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The Tempo of Sexual Activity and Later Relationship Quality
Abstract
Rapid sexual involvement may have adverse long‐term implications for relationship quality. This study examined the tempo of sexual intimacy and subsequent relationship quality in a sample of married and cohabiting men and women. Data come from the Marital and Relationship Survey, which provides information on nearly 600 low‐ to moderate‐income couples living with minor children. Over one third of respondents became sexually involved within the first month of the relationship. Bivariate results suggested that delaying sexual involvement was associated with higher relationship quality across several dimensions. The multivariate results indicated that the speed of entry into sexual relationships was negatively associated with marital quality, but only among women. The association between relationship tempo and relationship quality was largely driven by cohabitation. Cohabiting may result in poorer quality relationship because rapid sexual involvement early in the romantic relationship is associated with entrance into shared living.
... This new finding suggests that emerging adults who view pornography more frequently believe sexual readiness and sexual chemistry are a greater priority for marriage readiness than those that do not view pornography. This may have important implications, as research has debated the utility of testing sexual compatibility early in the relationship (Cassell, 2008) versus restraining from sexual activity until later in the relationship (Busby, Carroll, & Willoughby, 2010;Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012). Currently, empirical evidence suggests that those who adopt the sexual restraint model in a relationship are more likely to experience relationship stability, relationship satisfaction, positive communication patterns, and sexual satisfaction in their marriage (Busby et al., 2010;Sassler et al., 2012). ...
... This may have important implications, as research has debated the utility of testing sexual compatibility early in the relationship (Cassell, 2008) versus restraining from sexual activity until later in the relationship (Busby, Carroll, & Willoughby, 2010;Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012). Currently, empirical evidence suggests that those who adopt the sexual restraint model in a relationship are more likely to experience relationship stability, relationship satisfaction, positive communication patterns, and sexual satisfaction in their marriage (Busby et al., 2010;Sassler et al., 2012). Because pornography users place greater importance on sexual readiness and chemistry, these expectations may lead emerging adults to seek out multiple premarital committed and noncommitted sexual partners, which may paradoxically lower emerging adults' chances for experiencing some of the aforementioned positive marital outcomes. ...
... This has important implications for understanding the hookup culture of emerging adults. Because a more permissive sexual ethic appears to be connected to casual sexual behaviors (Braithwaite et al., 2015), including a higher number of sexual partners (Willoughby et al., 2014), pornography use may also lower chances for positive marital outcomes through its influence on permissive sexual ethics (Busby et al., 2010;Busby, Willoughby, & Carroll, 2013;Sassler et al., 2012). ...
Limited research exists concerning pornography’s influence on emerging adult’s relationship trajectories, with no research examining how pornography use predicts emerging adults’ beliefs about marriage. The study includes cross-sectional results of 568 emerging adults and longitudinal results of 142 participants who were followed from the original sample. Regression analyses found that pornography use was cross-sectionally associated with a higher importance placed on sexual readiness before getting married and more permissive sexual attitudes. Longitudinal regression analyses showed that pornography use predicted lower marital centrality and more permissive sexual attitudes. These results suggest that pornography use is linked not only to emerging adults’ sexual scripts, but also may be influencing broader relationship scripts.
... A s a romantic relationship develops, partners contemplate when they might have sexual intercourse for the first time (i.e., sexual debut). Approximately 40% of heterosexual partners in committed romantic relationships have sex within the first month of dating (Busby, Carroll, & Willoughby, 2010;Peplau, Rubin, & Hill, 1977;Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012;Willoughby, Carroll, & Busby, 2014). Expectations about the timing of first sexual experience with a new romantic partner are consistent with this research. ...
... Peplau et al. (1977) found that partners who waited to have sexual intercourse for at least a month after their first date reported higher relationship satisfaction than those with sexual debuts within a month. Other researchers reported that cohabitating or married couples with sexual debut within the first 2 months of their dating relationship experienced lower relationship satisfaction over time than couples who delayed intercourse (Busby et al., 2010;Sassler et al., 2012). Further, Willoughby et al. (2014) reported that delaying sexual intercourse by "a few weeks" was associated with higher relationship satisfaction in young adults in dating relationships. ...
... Indeed, women report that their first sexual experience in a relationship has a more positive impact on their relationship than for men, supporting the notion that women link emotional intimacy with sexual intimacy (Cate, 1993;Leigh, 1989). Although some researchers have found that delaying sexual intercourse is associated with increases in relationship and sexual satisfaction in married men and women (Bubsy et al., 2010), other researchers have reported that these associations are specific to women (Sassler et al., 2012). Further, Peplau and colleagues (1977) reported that sexual debut was not associated with men's sexual satisfaction, but women who delayed sexual debut reported less sexual satisfaction and more guilt than women with earlier debut. ...
... To date, there has been little empirical examination of the merits of sexual compatibility versus sexual restraint theory. Two exceptions to this are recent studies done by Busby and colleagues (2010) and Sassler, Addo, and Licher (2012) who empirically explored the sexual chemistry hypothesis by examining the premarital sexual timing patterns of married couples. These authors found that the longer a couple waited to become sexually involved while dating, the better their relationship was after marriage. ...
... On the basis of the literature and theory previously reviewed, we developed a structural model illustrated in Figure 1 that describes how premarital sexual experience might influence marital outcomes, following the patterns outlined in previous research (Busby et al., 2010;Sassler et al., 2012). As seen in the model, we propose that the number of premarital sexual partners will influence both the sexual quality of a relationship and the communication expressed in the relationship and that all of these variables will influence relationship satisfaction and perceived stability. ...
... As seen in the model, we propose that the number of premarital sexual partners will influence both the sexual quality of a relationship and the communication expressed in the relationship and that all of these variables will influence relationship satisfaction and perceived stability. Both sexual quality and communication have been linked together and to relationship satisfaction in previous research (Christopher & Sprecher, 2000;Sassler et al., 2012) and the link between sexual experience and different levels of sexual quality and communication is suggested by sexual restraint theory. We include relationship length, education, income, race, and religiosity as control variables in this study because research demonstrates that these variables can influence sexual practices in relationships (Bradbury & Karney, 2004;Busby et al., 2010;Christopher & Sprecher, 2000). ...
