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Sex differences in the attractiveness of hunter‐gatherer and modern risks
Abstract
When compared with other demographics, young males are more likely to take a variety of risks (like skateboarding, using drugs) and use risky behaviors to attract romantic partners. This study extended research on risk by assessing the attractiveness of 101 different kinds of risks performed by males and females. As predicted, factor analysis revealed that the attractiveness of diverse risks clustered around two major dimensions: risks like those faced by hunter‐gatherer humans (e.g., handling fire and dangerous animals) and risks that are uniquely modern (e.g., driving without seat belts). Additionally, results confirmed that modern risks were rated as unattractive for both sexes, whereas hunter‐gatherer risks were rated as especially attractive when performed by males. Discussion focuses on cultural and evolutionary explanations for the link between risk and attractiveness.
... Knowledge of characteristics predicting relationship formation may be conducive if one wishes to understand the mechanisms promoting relationship formation and pregnancies. From an evolutionary perspective, one can expect factors such as demographics, personality and substance use to predict who forms romantic relationships (Buss 2007(Buss , 2009; Petraitis et al. 2014). Individual characteristics may affect the likelihood of forming a romantic relationship in three main ways. ...
... It is conceivable to assume that substance use could relate to both mate value, preferred mating strategy and the number of opposite sex competitors in ones' milieu. Substance use may increase mate value through signalling a willingness to take risks (Petraitis et al. 2014). A willingness to take risks may be perceived as attractive, specifically in men, as it may signal a better capacity to provide for a partner and offspring (Bassett and Moss 2004;Farthing 2005;Henderson et al. 2005). ...
The current study aimed to identify demographic, personality and substance-use characteristics associated with forming romantic relationships. Data were collected by two online surveys among students in Bergen, Norway, during the autumn of 2015 (T1) and by a follow-up survey that was conducted 12 months later (T2). The current sample consists of the 2404 participants who reported being single at T1 (mean age 23.2) and who participated in both waves of the survey. Binary logistic regression analyses were conducted. Separate analyses were conducted for both sexes and for the entire sample of participants. High extroversion scores predicted relationship formation. For women, having a child/children, higher scores on neuroticism, alcohol use and illegal substance use positively predicted relationship formation, while for men, age and openness were positive predictors. The study contributes with several novel findings. In general, characteristics related to a need for support predicted romantic relationship formation among women, while characteristics associated with increased resource acquisition potential predicted relationship formation among men. The general pattern of findings is in line with established evolutionary theories such as the sexual strategies theory and the parental investment theory.
... Äîáû÷à aeå è óäåðaeàíèå ðåñóðñîâ íà ïðîòÿaeåíèè ïðîäîëaeèòåëüíîãî ïåðèîäà â aeèçíè ðîäà Homo áûëà ñîïðÿaeåíà ñ ðèñêàìè.  ìàêñèìàëüíîé ñòåïåíè ýâîëþöèîííî îáîñíîâàíà áîëüøàÿ ñêëîííîñòü ìóae÷èí ê ôèçè÷åñêîìó ðèñêó, ïîñêîëüêó ýòî ïîâåäåíèå ÷àñòî âêëþ÷àåò â ñåáÿ ñïîñîáíîñòè èëè íàâûêè, ñâÿçàííûå ñ òàêèìè ÷åðòàìè, êàê ñèëà è àòëåòèçì [Farting, 2005;Petraitis et al., 2014]. Êåëëè è Äàíáàð [Kelly, Dunbar, 2001] ïîêàçàëè, ÷òî aeåíùèíû ïðåäïî÷èòàþò ìóae÷èí, ñêëîííûõ ê ðèñêó, ìóae÷èíàì, èçáåãàþùèì ðèñêà, îñîáåííî â êà÷åñòâå êðàòêîñðî÷íûõ ñåêñóàëüíûõ ïàðòíåðîâ. ...
... Limitations with that study include its cross-sectional design and its lack of a comparison group consisting of non-Tinder users. When exploring possible effects of Tinder use on romantic relationship formation, it is important to control for individual differences in demographics, personality, mental health, and substance use as such characteristics predict romantic relationship formation (Shaver and Brennan, 1992;Buss, 2007;Meyer and Paul, 2011;Petraitis et al., 2014;Erevik et al., 2019). Thus, demographics, personality, mental health, and substance use may act as third variables in the relationship between Tinder use and romantic relationship formation if they predict Tinder use as well. ...
