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Cider Apples and Cider-Making Techniques in Europe and North America
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Introduction Orchard Systems for Cider Apples National and Regional Cider Cultures and Cultivars Literature Cited
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... Apples grown for the fresh market ("dessert apples" and may also include culinary cultivars grown for baking, such as 'Bramley's Seedling') or processing (e.g., juice, sauce, and pie filling) typically fall into the "sweet" and "sharp" categories. In traditional European-style ciders, at least 20% of the apple blend contains cider-specific "bittersweet" or "bittersharp" apples, with the remainder consisting of "sweet" and "sharp" cultivars (Merwin et al., 2008). "Bittersharp" apples, such as 'Porter's Perfection', 'Kingston Black', 'Stoke Red', and 'Foxwhelp', are desirable for single cultivar (varietal) ciders because they provide desirable levels of tannins and acidity. ...
... Other articles have focused on various aspects of cider production and related research. Some of them reflect the scientific knowledge known about cider apples 50 years ago (Beech, 1972) or focus more on horticultural and processing practices (Lea & Drilleau, 2003;Merwin et al., 2008;Miles et al., 2020). The present review focuses specifically on the biochemical properties and physiological basis for cider apple fruit quality. ...
Societal Impact Statement
Fermented “hard” cider is currently experiencing a resurgence in popularity. While there is a long history of cultivating apple trees with fruit quality characteristics intended specifically for cider production, there is a dearth of cider-specific apple production in many emerging cider producing regions, such as North America. To help bolster the emerging cider industry and identify topics that warrant further research, this review article describes the biochemistry and physiology of apple fruit quality from a cider producing perspective.
Summary
The United States and Western Europe have a long history of alcoholic “hard” cider production made from the fermented juice of apples (Malus spp.), especially in regions where cultivation of European grapevines (Vitis vinifera) for wine was climatically limited. While all apples contain fermentable sugars, in many regions, cultivars were selected, named, and propagated specifically for fermentation. This review highlights fruit quality attributes that are important for cider production and that are distinct from fresh-market apple fruit and wine grapes. Polyphenol profiles, yeast assimilable nitrogen composition, carbohydrates, organic acids, pectin, and volatile aroma compounds are discussed as they relate to cider quality.
... The propensity for apples (Malus ×domestica) to bruise has impeded the development and widespread adoption of mechanical harvesters for either processing or fresh-market apples grown in the United States. However, in Europe, which has a long-standing cider (fermented apple juice, also frequently referred to as hard cider) industry, cider apples are mostly harvested mechanically (Merwin et al., 2008). ...
... Machines that shake the tree by clasping the trunk may not be appropriate for all orchard designs; trees on dwarf rootstock, with brittle graft unions, or with extensive trellising may not be compatible with shaking. Allowing apples to naturally drop and then harvesting the crop in one or more passes is also commonplace (Merwin et al., 2008). Many cider-specific cultivars are prone to preharvest fruit drop (Peck et al., 2021). ...
ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS. labor, machinery, Malus ×domestica, partial budget SUMMARY. Harvesting labor is the largest annual variable operating expense for apple (Malus ×domestica) orchard enterprises and is subject to escalating costs and shortages. In Europe, much of the cider apple harvesting is done with machinery, greatly reducing production costs. However, despite a rapid increase in hard cider production in North America over the past 15 years, mechanical cider apple harvesting has not been widely implemented. In this study, we compared mechanical with hand harvesting costs for model 5-, 15-, and 60-acre cider apple orchards located in New York using a partial budget model. Scale-appropriate harvesters were identified for use at each farm scale. Sensitivity analyses were used to test the cost differential for using each piece of machinery on varying orchard sizes and to model changes in labor costs. Across all orchard scales, we found that mechanically harvesting cider apples was more profitable than hand harvesting, with larger operations breaking even sooner and realizing greater returns than operations using hand harvesting. Mechanical harvesting costs broke even with hand harvesting in years 16, 7, and 5 and by year 30 reduced cumulative harvesting costs by 23%, 52%, and 53% in our 5-, 15-, and 60-acre model orchards, respectively. Increasing the orchard size resulted in greater returns from mechanical harvesting. Using the machinery in the 15-acre orchard scenario on a 30-acre farm resulted in costs breaking even with hand harvesting in year 3; by year 30, the cumulative costs resulted in 66% lower harvesting costs than hand labor. Mechanical harvesting remained profitable when labor wages were decreased and became more profitable in scenarios with increasing wages. For example, in the 60-acre orchard, mechanical harvesting cost 41% less than hand harvesting with a 2% annual compounding decrease in labor wages; with 2% annual compounding increase in labor wages, the mechanical harvesting cost was 63% less than hand harvesting. In addition to the cost savings, mechanical harvesting allows for harvesting cider apples with fewer logistical challenges, such as contracting, housing, and transporting migrant labor.
... This finding presents an opportunity for hard cider producers in blending acidity, bitterness/astringency, and sweetness from one variety. Blending acidic varieties with sweet varieties also allows producers to maintain a low pH to prevent spoilage during fermentation and storage (Merwin et al., 2008 (Guyot et al., 2003). This may be due to the different phenolic profiles of each variety, as different classes of phenolics have different extraction yields (Renard et al., 2001;Verdu et al., 2014). ...
... Malic acid is also influenced by solar radiation and growing degree days of the growing region (Jing et al., 2020;Lakso & Kliewer, 1975). Many heritage cider apple cultivars have biennial bearing characteristics, and the seasonal adjustment in crop load can also affect fruit quality and potentially classification (Merwin et al., 2008;Plotkowski & Cline, 2021b). Ultimately, the establishment of a "vintage" and "terroir" effect in heritage apple varieties could positively influence the hard cider industry in North America by using marketing to justify the production of more traditional ciders. ...
The production of hard cider is a burgeoning industry in North America. However, traditional European cider‐specific apples are largely unsuitable for production in modern systems and have not been widely adopted. Evaluation of the biochemical variability in apples can provide a better characterization of varieties for use in hard cider production. Many varieties exhibited extensive variability in biochemical traits. Varieties with high phenolics and acidity displayed greater plasticity of these traits between seasons, which supports the concept of “vintage quality” and opens new marketing opportunities. This study provides valuable insight for apple producers to integrate cider‐specific and nonspecific varieties into their production systems. The North American fermented beverage market has undergone extensive growth in the fermented apple juice (hard cider) sector over the last decade. Traditional hard cider producing regions such as England, France, and Spain have historically utilized cider‐specific apples that have desirable balances between sugar, organic acid, and phenolics. However, in North America, culinary apples (lower acidity and phenolics) are predominantly used, and information distinguishing the varieties with novel use for hard cider production is lacking. In this study, we evaluated variation of four major apple biochemical traits (total soluble solids, pH, titratable acidity, and total phenolics) as they relate to use for hard cider production by using a meta‐analysis approach. We analyzed the variation in cider quality traits across 47 published works and more than 800 unique apple varieties, including an additional analysis of 142 varieties from cider apple germplasms in the United States. The biochemical traits of many varieties exhibited plasticity, and the characterization of a subset of varieties using two cider classification system revealed that most belonged to the “sweet” or “sharp” (acidic) categories rather than “bitter” (high phenolic content). We also compared the classification of a subset of varieties from two US germplasm resources across two seasons and found varieties that have high percent phenolics and/or malic acid experienced greater biochemical plasticity and potential classification change across vintages. Ultimately, this work provides information regarding the variability in apple biochemical traits and also suggests a unique opportunity for producers to market “vintage” quality. The production of hard cider is a burgeoning industry in North America. However, traditional European cider‐specific apples are largely unsuitable for production in modern systems and have not been widely adopted. Evaluation of the biochemical variability in apples can provide a better characterization of varieties for use in hard cider production. Many varieties exhibited extensive variability in biochemical traits. Varieties with high phenolics and acidity displayed greater plasticity of these traits between seasons, which supports the concept of “vintage quality” and opens new marketing opportunities. This study provides valuable insight for apple producers to integrate cider‐specific and nonspecific varieties into their production systems.