In this study, the association was explored between the number of sexual partners individuals had in their lifetimes and martial outcomes. The research objective was to test whether the number of sexual partners was associated with sexual quality, communication, relationship satisfaction, and relationship stability, while controlling for relationship length, education, race, income, age, and religiosity, using the two competing theories of sexual compatibility and sexual restraint. The results, with a sample of 2,654 married individuals, indicated that the number of sexual partners was associated with lower levels of sexual quality, communication, and relationship stability, providing support for the sexual restraint theory. Gender was not significantly associated with the patterns in the model but age cohorts did have different patterns.
... Kohabitasi atau tinggal bersama sebelum menikah sering dipahami kaum muda sebagai bentuk "percobaan" yang dapat membantu mengurangi potensi perceraian (Huang et al., 2011). Namun, dalam realitasnya, hubungan yang berkembang terlalu cepat tanpa adanya komunikasi tentang tujuan dan keinginan jangka panjang dari setiap pasangan dapat menyebabkan tingkat komitmen yang rendah dan berpotensi menimbulkan tekanan dalam hubungan (Sassler et al., 2012). ...
... Aktivitas seksual yang dilakukan lebih awal sebelum menikah mempunyai dampak jangka panjang yang negatif terhadap kualitas hubungan(Sassler et al., 2012) Seks pranikah tidak berdampak pada kehidupan pernikahanPerilaku yang ditunjukkanMeyakini usia 20 tahun dan pertengahan 30 tahun ideal untuk menikahMemutuskan menikah di usia 17-18 tahun Kematangan psikologis penting untuk dimiliki sebelum menikah Tidak mempertimbangkan kematangan psikologis saat memutuskan menikah Kohabitasi dapat membawa manfaat sebagai bentuk uji coba hidup bersama sebelum menikah Tidak melakukan kohabitasi karena takut dengan konsekuensi sosial * Warna abu-abu = keyakinan diwujudkan dalam perilaku ...
One-fifth of Indonesia's population engages in child marriage. Child marriages are generally not accompanied by readiness for marriage, which risks negative impacts in the future. This study aims to examine the beliefs of marriage dispensation applicant's child regarding marriage readiness. The approach used was a mixed method embedded design, where qualitative methods are preferred. Data was collected through interviews, observation, and marriage readiness scale. Four children of marriage dispensation applicants at the Malang Regency were research participants. The results showed that participants have a paradoxical beliefs in marriage readiness. Western marriage readiness paradox beliefs were found, such as older age is more ideal, premarital sex strengthens relationships and cohabitation brings benefits. However, these beliefs were not always aligned to participants' behavior. The belief that 20s is the ideal age for marriage also did not align. Although they believed that they were ready for marriage, their readiness was in the moderate category. They acted contrary on marriage readiness preparation due to the belief that premarital sex had no impact on marriage and the subjective norm that premarital sex was normal. This results can be used as a basis for providing education on marriage readiness and risky sexual behavior, especially in adolescents.
... Consequently, in this study, we evaluate the emotional dimension of sexuality by how well individuals are motivated to express their sexuality in ways that show tenderness, love, and excitement for their partner. This is in contrast to some of the existing research that shows that for a significant portion of individuals, their motives for sexuality are primarily for recreational or other casual purposes (Busby et al., 2013;Olmstead et al., 2013;Sassler et al., 2012). These individuals may in fact enjoy and appreciate the physical aspects of sexuality, but as evidenced by the research on casual sex, the absence or low levels of motivation to enhance the emotional connection between partners does not result in sexuality being as positive for these individuals or their relationship as it could be (Busby et al., 2013;Olmstead et al., 2013;Sassler et al., 2012). ...
... This is in contrast to some of the existing research that shows that for a significant portion of individuals, their motives for sexuality are primarily for recreational or other casual purposes (Busby et al., 2013;Olmstead et al., 2013;Sassler et al., 2012). These individuals may in fact enjoy and appreciate the physical aspects of sexuality, but as evidenced by the research on casual sex, the absence or low levels of motivation to enhance the emotional connection between partners does not result in sexuality being as positive for these individuals or their relationship as it could be (Busby et al., 2013;Olmstead et al., 2013;Sassler et al., 2012). ...
Characteristics of emerging adulthood may make college students less likely to engage in COVID-protective behaviors, a public health concern given that lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and questioning (LGBTQ+) students may be particularly vulnerable to complications related to COVID-19. To identify individual and contextual factors related to COVID-protective behaviors among a sample of LGBTQ+ college students in the United States, we examined differences in COVID-protective and -risk behaviors by gender identity, living arrangement, statewide stay at home orders, and political liberalism of the student’s current state. Although engagement in COVID-protective behaviors was high overall, students who identified as men, did not live with a parent, lived in a state without a stay at home order, and/or lived in a less liberal state engaged in fewer COVID-protective behaviors and more frequent COVID-risk behaviors. Findings underscore the importance of clear public health messaging around COVID-protective behaviors that targets especially vulnerable college students.
... Consequently, in this study, we evaluate the emotional dimension of sexuality by how well individuals are motivated to express their sexuality in ways that show tenderness, love, and excitement for their partner. This is in contrast to some of the existing research that shows that for a significant portion of individuals, their motives for sexuality are primarily for recreational or other casual purposes (Busby et al., 2013;Olmstead et al., 2013;Sassler et al., 2012). These individuals may in fact enjoy and appreciate the physical aspects of sexuality, but as evidenced by the research on casual sex, the absence or low levels of motivation to enhance the emotional connection between partners does not result in sexuality being as positive for these individuals or their relationship as it could be (Busby et al., 2013;Olmstead et al., 2013;Sassler et al., 2012). ...
... This is in contrast to some of the existing research that shows that for a significant portion of individuals, their motives for sexuality are primarily for recreational or other casual purposes (Busby et al., 2013;Olmstead et al., 2013;Sassler et al., 2012). These individuals may in fact enjoy and appreciate the physical aspects of sexuality, but as evidenced by the research on casual sex, the absence or low levels of motivation to enhance the emotional connection between partners does not result in sexuality being as positive for these individuals or their relationship as it could be (Busby et al., 2013;Olmstead et al., 2013;Sassler et al., 2012). ...