The current paper aims to investigate if Tinder use predicts romantic relationship formation 1 year later and to identify demographic, personality, mental health, and substance use covariates in the relationship between Tinder use and romantic relationship formation. Data were collected by online surveys (two waves) among students in Bergen, Norway. The first survey was administered during fall 2015 (T1). The follow-up took place 1 year later (fall 2016, T2). The sample consisted of the 5253 participants who reported to be single at T1. The surveys included questions about Tinder use, demographics, personality (the Five-Factor Model’s personality traits), mental health (i.e., symptoms of depression and anxiety), alcohol use, and use of illegal substances. Bivariate comparisons were conducted to assess differences in demographics, personality traits, mental health, and substance use between Tinder users and non-Tinder users. Further, crude and adjusted binary logistic regressions were employed to investigate if Tinder use at T1 predicted romantic relationship formation at T2, when controlling for relevant covariates. Tinder users differed from non-users on almost all included variables. Compared to non-users, Tinder users were younger and more likely to be men, born in Norway, childless, and non-religious. Tinder users had higher scores on extroversion and agreeableness and lower scores on openness compared to non-users. Further, compared to non-users, Tinder users reported more symptoms of anxiety and were more likely to have hazardous, harmful, or dependent alcohol use and to report use of illegal substances. Compared to non-users, Tinder users had a higher likelihood of having formed a romantic relationship at T2 in the crude model (p < 0.05) and when controlling for demographic (p < 0.05) and mental health (p < 0.05) covariates. However, when controlling for personality, substance use, and all included covariates, the difference in likelihood of romantic relationship formation was no longer significant. In conclusion, the current results suggest that Tinder users have a higher likelihood of forming romantic relationship longitudinally, but that this increased likelihood can be explained by Tinder users’ personality and substance use characteristics.
... The present study focused on physical risk-taking as male display, because this behavior often includes abilities or skills that are more revealing about fitness-related traits-such as strength and athleticism-than other (modern) types of risk (Farthing 2005;Petraitis et al. 2014). We investigated the men's and women's assessments of male risk-taking behavior in a sample of Russian men and women. ...
Research has documented sex differences in risk-taking behavior, and young men in particular are more prone than women to engage in activities associated with physical risks. Evolutionary scientists have proposed that this sex difference is a consequence of male competition over mating opportunities. Thus, mating motives promote risk-taking in men more than in women. Here, we report analyses of assessments of male physical risk-taking in a Russian sample (n = 546). Men and women judged vignettes describing men who differed in risk-taking propensity for short- and long-term attractiveness, provisioning quality, and aggression. Risk-taking propensity had an effect on all attributes. Occasional (but not high) risk-takers received the highest ratings on short-term attractiveness. Low risk-takers were judged highest on long-term attractiveness and provisioning quality. High risk-takers were judged as more aggressive than occasional and low risk-takers. Thus, male risk-taking behavior affects assessments of male quality, but high risk-taking is not regarded as positive. We discuss the results with reference to evolutionary investigations of risk-taking behavior and cultural characteristics of masculinity ideology.
... Very little research, however, has examined whether and how women perceive different types of risky behaviors enacted by men. One study (Petraitis et al. 2014) asked women to rate the attractiveness of men who were taking two types of risks: "modern-day" risks (e.g., not wearing a seat belt) or risks faced by our ancestors (e.g., handling/ dealing with wild animals). Women rated men who took more risks as more attractive but only if those risks were in the ancestor category. ...
Fundamentals of Cognitive Science draws on research from psychology, philosophy, artificial intelligence, linguistics, evolution, and neuroscience to provide an engaging and student-friendly introduction to this interdisciplinary field. While structured around traditional cognitive psychology topics, from attention, learning theory, and memory to information processing, thinking, and decision making, the book also looks at neural networks, cognitive neuroscience, embodied cognition, and magic to illustrate cognitive science principles. The book is organized around the history of thinking about the mind and its relation to the world. It considers the evolution of cognition and how it demonstrates how our current thinking about cognitive processes is derived from pre-scientific philosophies and common sense, through psychologists' empirical inquiries into mind and behavior as they pursued a science of cognition and the construction of artificial intelligences. The architectures of cognition are also applied throughout, and the book proposes a synthesis of them, from traditional symbol system architectures to recent work in embodied cognition and Bayesian predictive processing. Practical and policy implications are also considered but solutions are left for the readers to determine. Using extended case studies to address the most important themes, ideas, and findings, this book is suitable for upper-level undergraduate and graduate courses in psychology and related fields. It is also suitable for general readers interested in an accessible treatment of cognitive science and its practical implications.
