidiaries with host country national top managers. In addition, I hypothesize that subsidiary age and size moderate the effect between subsidiary top manager nationality and language policy, such that older and larger subsidiaries with expatriate top managers have more language policies than younger and smaller subsidiaries. Survey data from 547 subsidiaries in Japan provide support for these hypotheses. Theoretical implications and suggestions for future research are provided.
This article focuses on the degree of alignment among multinational company (MNC) strategic orientation, human resource management (HRM) practices, and language policies. On the one hand, the authors propose that the coherent, tight alignment among the HRM practices, language policies, and MNC strategic orientation, in terms of ethnocentricity, polycentricity, or geocentricity, is beneficial. On the other hand, they use international business research on language in MNCs to illustrate that what is good in theory is often more difficult in practice. For example, HRM practices and language policies in foreign subsidiaries may not be tightly aligned with the corporate-level activities, and some hybridization tends to occur, for example, because of contextual reasons in host countries.
This chapter deals with the role of language use and knowledge sharing in the context of international subsidiaries. The chapter analyzes the role of language use for the control and sharing of knowledge in a multicultural organizational setting using findings from an ethnographic field study in a subsidiary. Whilst previous research has addressed how objective, static cultural differences impede communication and knowledge sharing, the perspective of the chapter is on the actual use of language in knowledge sharing. The empirical study thus shows how language use shapes the flow of knowledge in an international subsidiary. The findings describe the use of language differences for controlling knowledge flows and highlight how this affects the execution of long-term corporate strategies of international development. The chapter argues that the management of language use should not be viewed as an outpost of cross-cultural management but as an integral element of the effective management of international operations. This perspective is supported by research in other disciplines covering the use of language and the social dimensions of knowledge communication such as social anthropology.
This paper analyzes language diversity from a sociolinguistic perspective demonstrating how it operates in interactions between members of international management teams in multinational corporations (MNCs). A major challenge for teams composed of speakers of different languages is the building of trust and relationships that are language dependent. Based on published research and illustrative empirical data, findings indicate that language diversity has a significant impact on socialization processes and team building, influencing both communication acts and mutual perceptions. Results of investigations into multilingual teams using English as their language of communication show that many obstacles are encountered by native as well as nonnative speakers. There is clear evidence that if language diversity is to be a valuable resource for international management teams, the challenges it raises need to be identified.
This paper considers recent research on language effects in some international management situations, specifically, intraorganizational interactions, such as interunit communication and subsidiary autonomy, and in postmerger integration. Within the multinational corporation (MNC), the need for control and coordination has driven the move toward language standardization, in the form of a common corporate language, with widespread effects on management processes. Our analysis indicates that, while important, language issues have been relatively ignored but may offer a rewarding research avenue regarding the functioning of the MNC, with potentially important implications for management.
This article develops a set of predictions for interactions in culturally diverse workgroups. A typology of organizations and corresponding workgroups is detailed, adapted from Cox's (1991) model of monolithic, plural, and multicultural organizational types, followed by a discussion of how organization and workgroup conditions influence workgroup members to emphasize either categorization or specification in cognitive processing. Next, a series of positive and negative communicative interaction types is predicted based on type of processing. Finally, a discussion of the implications for further research and potential application is presented.
In a globalized business environment, interaction across linguistic boundaries is becoming a normal part of everyday life. In these encounters language differences may affect the formation of social identities among organization members. While studies based on Social Identity Theory perceive the link between identity and language to be linear, this article takes a different approach. By drawing on anthropological theories on ethnic identity it is argued that the relation between language and social identity is negotiated in interaction. In the empirical analysis the article focuses on the encounter between expatriates and local employees of a Danish subsidiary in England. The findings show that identity making may be actualized by competition for resources and recognition. This can be done by investing certain objects such as the symbolic application of language with certain identifications. It is finally argued that the processes by which identifications develop can cause both polarization and accommodation in the relation between groups and individuals.
This paper presents empirically-derived models of expatriate-local staff oral communication patterns. The communication dynamics differed in three identi fied communication zones. The expatriates with the cooperation of the local Chinese were able to develop efficient but different communication systems in all three zones. The cultural influences on both expatriates and local Chinese interlocutors varied among these zones.