Based upon the psychological needs delimited in self‐determination theory, we created the sexual wholeness model to encapsulate the different dimensions (physical, emotional, and meaning) that create couple sexuality. We evaluated the model with data from two national samples (Sample 1, n = 610; Sample 2, n = 884), by examining the association between sexual, relationship, and life satisfaction, and attachment with the different elements of the sexual wholeness model using harmonious sexual passion as an intermediate variable. The emotional dimension had the strongest associations in both samples with harmonious sexual passion and all other outcomes except attachment. The physical dimension of sexuality had a surprisingly strong association with attachment and sexual satisfaction. In addition, couples' self‐evaluation of the degree of sexual wholeness in their relationship was strongly associated with harmonious passion and all other outcomes, providing another level of validity to the dimensions of the model and the potential utility for using this model to assist in couple therapy.
... This study differs from prior work on consumer debt and relationship outcomes (Dew 2007;Schaninger and Buss 1986) in that we focused on whether couples agreed on the amount of household debt, after accounting for the amount of consumer debt, and investigated whether agreement was correlated with the quality of their relationship. Our study draws from and builds upon family demographic research that finds that concordance in relationship attributes such as relationship tempo and intent matter for relationship commitment, cohesion, and wellbeing (Brown and Booth 1996;Halpern-Meekin and Tach 2013;Sassler et al. 2013) and the relevance of household debt for couple dynamics and outcomes. ...
... Couples who tend to practice joint management skills and share control over financial decisions are also more likely to share other financial practices (Woolley 2003). These tasks are accomplished often by engaging in practices that improve individual and couple-level well-being through reduced transaction costs and increased efficiency (Halpern-Meekin and Tach 2013;Pollak 1985;Sassler et al. 2013). Specific to the household finances, studies find that couples' decisions regarding how to administer their income-whether one partner manages the financial resources (and which partner it is), if they pool their income or maintain separate pots, or hold joint or separate bank accounts-indicate the level of investment and integration in a relationship (Addo 2017;Heimdal and Houseknecht 2003;Oropesa et al. 2003;Pahl 2008;Treas 1993). ...
Despite a large literature on household finances and relationship quality, little is known about the degree of couple-level agreement on finances and its association with relationship outcomes. This study examines the relationship between financial concordance on household-level consumer debt and relationship quality, and the strength of the association after accounting for couple-level financial management practices. We applied hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to couple-level data from a sample of married and cohabiting couples with children (435 couples, 870 respondents) from the Marital and Relationship Survey (MARS) and found that concordance on total household credit card debt was common but not the norm, with 55% of couples agreeing on their outstanding debt amount within our sample. Debt concordant couples had greater relationship satisfaction even after accounting for the outstanding debt amount, financial management practices such as income pooling, and joint purchase decisions, as well as relationship characteristics like their marital status, relationship duration, and the number of children in the household. We also found that disagreements related to financial issues attenuated the debt concordance and relationship quality association. Our results highlight the importance of including objective measures of household finance when assessing relationship quality.
... Specifically, sexual involvement and the timing of sexual involvement influences future relationship functioning. In particular, the research demonstrates that early sexual involvement in a relationship and sexual involvement with different partners across time negatively influences the development of relationship communication patterns, sexual quality, and stability in couples (Busby, Carroll, & Willoughby, 2010;Busby, Willoughby, & Carroll, 2013;Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012;Teachman, 2003). Specifically, Teachman (2009) found that among women, having premarital intercourse with more partners than just their future spouse indicated an increase in the risk of subsequent marital disruption. ...
... We also found that over and above the common or shared associations of relationship history there was a unique negative association on relationship stability for both the number of cohabiting and the number of sexual relationships. These findings are consistent with previous research that shows that multiple cohabiting and sexual relationships were negatively associated with future relationship stability (Busby et al., 2013;Kennedy & Bumpass, 2008;Sassler et al., 2012). We thought there might be unique associations on other variables such as attitudes, sexual satisfaction and commitment, but the unique associations appear to be exclusively with relationship stability. ...
Before their current relationship, individuals may have had a variety of previous relationships such as romantic relationships, sexual relationships, and cohabiting relationships. In this study we explored the common or shared influence of these 3 types of previous relationships, and the unique influence of each type, on current relationship functioning. With a sample of more than 4,000 individuals we found that there was a significantly negative shared influence for previous romantic, sexual, and cohabiting relationships on current relationship attitudes, sexual satisfaction, commitment, and stability. Above and beyond the shared influence, there was also a unique negative influence for previous sexual and cohabiting relationships on current relationship stability. The effects were largely similar for women and for men. It appears that on average the positive lessons that are learned from previous relationship experiences are likely being overwhelmed by the negative carryover, especially in regard to relationship attitudes and relationship stability.
... Sexual timing. Relatively recent studies have observed that sexual timing is associated with relationship outcomes (Busby et al., 2010;Sassler et al., 2012;Willoughby et al., 2014). Individuals have reported higher levels of commitment, emotional support, closeness (Sassler et al., 2012), sexual quality, communication, and relationship stability and satisfaction (Busby et al., 2013;Willoughby et al., 2014) when they initiated sex later in their relationships. ...
... Relatively recent studies have observed that sexual timing is associated with relationship outcomes (Busby et al., 2010;Sassler et al., 2012;Willoughby et al., 2014). Individuals have reported higher levels of commitment, emotional support, closeness (Sassler et al., 2012), sexual quality, communication, and relationship stability and satisfaction (Busby et al., 2013;Willoughby et al., 2014) when they initiated sex later in their relationships. ...