Male risk-taking behavior is associated with personality traits and correlates with hormone titers, notably for testosterone (T) and cortisol (C). Yet, these influences may be stronger in some individuals due to context or profession in which risk-taking occurs. We examine this possibility by investigating relationships of personality, aggression, and sensation seeking with T and C together with anthropometric measures in high risk-taking men: Russian alpinists (n = 55) and members of the Russian Special Forces (n = 33). They provided saliva samples before and after viewing a ~5 min video of aggressive male encounters and completed surveys after this task. After viewing the video, T increased in alpinists but decreased in Special Forces, and C increased in Special Forces. Alpinists scored higher than Special Forces in neuroticism and openness whereas Special Forces scored higher than alpinists in extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Verbal aggression, anger, hostility, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility were higher in alpinists than in Special Forces. Our findings suggest behavioral differences in high risk-taking men, influenced by profession-related individual differences in sensation seeking and hormonal response to challenges.
Engaging in risky behaviors is a sexual signalling strategy that men use to procure mates. The present study investigates men’s preferences for engaging in risky behaviors (along with women’s preferences for their male partner’s risky behavior) within dating couples. We investigated associations between relationship length, self-perceived attractiveness, sociosexuality orientation, and preference for risky behaviors in a sample of 256 couples.
Results indicated that men had stronger preferences for risky behaviors than their partner’s ideal preference. Furthermore, relationship length was associated with a decline in women’s preference for their partner’s risk-taking, but not men’s preference for their own risk taking. Self-perceived attractiveness was negatively associated with risk preference, and sociosexuality orientation was not directly related to risk preference. Female preferences for less intense male risky behaviors could reflect the need of paternal investment which is required for offspring care. Decreased male sexual signalling could account for lower preferences of risky behaviors in females who are involved in longer lasting romantic relationships.
The male behavioural strategy associated with physical risk is one of the universal foundations on which the ideas of masculinity established in society are based. Risk-taking propensity in general can signal a man's greater competitiveness, and physically risky actions can be perceived as "courageous" behavior and evidence of strength and athleticism. The results of a number of experimental studies and observations recorded sexual differences in risky behavior. In particular, young men are more likely to take physical risks than women. Evolutionary scientists have suggested that these differences may be a result of male competition for access to sexual partners. In this study we present an analysis of male and female physical risk assessments of men in the Russian sample (n = 701). Men and women were offered vignettes describing men who differed in risk-taking propensity. Respondents needed to assess the attractiveness of men in the context of long-term romantic and short-term (so-called "one night stand") relationships, as well as to assess their competitiveness, tendency to aggression, provisioning quality and a tendency to dangerous health behavior (alcohol abuse, unprotected sex, etc.). The degree of risk tolerance was significant in the evaluation of all the proposed parameters. Men who demonstrate an average degree of risk-taking propensity received the highest ratings for attractiveness for short-term relationships. Low-risk men were found to be more attractive in long-term relationships and able to provide the best quality of life. Men who choose a type of activity associated with constant physical risk and danger were assessed as the most aggressive and competitive. In addition, high risk propensity was associated with a higher propensity for unhealthy lifestyles and bad habits. Thus, male risk-taking behaviour affects men's social perception, attractiveness and quality assessment, and a high degree of risk-taking is not always perceived as a positive quality.
I have been watching birds since I was a child. H. Mendelssohn introduced me to the scientific aspect of ornithology. The book by Niko Tinbergen, The Study of Instinct (1951), convinced me that watching birds could be an intellectual challenge. I spent most of 1955 in Oxford with Tinbergen, a year that introduced me to ethology and to the study of behaviour at the gull colony in Ravenglass. In 1970, after working as an activist for conservation in the intervening years, I spent a few months at Oxford with David Lack, who convinced me that individual selection is the only mechanism by which to interpret adaptations. My doctoral thesis was on the social behaviour of the white wagtail Motacilla alba. I was able to show by experiments how ecological conditions, especially food distribution, shape its social system. This study started my interest in studying the relationship between ecology and social systems (Ward & Zahavi 1973). In 1972, my student and friend, Yoav Sagi, questioned the logic of Fisher's model of mate choice. This stimulated me to develop the handicap principle as an alternative to Fisher's model. The implications of the handicap principle dramatically changed my understanding of evolution. I soon realised that the handicap principle is a necessary component in the evolution of all signals (a signal is defined as a trait that has evolved in the signaller, in order to transfer information to receivers, to affect the behaviour of the receivers in a manner that is beneficial to the signaller).