This study expands theoretical research on negotiated culture by testing basic assumptions in the context of a German-Japanese joint venture. Data collected by semi-structured interviews are analyzed using textual analysis software to uncover key issues that became catalysts for negotiation. Results include a model of cultural negotiation linking organizational events with issue domains as points of departure for negotiations. Results show that aggregate models of cultural difference are useful only to the extent that they serve as latent conceptual anchors guiding individuals' cultural responses to events. The study shows that structural/contextual influences together with individuals' culturally determined sense-making with regard to specific organizational events are more useful determinants of negotiated outcomes. Authors conclude that, while it is unlikely we can predict organizational culture formation in complex cultural organizations, we can understand the process of cultural negotiation and as a result be better prepared to monitor and manage in culturally diverse settings.
This paper develops a conceptual framework to explain different understandings of the concept of teamwork across national and organizational cultures. Five different metaphors for teamwork (military, sports, community, family, and associates) were derived from the language team members used during interviews in four different geographic locations of six multinational corporations. Results indicated that use of the teamwork metaphors varies across countries and organizations, after controlling for gender, team function, and total words in an interview. Analyses of specific relationships between national cultural values and categories of metaphor use and between dimensions of organizational culture and categories of metaphor use revealed patterns of expectations about team roles, scope, membership, and objectives that arise in different cultural contexts. We discuss the implications of this variance for future research on teams and the management of teams in multinational organizations.
Purpose
This paper intends to open up the debate on the influence of language on the way multinational companies manage their subsidiary operations.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors explain the importance of the field and expose a dearth of prior research. Subsequently, they define the “language barrier” and elaborate on the causes underlying this barrier, drawing on social identity theory.
Findings
The authors we propose an integrative model that consists of two coupled vicious cycles: the communications cycle – composed of the eight aspects of the language barrier – and the management cycle.
Research limitations/implications
This contribution to an otherwise ignored field of business study should be considered only a first step in opening up a new research agenda. Specialists in each of the fields touched upon are invited to make a contribution to the debate.
Practical implications
The management cycle suggests implications of the language barrier for various aspects of the HQ‐subsidiary relationship: strategic decision‐making, organization and personnel selection, global integration strategies, and autonomy and control procedures.
Originality/value
This paper uses socio‐linguistic theory to define and elaborate on the construct of the language barrier, a construct which is believed will be helpful in furthering research on the impact of language‐difference on multinational management.
Multinational corporations are faced with what has been called the ‘liability of foreignness’—a set of costs associated with, among other things, unfamiliar operating environments, economic, administrative and cultural differences, and with the challenges of coordination over geographic distance. In this article we draw on two case studies of multinational teams in Beijing and Bogota to analyse the realities of using locally-hired staff to help mitigate some of the liabilities of foreignness.
Traditionally, Koreans and Japanese have been considered collectivistic in their communication behavior, in comparison to U.S. Americans. However, the important cultural differences (possibly subtle) in conflict management styles among the two collectivist cultures have been overlooked. This article aims to explore how Japanese and Koreans may differ in their preferences for different conflict management styles, focusing on the importance attached to conversational constraints in conflict situations. This article focuses on the following four conversational constraints: (1) concern for clarity; (2) concern for minimizing imposition; (3) concern for avoiding hurting the hearers feelings; and (4) concern for avoiding negative evaluation by the hearer. Several hypotheses were formulated based on the origins behind the conversational constraints in relation to the cultural orientations of Japanese and Koreans. A total of 534 undergraduate students, studying in Japan N = 235) and Korea (N = 299), participated in the study. Each participant was provided descriptions of the three conflict situations and was asked to rate the perceived importance of each constraint in each conflict situation. The main findings of this study point to a picture that Koreans are more collectivistic in conflict communication styles than Japanese. Specifically, the results of this study seem to suggest different processes of conflict management in the two cultures: Japanese as focusing on clarity constraint (conveying the message clearly and efficiently) more than Koreans, and Koreans focusing on social-relation constraints (avoiding imposition to the hearer or loss of face by the hearer) more than Japanese.
The principal aim of this paper is to explore the impact of language on communication within large and geographically dispersed multinationals. Much of the earlier research emphasizes the importance of horizontal communication and team building as control and coordination mechanism in such organizations: yet the role of language is often forgotten. Based on an in-depth case study of one Finnish multinational, Kone and its diverse subsidiaries, it is argued that language imposes its own structure on communication flows and personal networks. Subsidiary staff with confined language skills tend to build supporting personal relationships with language mediators, while those with superior language capabilities are able to build broad contact networks within the multinational. The investigation also reveals that language is often used as an informal source of expert power in multinationals.