In this study, the relationships between attachment patterns and relationship outcomes were explored through the mechanism of sexuality with two large national samples. In the first sample (N=4,834) the associations between insecure attachment patterns, the number of committed and casual sexual partners, timing of sexual debut, and relationship status were explored. In the second sample, a nationally representative sample of recently married couples (N=4,234), an actor/partner model was used to explore the associations between gender and attachment on the number of sexual partners, sexual timing, and subsequent influence on relationship and sexual satisfaction over two time points. The results indicated that, for sample 1, insecure attachment was associated with the number of casual sexual partners and with an increased likelihood of being single for males and females. For sample 2, the actor-partner measures of attachment and gender were associated with relationship and sexual satisfaction over two time points, but had weak associations with the number of sexual partners and sexual timing.
... Relational outcomes are also tied to when first sex occurs relative to time spent dating a partner. Research shows that dating and married individuals who have waited longer in their relationships to start sexual involvement generally have more positive relational outcomes, including relationship satisfaction, perceived stability, and sexual quality (Busby, Caroll, & Willoughby, 2010;Willoughby, Carroll, & Busby, 20t4), although equivocal findings exist for men (Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012). Niehuis, Reifman, Feng, and Huston's (2014) research provides insights into these findings. ...
... More specifi cally, greater relationship quality has been linked to greater sexual desire (Regan, 2000); less discrepancy between desired frequency and actual frequency of sex (Santtila et il., 2007 ;Smith et al., 201 1); greater frequency of specific sexual behaviors, such as oral sex and kissing (Ashdown, Hackathorn, & Clark, 2011;Santtila et al., 2007); and fewer number of lifetime sexual partners for emerging adults eighteen to thirty years old (Busby et al., 2013). Researchers also have found, as noted in an earlier section, that beginning sex early in the relationship is negatively associated with relationship qualrty among dating, married, and cohabitating couples (Busbyet a1.,2010;Sassler et al., 2012;Willoughby et aL.,2014). There also is less clarity about what factors or processes might mediate the well-established association between sexual and relationship satisfaction. ...
Sexual behaviors and other dimensions of sexuality (e.g., sexual desire, sexual satisfaction) are integral components of a special type of close relationship, the romantic pair bond. Over the years, there have been calls for more research that examines how sex influences the development, maintenance, and ending of relationships (e.g., Berscheid, 1988; Diamond, 2013; Sprecher, Christopher, & Cate, 2006). Such calls appear to have been heeded. Research that links sexuality with relationship phenomena (e.g., satisfaction, love) can be found in journals published in both the sexuality and the close relationships fields – distinct, interdisciplinary scientific areas. In fact, our literature searches led to so many empirical articles relevant to the topic of relational sex that it was challenging not only to narrow the topics but also to narrow the literature discussed within each section.
In this chapter, we introduce conceptual and theoretical issues pertinent to the study of sex within a relational context. Second, we discuss attitudes and beliefs about sex in several relational contexts ranging from casual relationships to extramarital relationships. We then discuss the ways in which sex is implicated in attraction and the development of relationships as well as the degree to which sex is predictive of and intertwined with interpersonal processes and outcomes in developed relationships. We also focus on the challenges of sexual jealousy and aggression and discuss how family and peers affect sexuality at the individual and dyadic levels. We end with suggestions for future research that can advance our understanding of sexuality in a relational context.
CITATION: Sprecher, S., Christopher, F. S., Regan, P., Orbuch, T., & Cate, R. M. (2018). Sexuality in personal relationships. In A. L. Vangelisti & D. Perlman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of personal relationships (2nd ed., pp. 311-326). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
... Some argue that contemporary young adults are drifting into sexual relationships and shared living without adequate commitment to their partners (Sawhill 2014;Stanley et al. 2006). Various studies suggest that rapid relationship progression reduces dedication, is associated with lower marital quality (should couples wed), and adversely affects parenting (Cherlin 2009;Glenn 2002;Sassler, Addo, and Lichter 2012;Stanley, Rhoades, and Whitton 2010). To date, however, little is known about how rapidly relationships progress, or if this tempo is associated with subsequent union transitions. ...
... itors with poorer economic traits accounts for lower levels of marital quality (Spencer and Beattie 2012) as well as higher levels of divorce (Lu, Qian, Cunningham, and Li 2012). Nonetheless, such studies fail to account for timing into shared living, which previous research has found to matter with regards to relationship quality and satisfaction (Sassler et. al. 2012). Additional exploration is required to ascertain to what extent decisions to cohabit are motivated by economic difficulties, housing exigencies, or other factors such as unintended pregnancy, as some qualitative work has suggested (Sassler 2004;Sassler and Miller 2011). Doing so will require data better suited for studying transitions i ...
Much research on cohabitation has focused on transitions from cohabitation to marriage or dissolution, but less is known about how rapidly women progress into cohabitation, what factors are associated with the tempo to shared living, and whether the timing into cohabitation is associated with subsequent marital transitions. We use data from the 2006–2013 National Survey of Family Growth to answer these questions among women whose most recent sexual relationship began within 10 years of the interview. Life table results indicate that transitions into cohabitation are most common early in sexual relationships; nearly one-quarter of women had begun cohabiting within six months of becoming sexually involved. Multivariate analyses reveal important social class disparities in the timing to cohabitation. Not only are women from more-advantaged backgrounds significantly less likely to cohabit, but those who do cohabit enter shared living at significantly slower tempos than women whose mothers lacked a college degree. In addition, among sexual relationships that transitioned into cohabiting unions, college-educated women were significantly more likely to transition into marriage than less-educated women. Finally, although the tempo effect is only weakly significant, women who moved in within the first year of their sexual relationship demonstrated lower odds of marrying than did women who deferred cohabiting for over a year. Relationship processes are diverging by social class, contributing to inequality between more- and less-advantaged young adults.
... The curvilinear relationship between our passion index and declines in affectionate expression early in marriage also suggests that those couples experiencing moderately passionate courtships were the least likely to exhibit declines in overt affection early in marriage. These couples' intimacy may have risen at a slower pace, leaving time to get to know one another better, test their compatibility, and enter marriage with a more realistic understanding of their relationship and each other (Sassler et al., 2012). Accordingly, future research could seek to distinguish between two related, but separate, proposed reasons for the apparently detrimental effects of quickly accelerated/passionate movement through courtship: The disillusionment model's suggestion that an accelerated courtship leads to idealization and later disillusionment, and Sassler and colleagues' suggestion that early sex interferes with the more thoughtful assessments needed to judge a relationship and make it work. ...