The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 150 studies in which the risk-taking tendencies of male and female participants were compared. Studies were coded with respect to type of task (e.g., self-reported behaviors vs. observed behaviors), task content (e.g., smoking vs. sex), and 5 age levels. Results showed that the average effects for 14 out of 16 types of risk taking were significantly larger than 0 (indicating greater risk taking in male participants) and that nearly half of the effects were greater than .20. However, certain topics (e.g., intellectual risk taking and physical skills) produced larger gender differences than others (e.g., smoking). In addition, the authors found that (a) there were significant shifts in the size of the gender gap between successive age levels, and (b) the gender gap seems to be growing smaller over time. The discussion focuses on the meaning of the results for theories of risk taking and the need for additional studies to clarify age trends.
Parental investment theory addresses sex differences that result from the trade-off between parenting effort and mating effort. For example, relative to men, women spend more time caring for offspring, are more selective in assenting to sexual intercourse, are more upset by a partner's emotional infidelity than by a partner's sexual infidelity, and are better able to inhibit their behaviors in certain situations. These and other sex differences are attributable to evolved mechanisms that work in interaction with the physical and social environments.
This paper extends the evolutionary understanding of sex differences in mortality rates by quantifying and graphically examining the overall Male to Female Mortality Ratio (M:F MR) for 11 specific leading causes of death across age groups in the USA, over the course of the lifespan in 20 different countries, and across the past 70 years in 5 countries. The resulting quantitative descriptions of rates, trends, and the relative contributions of various proximate causes of death to the M:F MR provide an initial exploration of the risks associated with being male. This analysis also illustrates how sex differences shaped by sexual selection interact in complex ways with multiple aspects of culture and environment to yield a pattern that has some consistency across decades and societies, but also has variations arising from differences among cohorts and cultures. The results confirmed our expectations of higher mortality rates for men than for women, especially in early adulthood, where three men died for every woman who died. For external causes the ratios were even higher. Historical mortality data reflect an epidemiological transition in which discrepancies between male and female mortality rates increase as general mortality rates fall. Cross-national variation in the modern M:F MR further suggests a universal pattern that is influenced by cultural and environmental context. Being male is now the single largest demographic risk factor for early mortality in developed countries.
Social psychological theories tend to be primarily concerned with the immediate causes of altruism, whereas evolutionary explanations focus more on the origins and ultimate functions of altruistic behavior. Recent developments in the evolutionary psychology of altruism promise an even richer understanding of this important category of social behaviors. Specifically, new perspectives offered by multilevel selection theory and costly-signaling theory may help to shed light on some of the more problematic issues in the study of altruism.
The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 150 studies in which the risk-taking tendencies of male and female participants were compared. Studies were coded with respect to type of task (e.g., self-reported behaviors vs. observed behaviors), task content (e.g., smoking vs. sex), and 5 age levels. Results showed that the average effects for 14 out of 16 types of risk taking were significantly larger than 0 (indicating greater risk taking in male participants) and that nearly half of the effects were greater than .20. However, certain topics (e.g., intellectual risk taking and physical skills) produced larger gender differences than others (e.g., smoking). In addition, the authors found that (a) there were significant shifts in the size of the gender gap between successive age levels, and (b) the gender gap seems to be growing smaller over time. The discussion focuses on the meaning of the results for theories of risk taking and the need for additional studies to clarify age trends. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Sexual selection theory predicts that males will tend to behave in ways that are more risky than females. We explored this in humans by studying two everyday situations (catching a bus and crossing a busy road). We show that humans are competent optimizers on such tasks, adjusting their arrival times at a bus stop so as to minimize waiting time. Nonetheless, single males pursue a more risky strategy than single females by cutting waiting times much finer. Males are also more likely than females to cross busy roads when it is risky to do so. More importantly, males are more likely to initiate a crossing in high risk conditions when there are females present in the immediate vicinity, but females do not show a comparable effect in relation to the number of males present. These results support the suggestion that risk-taking is a form of "showing off" used as mate advertisement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Humans sometimes forage or distribute the products of foraging in ways that do not maximize individual energetic return rates. As an alternative to hypotheses that rely on reciprocal altruism to counter the costs of inefficiency, we suggest that the cost itself could be recouped through signal benefit. Costly signaling theory predicts that signals can provide fitness benefits when costs are honestly linked to signaler quality, and this information is broadcast to potential mates and competitors. Here, we test some predictions of costly signaling theory against empirical data on human food acquisition and sharing patterns. We show that at least two types of marine foraging, turtle hunting and spearfishing, as practiced among the Meriam (a Melanesian people of Torres Strait, Australia) meet key criteria for costly signaling: signal traits are (1) differentially costly or beneficial in ways that are (2) honestly linked to signaler quality, and (3) designed to effectively broadcast the signal. We conclude that relatively inefficient hunting or sharing choices may be maintained in a population if they serve as costly and reliable signals designed to reveal the signaler's qualities to observers.