Success on the Japanese market is closely related to the understanding of Japanese culture; and culture reflects itself in personal communication. This article discusses the most important aspects of communication to present the reader with a set of observations and conclusions helpful to successfully establishing business relations in Japan. For instance the following questions are discussed: harmony and internal group relations, significance of context in communication, introductions, language and interpreter, and time aspects of communication. The article especially focuses on phenomena which occur in joint ventures.
A survey of nearly 500 English-language management texts, of which approximately half are wholly or partially devoted to international business matters, has revealed that only a small proportion of the authors treat language issues at all and that these issues are handled with perfunctory brevity and frequent ignorance of linguistic fact. On the other hand the survey highlights an extraordinary range of language topics which that small proportion of authors mention. Given that only one of the authors reviewed has made it his business to consult linguistics literature, it is only too evident that linguistics has had minimal impact on the development of the management sciences. Reasons are adduced to account for this situation and it is argued that those linguists who aspire to an integration of linguistics into the management sciences face a herculean task.
This article focuses on the degree of alignment among multinational company (MNC) strategic orientation, human resource management (HRM) practices, and language policies. On the one hand, the authors propose that the coherent, tight alignment among the HRM practices, language policies, and MNC strategic orientation, in terms of ethnocentricity, polycentricity, or geocentricity, is beneficial. On the other hand, they use international business research on language in MNCs to illustrate that what is good in theory is often more difficult in practice. For example, HRM practices and language policies in foreign subsidiaries may not be tightly aligned with the corporate-level activities, and some hybridization tends to occur, for example, because of contextual reasons in host countries.
This paper is based on a year of ethnographic research in an American company in Japan. The company, a high-tech computer firm, has a policy of requiring English to be used in all overseas offices. Like most other foreign companies in Japan, this company has difficulty attracting high quality Japanese employees. They need to hire Japanese managers who have both business experience and English language skills. At the same time the company attempts to compete with the Japanese business community by hiring new college graduates, overlooking the English language requirement. As a result, there is considerable variation in the English language abilities of Japanese employees. This causes problems because the American managers insist on the use of English for meetings, classes, and any interactions involving foreigners. English facility and the ability to deal with Americans socially becomes a source of power for English proficient Japanese employees. The use of English and Japanese in the company becomes an important means of restricting access to information as well as a source of power and advancement to a subset of employees. Ethnographic examples of language use in the company as it relates to the issue of power brokerage and employee advancement in the company are presented in the paper.
This study examines determinants of expatriate cross-cultural adjustment related to non-work- (interaction and general living adjustment) and work- (work adjustment and job satisfaction) aspects in Japan. It was hypothesized that cultural distance and expatriate gender, language proficiency, type (organizational or self-initiated expatriates), and stable personality traits (social initiative, emotional stability, cultural empathy, flexibility, and open-mindedness) have an influence on both non-work- and work-related adjustment. Hierarchical regression analyses, performed on data from 110 expatriates, indicate that expatriate language proficiency, type, and the personality traits of emotional stability and cultural empathy have a positive influence on both types of adjustment. Implications of these findings for practice are discussed.
This is a case study of USA-Japan intercultural communication, analyzing a one-hour meeting between a US manager, a Japanese manager and a Japanese junior staff member of a US company operating in Japan. The study focuses on miscommunication caused by pragmatic transfer from Japanese, especially relating to silence, the ambiguity of “yes”, and different strategies of politeness between the US and Japanese managers. It is also discussed how both native and non-native speakers should make their approach in order to understand each other and co-construct the conversation in intercultural communication in an age when English is becoming a global language and could be separated from the cultures of English-speaking countries.
The goal of this project was to study organizational communication cultures in U.S.-Thai parent-subsidiary organizations doing business in Thailand and to then ascertain to what degree employees at the subsidiary locations participated in the creation of their organizational communication cultures. To understand the extent to which Thai employees perceived and negotiated aspects of organizational life, the idea of negotiated cultures was developed. Negotiated cultures characterize local employee participation and negotiation as a struggle about the legitimacy of whose norms/style (those of the parent or the subsidiary) would be used in the subsidiary location.
We highlight linguistic-related challenges in multicultural teams that increase the likelihood of emotional conflict, and also highlight the difficulty of "finding words" in emotional situations because of the nonlinear, fragmented, image-driven qualities of these circumstances. As a result, we question whether team members embroiled in emotional conflict ought to be advised to talk (discuss their feelings with the goal of repairing frayed relationships), whether this meaning of talk is shared by people from culturally different backgrounds, and what conflict management alternatives may exist when talk is not possible or desirable.