... As noted above, the interviewing procedure used various techniques (e.g., timelines, actual dates) to remind participants of events in their courtship. Also, there appears to be a robust finding from both the present study and Sassler et al.'s (2012) that having sex within the first month of the relationship is far more common in couples who cohabited before marriage than in those who married directly. If respondents' estimates of the timing of first sex were so malleable and easily distorted by current feelings of affection toward the partner, it seems unlikely that findings could replicate so well between two studies. ...
According to the disillusionment model, dating partners may idealize
each other due to romantic feelings and partners’ presenting themselves
favorably to each other. However, this idealization can fade once couples
marry and experience routine daily living. Highly passionate (i.e., quickly
accelerating) courtships, replete with idealization, likely make partners
vulnerable to subsequent declines in marital affection—or disillusionment.
To test this notion, 168 newlywed couples provided retrospective survey
and interview information on how passionate their courtship was and brief
series of daily assessments of affectionate behavior during the first 2 years
of marriage. Results from multilevel analyses showed that respondents who
experienced highly passionate courtships reported their spouses as behaving
more affectionately toward them as newlyweds, but experienced declines
in perceived affectionate expression as the marriage progressed. Results
persisted after controlling for possible confounding variables (e.g., age at dating onset, courtship length, premarital love, cohabitation, and conflict).
Findings support the disillusionment model.
... Baker (2007) maintains that peer influence is one of the significant determinants of cohabitation among youth. It has predisposed a considerable number of them to premarital romantic relationships with its attendant risk factors, which range from unwanted pregnancy, Sexual Transmitted Infections (STIs), indiscriminate arrest by the police and other law enforcement agencies, loss of the future career, emotional depression and a host of others (Sassler et al., 2012;Manning et al., 2014). ...
The trend of cohabitation in our contemporary society, especially among the emerging youth, has increased moral decadence, which has caused more danger to the affected youth and culture. The study examined the perceived impact of peer influence on cohabitation among youth in selected off-campus areas in the Ilorin Metropolis. The study employed a survey method, and a sample size of 525 was randomly selected using purposive sampling for selection of the off-campus areas and simple random for the research participants, but only 497 participants filled out and returned the questionnaires. A Peer Influence Scale (PPS) for peer influence (x=0.87), a Self-developed Scale for gender, age and religion on cohabitation (x=0.85). Hypotheses were tested at a 0.05 significance level using a T-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), while frequency counts and percentages were used to analyse the demographic data. The study found no significant difference in the influence of peers on cohabitation among youth in the Ilorin Metropolis based on gender. There was a significant difference in peer influence on cohabitation among youth in Ilorin Metropolis based on age. There was a significant difference in peer influence on cohabitation among youth in Ilorin Metropolis based on religion. Based on the study's findings, it recommended that concerted efforts should be made by the Social Workers, Social Welfare and other relevant stakeholders to engage in a sensitization programme that will re-orientate the teeming youth on the danger cohabitation can pose to their future well-being and welfare.
... Respondents who lived with romantic partners and individuals aged 55 and older were oversampled (Eickmeyer et al., 2019). The GfK (formerly KN) panel has been used in federally funded data collections on couples and families (Lichter & Carmalt, 2009;Rosenfeld & Thomas, 2012;Sassler et al., 2012). The data quality of the GfK (KN) panel is similar to or better than that obtained from RDD surveys (Chang & Krosnick, 2009). ...
Objectives
The share of adults cohabiting at later ages has risen in the past few decades, though little is known about income pooling among midlife cohabitors. Cohabitation could be an attractive option because partners may be able to preserve their economic autonomy and maintain assets for the next generation. Conversely, cohabitation may operate as an alternative to marriage, allowing midlife adults to combine their resources to achieve economies of scale without the legal obligations of marriage. This study compared income pooling among middle-aged remarried and cohabiting adults in the U.S.
Methods
Data were from the nationally representative 2013 Families and Relationships Survey. The analytic sample included adults aged 50-65 who were cohabiting or remarried (N = 888). Logistic regression models were used to predict the likelihood of income pooling among cohabiting and remarried midlife adults, net of relationship, demographic, and economic characteristics.
Results
Aligning with the hypothesis that cohabitation and remarriage are distinct in middle age, the odds of income pooling were lower for cohabitors than remarrieds. However, the gap between cohabitors and remarrieds narrowed by later ages.
Discussion
This study provides insight into the economic organization of midlife cohabiting relationships, which may have implications for individual well-being and relationship decision-making among middle-aged couples.
... First, using longitudinal data for a sample of young adults, we add to the literature by assessing how several types of intimate relationships, including marriage, cohabitation, monogamous dating, and singlehood, combine with parenthood to shape the sense of mastery. While young adults may be postponing marriage, other research shows they are still actively engaged in building intimate relationships that take on varying levels of commitment (Jamison and Proulx 2013;Sassler, Addo, and Lichter 2012). Beyond marriage and cohabitation, some young adults select stable monogamous relationships, in which shared space, time spent together, and obligations are actively negotiated (Eliason, Mortimer, and Vuolo 2015;Frank and John 2010). ...
Solidifying a strong personal sense of mastery or control over life is a key developmental task in young adulthood. We investigate the extent to which intimate relationship status (i.e., marriage, cohabitation, monogamous dating, and singlehood) and parenthood simultaneously shape mastery for a longitudinal sample of 18- to 34-year-olds. We further investigate whether age qualifies the effects of relationship-parenthood status on the sense of mastery similarly for men and women. Regardless of parenthood and gender, marriage and cohabitation are related to higher mastery than monogamous dating and singlehood. On average, single fathers and mothers have the lowest mastery. As individuals age from their late twenties into their early thirties, married and monogamously dating men without children have the highest levels of mastery, while cohabiting men without children and monogamously dating mothers have the lowest levels of mastery.