... To support a cider industry that has grown over ten-fold since 2005 in the United States, cider makers report that they need a greater supply of apples with cider-specific quality attributes, particularly high polyphenol concentrations [1,2]. European cider apple orchards have traditionally been planted using larger rootstocks, with wider, more dense canopies [3]. This is in part to accommodate mechanical harvesting [4]. ...
The environmental factors that influence cider apple fruit quality, particularly bitter and astringent polyphenols, are not well understood. Five experiments were conducted to investigate how sunlight affects fruit and juice quality. In three studies, shade cloth was placed over entire trees or individual branches at different phenological stages, durations, and opacities. Influence of canopy microclimate was investigated by harvesting fruit from different sections of the tree canopy. In a final study, opaque paper bags were placed over fruit three weeks after full bloom (WAFB) until harvest. Polyphenol concentrations increased rapidly during the first five WAFB and were diluted as fruit grew larger. At harvest, fruit from unshaded trees had 32% greater total polyphenol concentrations and were 11% larger than trees shaded 1-5 WAFB. Shading branches later in the growing season reduced yield but had a modest and inconsistent reduction on polyphenol concentrations. Juice from fruit harvested from the top of the tree canopy had 33% greater polyphenol concentrations and 14% greater soluble solid concentrations than juice from the interior of the canopy. Bagging fruit had inconsistent impacts on polyphenol concentrations. We hypothesize that there is a source sink relationship between carbohydrate availability and polyphenol synthesis in apple fruit during the early stages of fruit development when most polyphenols are produced. Additionally, greater carbohydrate availability in canopies with greater sunlight exposure resulted in larger fruit and improved juice quality from a cider making perspective.
... Cider is a fermented juice of apple or pear (Perry) with ethanol concentration that does not exceed 8% (v/v) [1]. The production of this alcoholic fermented beverage is closely linked to the apples and pears producing countries, such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Germany, Spain and the United States, which show also the highest consumption levels of these products [2,3]. In Italy, the production of Perry is mainly restricted to the northern regions. ...
This study was aimed to produce pear cider (Perry), using small caliber pears cv Abate Fètel, fermented by Starmerella bacillaris and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in co-inoculated (COF) and sequential (SEF) mixed cultures in comparison with S. cerevisiae monoculture fermentation (AXF), evaluating the influence of yeast starter cultures on Perry characteristics. The perries were re-fermented in bottle by S. cerevisiae strain EC1118. During primary fermentation, growth and fermentation kinetics were different in the co-inoculated and sequential fermentations in comparison with pure S. cerevisiae fermentation; however, sugars were depleted, and 6% (v/v) ethanol was produced in all the trials. Glycerol content was significantly higher in mixed fermentations due to Starm. bacillaris metabolism (+ 20% in COF, and + 42% in SEF conditions). After re-fermentation in bottle, higher levels of 3-Methyl-1-butanol, 1-propanol, acetaldehyde and esters were detected in Perry from the mixed fermentations. All the Perries were accepted by the consumers (general liking values from 6.01 to 6.26). Perries’ appearance from mixed fermentations was described as less intense and more clear. The use of small caliber pears cv Abate Fètel and Starm. bacillaris in combination with S. cerevisiae in Perry production might be a suitable tool to obtain novel beverages with distinctive organoleptic features.