Heroism is apparently nonadaptive in Darwinian terms, so why does it exist at all? Risk-taking and heroic behavior are predominantly
male tendencies, and literature and legend reflect this. This study explores the possibility that heroism persists in many
human cultures owing to a female preference for risk-prone rather than risk-averse males as sexual partners, and it suggests
that such a preference may be exploited as a male mating strategy. It also attempts to quantify the relative influences of
altruism and bravery in the evolution of heroism. Our study found that females do prefer risk-prone brave males to risk-averse
non-brave males, and that men are aware of this preference. Bravery in a male was shown to be the stronger factor influencing
female choice of short-term partners, long-term partners, and male friends, with altruism playing a lesser part in their choice.
Altruism was deemed important in long-term relationships and friendships, but for short-term liaisons, non-altruists were
preferred to altruists. Heroism may therefore have evolved owing to a female preference for brave, risk-prone males because
risk-taking acts as an honest cue for "good genes." Altruism was judged to be a less influential factor in the evolution of
heroism than bravery and a demonstrated willingness to take risks.
The authors report a field experiment with skateboarders that demonstrates that physical risk taking by young men increases in the presence of an attractive female. This increased risk taking leads to more successes but also more crash landings in front of a female observer. Mediational analyses suggest that this increase in risk taking is caused in part by elevated testosterone levels of men who performed in front of the attractive female. In addition, skateboarders' risk taking was predicted by their performance on a reversal-learning task, reversal-learning performance was disrupted by the presence of the attractive female, and the female's presence moderated the observed relationship between risk taking and reversal learning. These results suggest that men use physical risk taking as a sexual display strategy, and they provide suggestive evidence regarding possible hormonal and neural mechanisms.
It is suggested that characters which develop through mate preference confer handicaps on the selected individuals in their survival. These handicaps are of use to the selecting sex since they test the quality of the mate. The size of characters selected in this way serve as marks of quality. The understanding that a handicap, which tests for quality, can evolve as a consequence of its advantage to the individual, may provide an explanation for many puzzling evolutionary problems. Such an interpretation may provide an alternative to other hypotheses which assumed complicated selective mechanisms, such as group selection or kin selection, which do not act directly on the individual.
The human stress response has been characterized, both physiologically and behaviorally, as "fight-or-flight." Although fight-or-flight may characterize the primary physiological responses to stress for both males and females, we propose that, behaviorally, females' responses are more marked by a pattern of "tend-and-befriend." Tending involves nurturant activities designed to protect the self and offspring that promote safety and reduce distress; befriending is the creation and maintenance of social networks that may aid in this process. The biobehavioral mechanism that underlies the tend-and-befriend pattern appears to draw on the attachment-caregiving system, and neuroendocrine evidence from animal and human studies suggests that oxytocin, in conjunction with female reproductive hormones and endogenous opioid peptide mechanisms, may be at its core. This previously unexplored stress regulatory system has manifold implications for the study of stress.