... Moreover, facilitator training no doubt could do more to sensitize educators to these stresses and even help them identify personal biases that diminish their effectiveness. Also, many of these more vulnerable couples have increased risks owing to rapid relationship development (Sassler et al., 2012) and the formation of inertia for remaining together prior to the development of a mutual commitment to building a future together (Stanley et al., 2020). Such conditions of relationship development likely lead to an increased percentage of relationships where the partners are asymmetrically committed (Stanley et al., 2017). ...
This article systematically reviewed 34 rigorous evaluation studies of couple relationship education (CRE) programs from 2010 to 2019 that met the criteria for Level 1 well‐established interventions. Significant advances include reaching more diverse and disadvantaged target populations with positive intervention effects on a wider range of outcomes beyond relationship quality, including physical and mental health, coparenting, and even child well‐being, and evidence that high‐risk couples often benefit the most. In addition, considerable progress has been made delivering effective online CRE, increasing services to individuals rather than to couples, and giving greater attention to youth and young adults to teach them principles and skills that may help them form healthy relationships. Ongoing challenges include expanding our understanding of program moderators and change mechanisms, attending to emerging everyday issues facing couples (e.g., healthy breaking ups, long‐distance relationships) and gaining increased institutional support for CRE.
... Although a few US-based studies have examined the subsequent timing of sexual involvement, relationship quality, and other relationship dynamics 34 , to our knowledge, no SSA studies have looked at the association between early sex and later partner traits. Potential qualitative research could provide further insights on how partnering occurs and whether partner selection is influenced by attributes of the first sex partner. ...
Sex at an early age can have later life negative health outcomes. Insights on early sexual activity may help in the development of future health-promotion products and interventions related to pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) prevention. Among Kenyan women participating in a contraceptive vaginal ring study, we determined: (1) the proportion with first sex at ≤15 years (early sex) and (2) factors associated with early sex. Baseline data collection and testing for pregnancy, STIs, and HIV were undertaken. A log-binomial or a modified Poisson regression was used to estimate univariable prevalence ratios and multivariable adjusted prevalence ratios (aPRs). Among 332 women aged 18-34 years, the median age of first sex was 16 years, with 40.1% experiencing early sex. Overall, 29.8% reported an older first sex partner (≥5 years); 83.9% indicated lack of readiness or intentions at first sex; and 56.2% received money, gifts, or favors as part of first sex. Early sex was more prevalent among inherited widows (a Luo cultural practice, aPR 1.49), gift recipients (aPR 1.38), women with a forced/unwanted sex history (aPR 1.42), or those with a partner of unknown or positive HIV status in the past 3 months (aPR 1.45). Sex before or at the age 15 may be associated with higher sexual risk behaviors. Complex power and gender relations may additionally influence exposure to sexual risk in our research setting.
... The influence of SES on marriage and divorce patterns is the same in Denmark, Germany, Sweden, Finland, and other countries where it has been studied (Esping-Anderson, 2016;Jalovaara, 2002). Although the influence of SES has been documented most regularly with respect to legally recognized and socially defined forms of intimacy like marriage and divorce, SES has been shown to affect rates of entry into and exit from other forms of intimate partnerships (e.g., cohabitation) as well (e.g., Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012). ...
The ways that couples form and manage their intimate relationships at higher and lower levels of socioeconomic status (SES) have been diverging steadily over the past several decades. At higher SES levels, couples postpone marriage and childbirth to invest in education and careers, but they eventually marry at high rates and have relatively low risk for divorce. At lower SES levels, couples are more likely to cohabit and give birth prior to marriage and less likely to marry at all. This review examines how SES comes to be associated with the formation, development, and dissolution of intimate relationships. Overall, research has highlighted how a couple's socioeconomic context facilitates some choices and constrains others, resulting in different capacities for relationship maintenance and different adaptive mating strategies for more and less advantaged couples. A generalizable relationship science requires research that acknowledges these differences and one that recruits, describes, and attends to socioeconomic diversity across couples.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology, Volume 72 is January 4, 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... We have elsewhere argued that asymmetrical relationships are more likely to form and continue than in the past because young couples often engage in behaviors that promote what Glenn (2002) called premature entanglement (and Stanley et al. call inertia) based on the speed of transitions and the development of constraints on life options (cf. Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012;Stanley et al., 2006Stanley et al., , 2017. An implication of this is that therapists are likely to see more couples now-particularly among unmarried couples in serious, ongoing relationships-in which one or both partners have not fully chosen the path they / 227 are on while each had all their options open. ...
This study examined characteristics of individuals that are associated with being in asymmetrically committed relationships (ACRs), defined as romantic relationships in which there was a substantial difference in the commitment levels of the partners. These ACRs were studied in a national sample of unmarried, opposite-sex romantic relationships (N = 315 couples). Perceiving oneself as having more potential alternative partners was associated with increased odds of being the less committed partner in an ACR compared to not being in an ACR, as was being more attachment avoidant, having more prior relationship partners, and having a history of extradyadic sex during the present relationship. Additionally, having parents who never married was associated with being the less committed partner in an ACR but parental divorce was not. Although fewer characteristics were associated with being the more committed partner within an ACR, more attachment anxiety was associated with increased odds of being in such a position compared to not being in an ACR. We also address how some findings change when controlling for commitment levels. Overall, the findings advance understanding of commitment in romantic relationships, particularly when there are substantial asymmetries involved. Implications for both research on asymmetrical commitment as well as practice (e.g., therapy or relationship education) are discussed.
© 2018 Family Process Institute.
... Research has shown that early timing of first sex is associated with a greater number of recent and lifetime partners, increased risk of both STI/STDs and unintended pregnancy, and variations in romantic relationship quality outcomes (e.g., commitment, intimacy, emotional support) in adulthood (Harden, 2012;Heywood, Patrick, Smith, & Pitts, 2015;O'Donnell et al., 2001;Sandfort, Orr, Hirsch, & Santelli, 2008;Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012;Upchurch, Mason, Kusunoki, & Kriechbaum, 2004;Vasilenko, Kugler, & Rice, 2016). However, the majority of this research has focused only on vaginal sex initiation, neglecting to consider whether other types of sexual behavior, including oral-genital and anal sex, and the sequence and spacing of such behaviors, have implications for later health outcomes. ...