... Likewise, the particularities of the local fruit industry must also be considered. While low-chill apple varieties are already available, and global breeding programs are currently working on the development of varieties that are phenotypically adapted to mild winter climates, it is important to note that apples intended for cider-making require particular technological and organoleptic features, and not all kinds of apples are suitable for this purpose (Merwin et al., 2008). Furthermore, the sale of cider under the 'Protected Designation of Origin' label, which implies the use of 100% Asturian apples, has achieved strong growth in the past decade. ...
Winter chill is expected to decrease in many mild-winter regions under future climatic conditions. Reliable estimates of the chill requirements (CR) of fruit trees are essential for assessing the current suitability of cultivars and potential climate change impacts on fruit production. We determined chill and heat requirements of ten apple cultivars in northwestern Spain using a bud-forcing method. CR ranged from 59 (‘Granny Smith’) to 90 (‘Regona’) Chill Portions (CP) according to the Dynamic Model. These results indicate that international dessert apple cultivars such as ‘Elstar’ and ‘Granny Smith’ have clearly lower CR than the studied local cultivars. The agro-climatic needs of the traditional apple cultivars are aligned with the historical climate conditions in the region. To assess future apple cultivation in northwestern Spain, we evaluated winter chill availability over the course of the twenty-first century by applying an ensemble of future climate scenarios. Relative to the past, projected winter chill might decline by between 9 and 12 CP under an intermediate global warming scenario and by between 9 and 24 CP under a pessimistic scenario. Despite relatively minor changes, the viability of some local apple cultivars may be jeopardized by their high CR. Results suggest that even a moderate decline in future winter chill, relative to fairly high levels observed in the past, can threaten the economic sustainability of fruit tree orchards composed of high-chill genotypes. Strategies such as growing low- to moderate-chill cultivars may be critical for sustaining future apple production in the region. Our findings can help guide new breeding strategies aiming to develop climate-resilient cultivars adapted to future environmental conditions.
The volume of production and consumption of cider as a low alcoholic and soft drink is increasing year by year. Being a part of the global economy, a similar trend is also noticeable among a smaller scale Armenian producers and consumers. During this research we studied the physicochemical parameters of apple juice and ready-made cider obtained from apple varieties common in Armenia. Fermentation was carried out with four different yeasts intended for cider production and one control sample. The aim was to reveal the effect of each yeast on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the final cider.
The U.S. cider market has expanded in recent years, but limited research-based information is available on fermentation management. This study investigates how apple cultivar and yeast inoculation affect the chemical and sensory properties of ciders made in Virginia. Four ciders were produced in triplicate using combinations of two different apple cultivars — Harrison, a cider cultivar and GoldRush, a dessert cultivar — and two fermentation strategies — inoculated with dry active yeast EC1118 or Pied de Cuvé (PdC) ambient fermentation. Ciders were analyzed for alcohol content, free/total SO2, titratable acidity, volatile acidity, malic acid, pH, and residual sugar. Sensory evaluation was conducted using descriptive analysis with trained panelists. Results were analyzed via analysis of variance (ANOVA) and principal component analysis. Apple cultivar and fermentation method resulted in significant differences for chemistry and sensory parameters. Malic acid concentration was greater in the control ciders while concentrations of both residual sugar and volatile acidity were higher in the PdC ciders. The interaction effect of cultivar*fermentation method influenced both malic acid and residual sugar concentrations, where concentration differences between control and ambient ciders were smaller for GoldRush than for Harrison, showing that fermentation style produced different results across cultivars. Volatile acidity produced opposite interaction effects as differences between fermentation styles were larger for GoldRush. For sensory attributes, Harrison ciders produced high intensities for multiple attributes, but also higher variability. Multiple sensory descriptors displayed interaction effects as the fermentation method produced different results in different cultivars. This study demonstrates that increasingly popular practices in the industry can produce significantly different ciders.