https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/137865/1/occ60.pdf
Several hypotheses about attitudes toward risk takers, derived from costly signaling theory (CST), were tested. Male and female participants evaluated the attractiveness of risk takers compared with risk avoiders as potential mates, and as potential same-sex friends, in 21 different scenarios. Both females and males preferred heroic physical risk takers as mates, with the preference being stronger for females. Contrary to predictions, for nonheroic physical risks (such as risky sports), both males and females preferred risk avoiders over risk takers as mates. However, for same-sex friends, males significantly preferred nonheroic physical risk takers, whereas females preferred risk avoiders. It was concluded that insofar as nonheroic risk taking by males is a costly signal, the signal is directed more toward fellow males than toward females. Preferences for risk takers were positively correlated with reported self risk-taking tendencies, but the correlation was significantly higher for friends than for mates for both heroic and nonheroic physical risks.In a second study, both males and females accurately predicted the opposite sex's preferences for heroic risk takers as mates. However, males failed to predict females' preferences for nonheroic physical risk avoiders. Both males and females underestimated the opposite sex's preferences for drug risk avoiders.
This . . . book is the first to present a unified theory of human mating behavior. [It] is based on the most massive study of human mating ever undertaken, encompassing more than 10,000 people of all ages from thirty-seven cultures worldwide.
If we all want love, why is there so much conflict in our most cherished relationships? To answer this question, we must look into our evolutionary past, according to David M. Buss.
The book discusses casual sex and long-term relationships, sexual conflict, the elusive quest for harmony between the sexes, and much more.
Buss's research leads to a radical shift from the standard view of men's and women's sexual psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Eighty-seven men and 219 women rated the desirability of either a low, moderate, or high risk-taker as a partner in several contexts. Women were more selective than men in all contexts. Men and women preferred risk takers as friends and short-term romantic partners but only women preferred risk takers as long-term romantic partners. The observed gender differences are consistent with predictions from the perspective of evolutionary psychology. However, the findings also evidence the similarity in men and women's interpersonal attraction criteria and point to the need for examining more proximal mechanisms that might make risk taking an appealing attribute in another person. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes patterns and trends in and causes of gender differences in health behavior, focusing on the contributions of gender roles. One hypothesis proposes that gender differences in health behavior are due primarily to 2 complementary aspects of gender roles, namely, males' greater risk taking and females' greater health concerns. Specifically, this hypothesis proposes that males are socialized to take risks, whereas females are socialized to be more cautious and more concerned with protecting health; consequently, males engage in more risky behavior, while females engage in more preventive behavior, as well as more treatment seeking and self-care for illness. Additional hypotheses have also been proposed.
As a basis for evaluating these hypotheses, this chapter describes trends in gender differences for several major types of health behavior and reviews evidence concerning the causes of these differences. Cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption are discussed in depth; accident-related behavior, exercise, dieting, eating disorders, and physician visits are discussed more briefly. The descriptions of these behaviors are based primarily on data for national samples in the US from the 1960s through the early 1990s. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
the logic of treating homicide as a competition assay / the motive for killing / sex-specific life-span changes in killing / evolutionary psychology of dangerous confrontational risk taking / the adaptive logic of the sex difference in lethal risk taking / does human male risk-taking exhibit a sexually selected life-span pattern (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A study, based on Terror Management Theory, examined the effects of mortality salience on young men's and women's behavioral intentions to drive recklessly. Participants (N = 206) reported on the relevance of driving to their self-esteem. Half of them were exposed to a mortality salience induction and the remaining to a control condition. Then they were asked about their willingness to drive recklessly in various scenarios. Findings showed that mortality salience led to higher intentions to drive recklessly than the control condition only among men who perceived driving as relevant to their self-esteem. No such differences were found among women. Results are discussed in light of the self-enhancing and cultural-world views-validating mechanisms proposed by the Terror Management Theory.
To investigate the trend and injury patterns of deaths associated with snow skiing in Colorado between 1980 and 2001.
Death certificates were searched electronically and reviewed manually. Total skier ticket sales were used to calculate death rates. Types of injuries and characteristics of those who died were investigated.
A total of 274 skier deaths occurred between 1980 and 2001 in Colorado. Death rates ranged from 0.53 to 1.88 per million skier visits. The majority of deaths were among males (>81%). Ages ranged from 7 to 77 years with an average of 32 years. The greatest number of deaths associated with downhill skiing (76 deaths) occurred between 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. while the greatest number of deaths associated with cross-country skiing happened between 2:00 and 6:00 p.m. About 65% of deaths associated with downhill skiing (133 cases) died of traumatic injuries resulting from collisions.