The goal of this study was to examine, in a nationally representative sample, relationships between various sexual initiation patterns, subsequent sexual partnerships, and related health outcomes from adolescence through early adulthood. Data were from a subset of 6587 respondents from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. Bivariate analyses and adjusted logistic and ordinary least squares regression models were used to determine associations between membership in three sexual initiation classes, lifetime sexual partner counts, and multiple health outcomes, including lifetime sexually transmitted infection or disease (STI/STD) diagnosis, lifetime unintended pregnancy, and romantic relationship quality. Broadly, having fewer lifetime sexual partners was associated with lower odds of STI/STD diagnosis and unintended pregnancy, and better relationship quality; however, findings also indicated both within and between sexual initiation class differences in the relationship between lifetime sexual partners and all three health outcomes. In particular, results showed little variation in health outcomes by sexual partnering among those who postponed sexual activity, but members of the class characterized by early and atypical sexual initiation patterns who had fewer lifetime partners exhibited better health outcomes than most other initiation groups. These results show that while both sexual initiation and partnering patterns add important information for understanding sexual health from adolescence to early adulthood, partnering may be more relevant to these sexual health outcomes. Findings indicate a need for more comprehensive sexuality education focused on sexual risk reduction and promotion of relationship skills among adolescents and adults.
... Fourth, having multiple premarital sexual relationships is associated with a greater risk of subsequent divorce (Teachman, 2003). Fifth, early entrance into sex and cohabitation in adult couples is predictive of lower relationship quality in marriage (Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012). Sixth, extramarital sex is predictive of psychological distress (Carpenter, 2012) and divorce (DeMaris, 2013). ...
The purpose of the present study was to present theological, philosophical, and psychological arguments for chastity as a virtue, and then test an empirical model linking religiosity to outcomes by way of values about chastity. Specifically, we tested a mediation model linking religiosity to outcomes via chastity values (beliefs about the importance of waiting until marriage to have sex and importance of sex within marriage as a bonding experience). This model was tested with a sample of single young adults (4,188) and a sample of married adults (2,531). Among single young adults, religiosity positively predicted abstinence beliefs, and abstinence beliefs negatively predicted unhappiness, risk taking, and risky sex. Among married adults, religiosity positively predicted both chastity values (i.e., importance of waiting until marriage to have sex and importance of sex within marriage as a bonding experience), while, in turn, both chastity values were positively linked to sexual frequency and sexual satisfaction, but only belief in marital sex as bonding was positively related to sexual satisfaction. Differences across religious affiliation were also discussed (comparing Catholics, Protestants, Latter-Day Saints, and those with no religious affiliation). We conclude that one way religious communities may promote chastity and positive psychosocial functioning is by teaching chastity values and providing structures to motivate and enable people to live consistently with them.
... Many scholars have noted a unique STEM-specific process that creates more obstacles to maintaining a work-family balance for women in STEM than for women in business (Gunter and Stambach 2005;Williams and Ceci 2012). Part of the reason why STEM employment is less conducive to family formation than employment in business is that male STEM workers are more gender conventional compared to men in other professions (Sassler, Addo, and Lichter 2012;Glass et al. 2013). Figure A-2 shows that women make up about 35% of the STEM workforce, but about half of the business workforce. ...
BACKGROUND
Field of study may influence the timing of transitions to the labor market, marriage, and parenthood among college graduates. Research to date has yet to study how field of study is associated with the interweaving of these transitions in the USA.
OBJECTIVE
The current study examines gendered influences of college field of study on transitions to a series of adult roles, including full-time work, marriage, and parenthood.
METHODS
We use Cox proportional hazards models and multinomial logistic regression to examine gendered associations between field of study and the three transitions among college graduates of the NLSY97 (National Longitudinal Survey of Youth) cohort.
RESULTS
Men majoring in STEM achieve early transitions to full-time work, marriage, and parenthood; women majoring in STEM show no significant advantage in finding full-time work and delayed marriage and childbearing; women in business have earlier transitions to full-time work and marriage than women in other fields, demonstrating an advantage similar to that of men in STEM.
CONCLUSIONS
The contrast between men and women in STEM shows that transition to adulthood remains gendered; the contrast between women in STEM and women in business illustrates that a prestigious career may not necessarily delay family formation.
... In this paper, we explore how the division of household labor is associated with couples' sexual frequency and satisfaction in the early years of the 21 st century compared to couples initially surveyed 20 years earlier. Data are from the second wave of the NSFH and The Marital and Relationship Survey (MARS), a survey collected in 2006 from a sample of low-to moderate-income couples with a minor child living in the home (Lichter & Carmalt, 2009;Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012). We limit the NSFH2 sample to be comparable with the MARS sample, and construct measures that both replicate those of prior studies and diverge in important ways that we suggest better reflect behavioral outcomes. ...
Although contemporary couples increasingly express preferences for egalitarian unions, previous research has suggested that sexual intimacy decreases when routine housework is shared. Yet this research was conducted on data that are decades old. To update this work, the authors compared data from the 2006 Marital and Relationship Survey (MARS) and Wave 2 of the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH2), collected in 1992-1994. The results indicated change in the association between housework arrangements and sexual intimacy across surveys. Although egalitarian arrangements were associated with lower sexual frequency compared to conventional arrangements in the NSFH2, no such difference was found in the MARS. In fact, reported sexual frequency increased across surveys among egalitarian couples only. In addition, how housework was arranged mattered more for sexual satisfaction among MARS couples than NSFH2 couples. These changes appear to result from the increasing role of perceived equity as a mechanism linking the division of housework to sex.
... Specifically, participants were recruited from a largely rural area of the United States, and the majority of the sample was White, high school educated, and from a working-class background. Although theory suggests that individuals' social identities shape their beliefs about normative sexuality (Fahs & Swank, 2011), some researchers have detected significant differences across social identities (e.g., Henderson-King & Veroff, 1994;Rao & DeMaris, 1995;Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012), whereas others report less variation (e.g., Call et al., 1995;Christopher & Sprecher, 2000). Given these inconsistent findings, future studies should examine whether the current pattern of results is consistent across ethnic, educational, and class lines. ...