Cider is a fermented drink from cider apples which are characterized by a bitter tart flavor and coarse texture. Cider is the cheapest alcoholic drink found in the English pub or markets, priced as low as 34 cents for a 38 ounce bottle. The drink, which is generally dry with a roughness uncommon to our apple juice, can be purchased as sweet or dry and as “still” or carbonated cider of 3 to 8% alcoholic content.
The fermentation of fruit to produce wines, as well as the brewing of beer, is recorded in ancient Egyptian and Greek writings. Although production was based largely on the fermentation of grape juice, there is no doubt that fermentation of fruits other than grape had been practised widely, although because of the lower alcohol content such wines did not store well. Over the years the production of grape wine became dominant, except in those areas where cultivation of vines was limited by climatic conditions — in such areas wine was produced by the fermentation of juice from other fruits.
We determined the uptake and excretion of low doses of polyphenols in six subjects who each consumed 1.1 L of an alcoholic cider beverage. Over a 24-h period, no phloretin was detected in plasma (detection limit = 0.036 mumol/L), but 21 +/- 5% of the dose (4.8 mg) was excreted in the urine. In contrast, from a low dose of 1.6-mg quercetin equivalents, no quercetin was found in urine or plasma, but X-methyl quercetin was detected in plasma [C-max (maximum concentration) = 0.14 +/- 0.19 mumol/L; range: 0 to 0.44 mumol/L]. No flavanol monomers (dose of free (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin = 3.5 mg) were detected in urine or plasma (detection limit: 0.01 mumol/L). Caffeic acid (total dose including esters = 11 mg) was detected only in plasma within 2 h, with C-max = 0.43 +/- 0.3 mumol/L (range: 0.18 to 0.84 mumol/L). An almost 3-fold increase in hippuric acid was detected in 24-h urine (74 +/- 29 mumol/L; range: 38-116 mumol/L), compared with a prestudy value of 19 +/- 9 mumol/L. These data show that polyphenols are taken up from cider, that phloretin is excreted in the urine and suggest that low doses of quercetin are extensively methylated in humans.
Phenolics in Food and Nutraceuticals is the first single-source compendium of essential information concerning food phenolics. This unique book reports the classification and nomenclature of phenolics, their occurrence in food and nutraceuticals, chemistry and applications, and nutritional and health effects. In addition, it describes antioxidant activity of phenolics in food and nutraceuticals as well as methods for analysis and quantification. Each chapter concludes with an extensive bibliography for further reading. Food scientists, nutritionists, chemists, biochemists, and health professionals will find this book valuable.
The phloridzin content of dormant terminal twigs of Malus rootstock clones was not related to the vigor imparted to the scions. In young seedling trees it varied with the nutritional status of the plant; an acute deficiency of nitrogen, sulphur, or calcium resulted in a significant increase in phloridzin accumulation. Phloridzin is synthesized readily in the leaf from C ¹⁴ O 2 in the light and appears to be stable once formed. Phenylalanine-C ¹⁴ and tyrosine-C ¹⁴ , when fed to leaf disks, are incorporated into the C 6 –C 3 moiety of phloridzin which includes ring B. Tyrosine is not as effective as phenylalanine. Acetate-C ¹⁴ is incorporated into ring A. Phloroglucinol is not involved in the synthesis of phloridzin. A method for the quantitative determination of phloridzin is described, also a semimicro method for its alkaline hydrolysis. The large amounts of radioactive D-glucitol formed from a wide variety of precursor compounds indicate a central role for it in the carbohydrate metabolism of Malus.
Cider is generally regarded as a drink made from apples. In North America, the term “cider” generally refers to cloudy unpasteurized apple juice, unless qualified as “hard cider” to denote a fermented product. In Europe, however, terms such as cider, cidre (France), or sidra (Spain) are exclusively reserved for the fermented product, which is the topic of this chapter. German-speaking countries also produce cider, where the product is defined as Apfelwein or, colloquially, Ebbelwoi or Viez. A similar fruit wine (perry) is made throughout Europe on a much smaller scale from pear juice.