A slight increase in the rate of ski-related deaths was observed. The role of collisions in ski-related deaths warrants further investigation to reduce the risk of this activity for all skiers. Further work is needed to determine the efficacy of helmet use to reduce the risk of head injuries in the skiing population.
In 1967 the Kibish Formation in southern Ethiopia yielded hominid cranial remains identified as early anatomically modern humans, assigned to Homo sapiens
1, 2, 3, 4. However, the provenance and age of the fossils have been much debated5, 6. Here we confirm that the Omo I and Omo II hominid fossils are from similar stratigraphic levels in Member I of the Kibish Formation, despite the view that Omo I is more modern in appearance than Omo II1, 2, 3. 40Ar/39Ar ages on feldspar crystals from pumice clasts within a tuff in Member I below the hominid levels place an older limit of 198 14 kyr (weighted mean age 196 2 kyr) on the hominids. A younger age limit of 104 7 kyr is provided by feldspars from pumice clasts in a Member III tuff. Geological evidence indicates rapid deposition of each member of the Kibish Formation. Isotopic ages on the Kibish Formation correspond to ages of Mediterranean sapropels, which reflect increased flow of the Nile River, and necessarily increased flow of the Omo River. Thus the 40Ar/39Ar age measurements, together with the sapropel correlations, indicate that the hominid fossils have an age close to the older limit. Our preferred estimate of the age of the Kibish hominids is 195 5 kyr, making them the earliest well-dated anatomically modern humans yet described.
This report presents preliminary U.S. data on deaths, death rates, life expectancy, leading causes of death, and infant mortality for the year 2003 by selected characteristics such as age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin.
Data in this report are based on a large number of deaths comprising approximately 93 percent of the demographic file and 91 percent of the medical file for all deaths in the United States in 2003. The records are weighted to independent control counts for 2003. For certain causes of death such as unintentional injuries, homicides, suicides, and respiratory diseases, preliminary, and final data differ because of the truncated nature of the preliminary file. Comparisons are made with 2002 final data.
The age-adjusted death rate for the United States decreased from 845.3 deaths per 100,000 population in 2002 to 831.2 deaths per 100,000 population in 2003. Age-adjusted death rates decreased between 2002 and 2003 for the following causes: Diseases of heart, Malignant neoplasms, Cerebrovascular diseases, Accidents (unintentional injuries), Influenza and pneumonia, Intentional self-harm (suicide), Chronic liver disease and cirrhosis, and Pneumonitis due to solids and liquids. They increased between 2002 and 2003 for the following: Alzheimer's disease, Nephritis, nephrotic syndrome and nephrosis, Essential (primary) hypertension and hypertensive renal disease, and Parkinson's disease. Life expectancy at birth rose by 0.3 years to a record high of 77.6 years.
Across many real-world domains, men engage in more risky behaviors than do women. To examine some of the beliefs and preferences that underlie this difference, 657 participants assessed their likelihood of engaging in various risky activities relating to four different domains (gambling, health, recreation, and social), and reported their perceptions of (1) probability of negative outcomes, (2) severity of potential negative outcomes, and (3) enjoyment expected from the risky activities. Women's greater perceived likelihood of negative outcomes and lesser expectation of enjoyment partially mediated their lower propensity toward risky choices in gambling, recreation, and health domains. Perceptions of severity of potential outcomes was a partial mediator in the gambling and health domains. The genders did not differ in their propensity towards taking social risks. A fifth domain of activities associated with high potential payoffs and fixed minor costs was also assessed. In contrast to other domains, women reported being more likely to engage in behaviors in this domain. This gender difference was partially mediated by women's more optimistic judgments of the probability of good outcomes and of
Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis Annual smoking-attributable mortality, years of potential life lost
- J P Htm Byrnes
- D C Miller
- W D Shafer
Retrieved June 23, 2008, from http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/ HomePage/Group/BussLAB/publications.htm Byrnes, J. P., Miller, D. C., & Shafer, W. D. (1999). Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 367–383. doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.125.3.367. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (April 12, 2002). Annual smoking-attributable mortality, years of potential life lost, and economic costs—United States, 1995–1999.
Deaths: Preliminary data for 2003. National Vital Statistics Reports Center for Disease Control and Prevention Demo-graphic subgroup trends for various licit and illogic drugs
- D L Hoyert
- H Kung
- B L L D Smith
- O Malley
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