This article considers the extent to which multinational enterprises adopt a global or local approach in their management of human resources. The analysis is based on the findings of research in nine subsidiaries of multinationals operating in Ireland. The study revealed that the majority of multinationals adopted a local approach, with headquarters involvement in many cases limited to monitoring the financial implications of human resource decisions. It appears that the transfer of human resource management practices can be a two-way process and that some subsidiaries manipulate human resource policies in order to maintain their competitive position within the corporation. The findings also suggest that the integration of human resource issues in strategic decision making may need to be considered as a local, rather than a corporate level, activity.
Previous research into Japanese owned and managed enterprises in western countries has been alert to problems in cross-cultural communication but there has been little research into the linguistic patterns accompanying these activities. This study of seven such plants in Scotland illustrates key features of the linguistic patterns evident in them. Forms of pidgin develop in co-operative working environments but unusually they are based on the language of the formal subordinates, local English speaking managers and workers. In contrast, and more in line with expectations from socio-linguistic theory, the local dialect is used as a device to promote local workforce solidarity against expatriate management. The former discrepancy between material and cultural power, which is not expected on the basis of Bourdieu's and related theories of cultural behaviour, is explained in terms of the differing career paths of Japanese and non-Japanese personnel, the marginal involvement of Japanese management in the local society and their reticence in asserting cultural power commensurate with their economic power. However, these lingusitic developments were local phenomena that did not challenge Japanese managerial control, both local and corporate, of decisions on development and investment. Hence, the opposition between cultural and material power may be permitted to persist because of these limited effects.
Communication problems in foreign subsidiaries stem from a variety of sources and lead to a number of negative consequences for both parent country and host country managers. This article focuses on such sources and consequences by investigating United States (US) firms in South Korea. The results indicate that expatriate managers experience more significant communication problems than their host country counterparts, as well as more difficulty regarding personal adjustment, interpersonal relations, and task performance.
This study provides a Nordic expatriate perspective on intercultural communication patterns and tactics in Japan. Interviews with 30 Nordic expatriates reveal that divergent communication styles, the cultural values of verticality and collectivism, and the lack of shared language have a negative impact on intercultural communication. The interviews reveal that rather than remaining passive bystanders, expatriates adopt various tactics to increase intercultural communication. These include engaging in informal interactions with Japanese employees and managers, sharing and monitoring space, and language training. Implications and suggestions are offered for future research.
In this paper, we explore the use of foreign languages in qualitative interviewing, an issue previously treated as a mere
technical consideration and largely neglected in the monolingual, English-dominated environment of international business
research.
Drawing on literature from linguistic anthropology and qualitative interviewing methodology, we provide a holistic view of
foreign language use based on the experiences of 34 scholars from different countries.
Knowledge sharing has attracted considerable interest in the context of the multinational corporation. However, although there is evidence to support the view that effective knowledge sharing is fundamental for competitive advantage, we still do not understand clearly enough the enablers and barriers to such knowledge sharing. In this paper, we argue that interpersonal similarity is one key driver behind knowledge sharing within the MNC context. We focus on the similarity of the national-cultural background, shared language, and similarity of organizational status as factors generating homophily. We suggest that such similarity leads to a higher tendency for interaction, increasing the sharing of business knowledge, and driving an aggregate effect of clustering. Based on a synthesis of the literature and a multiple case study of three multinationals, we argue that knowledge flows better within clusters driven by homophily than between them, creating a paradox of homophily.
Despite their dual impact on intercultural communication, scholarly discussions on languages and cultural values have evolved separately in international management literature. Building on the three communication zones theory (Du-Babcock & Babcock, 1996), which describes intercultural communication through three different language proficiency zones, the present study explores the influence of expatriates' host country language and cultural competencies on intercultural communication in foreign subsidiaries. In contrast to international management literature in which cultural values and languages have been treated independently, interviews in 58 Nordic subsidiaries in Japan show that expatriates' host country language and cultural competencies are accompanied by different challenges and opportunities.
This study examines how readily detected attributes (age, gender, and racio-ethnicity) and underlying attributes (tenure, education, and work values) affect interpersonal communication in Nordic subsidiaries in Japan. The impact of diversity is tested through a regression analysis with 110 employees. The results indicate that diversity in gender, racio-ethnicity and work values have a negative impact on interpersonal communication. In contrast to the original hypothesis, tenure diversity has a positive impact on communication. The linkage can be explained by the impact of socio-cultural context on the relational demographics. Some practical implications are made.Asian Business & Management (2006) 5, 333–356. doi:10.1057/palgrave.abm.9200189