We examined the interplay between husbands' and wives' positive and negative nonsexual interpersonal behaviors, frequency of sexual intercourse, sexual satisfaction, and feelings of marital satisfaction. To do this, we conducted an in-depth face-to-face interview and completed a series of telephone diaries with 105 couples during their second, third, and fourteenth years of marriage. Consistent with the argument that women's sexual response is tied to intimacy (Basson, 2000), multilevel analyses revealed that husbands' positive interpersonal behaviors directed toward their wives-but not wives' positivity nor spouses' negative behaviors (regardless of gender)-predicted the frequency with which couples engaged in intercourse. The frequency of sexual intercourse and interpersonal negativity predicted both husbands' and wives' sexual satisfaction; wives' positive behaviors were also tied to husbands' sexual satisfaction. When spouses' interpersonal behaviors, frequency of sexual intercourse, and sexual satisfaction were considered in tandem, all but the frequency of sexual intercourse were associated with marital satisfaction. When it comes to feelings of marital satisfaction, therefore, a satisfying sex life and a warm interpersonal climate appear to matter more than does a greater frequency of sexual intercourse. Collectively, these findings shed much-needed light on the interplay between the nonsexual interpersonal climate of marriage and spouses' sexual relationships.
... 5. Three of our variables are single-item measures: sexual satisfaction, satisfaction with the division of household labor, and our dependent variable, marital satisfaction. Despite being criticized, these same single-item measures have been frequently used in prior research (Addo & Sassler, 2010;Carlson, Miller, Sassler, & Hanson, 2014;Lichter & Carmalt, 2009;Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012;Yucel & Gassanov, 2010). 6. 'Having at least a college degree' is used as a proxy for high socioeconomic status (SES). ...
Using ecosystemic theory, we evaluated marital satisfaction among 501 married
individuals living in Northern Cyprus by analyzing socio-economic, attitudinal,
psychological, contextual, and relationship-specific factors. In addition, we tested
whether the correlates of marital satisfaction vary between men and women. Using
ordered logistic regression analysis, we found that relationship-specific indicators are
the most important correlates of marital satisfaction. Specifically, higher levels of
marital interaction and sexual satisfaction, no presence of physical and verbal
aggression, higher satisfaction with the division of household labor, and better
communication with one’s spouse are significantly and positively correlated with
higher marital satisfaction. In addition, respondents who were born in Northern
Cyprus report higher marital satisfaction compared to immigrants, whereas those who
have been married at least once before and those with poor mental health report
significantly lower marital satisfaction. When we test differences in the correlates of
marital satisfaction between males and females, the results suggest that among women
only, native North Cypriots report higher marital satisfaction than immigrants do.
... p < .05). It is worth noting that the negative coefficient for men is inconsistent with the prior research (e.g., Sassler, Addo, & Lichter, 2012); this finding may represent sampling variability or could represent a gender difference specific to young adults. Additional analyses indicated that the negative effect of gender on relationship quality primarily applied to nonengaged male cohabitors. ...
This research examines whether being engaged and having a joint banking account influence relationship quality among cohabitors. Drawing on interviews with 936 young cohabitors from Wave III of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we estimated ordinary least squares regression of relationship quality on joint banking and engagement. The main effects of joint banking and engagement on relationship quality were both significant and positive, but their interaction was negative. These results indicated that nonengaged cohabitors with joint banking have levels of relationship quality similar to engaged cohabitors, but are advantaged relative to those who are neither engaged nor share a joint bank account. The results suggest the need for increased attention to joint-banking arrangements in cohabitation.
... Even when marriage is not immediately on the horizon, twentysomethings who take their relationships seriously, and do not rush into romance, will do better by themselves and their partners. 63 They will also be less likely to accumulate a history of failed relationships, and the attendant emotional baggage, that undercuts their odds of forging a good marriage in the future. 64 The broader culture should respect the choice of twentysomethings to marry, especially those who have reached their midtwenties, provided that they are in a good relationship. ...
Procreation is the ultimate public goods problem. Each new child affects the welfare of many other people, and some (but not all) children produce uncompensated value that future people will enjoy. This essay addresses challenges that arise if we think of procreation and parenting as public goods. These include whether procreation creates a free-rider problem (given the burdens and benefits of raising children), whether private choices are likely to lead to a socially desirable outcome, and whether changes in political institutions or social norms might improve things.
... They may also result from distinct patterns of relationship formation. For example, sexual involvement occurs more rapidly among minority than white couples, which may elevate the risk of conception, reduce relationship quality, and affect subsequent union transitions (Sassler, Addo, and Lichter, 2012). ...
The majority of U.S. nonmarital births today are to cohabiting couples. This study focuses on transitions to cohabitation or marriage among pregnant unmarried women during the period between conception and birth. Results using the newly-released 2006-2010 National Survey of Family Growth show that nonmarital pregnancy is a significant precursor to cohabitation before childbirth (18 percent), exceeding transitions to marriage (5 percent) by factor of over three. For pregnant women, the boundaries between singlehood, cohabitation, and marriage are highly fluid. The results also reveal substantial variation in post-conception cohabiting and marital unions; e.g., disproportionately low percentages of black single and cohabiting women transitioned into marriage, even when conventional social and economic risk factors are controlled. The multivariate analyses also point to persistent class differences in patterns of family formation, including patterns of cohabitation and marriage following conception. Poorly educated women, in particular, are much more likely to become pregnant as singles living alone or as partners in cohabiting unions. But compared with college-educated women, pregnancies are less likely to lead to either cohabitation or marriage. This paper highlights the conceptual and technical challenges involved in making unambiguous interpretations of nonmarital fertility during a period of rising nonmarital cohabitation.
... In fact, several studies have shown that premarital sex is associated with negative outcomes. Rapidly formed sexual relationships are associated with quick formation of cohabitation units that have a lower quality and higher disruption rate in comparison to marital unions; the former therefore leads to poorer marital outcomes (Sassler et al. 2012; Sassler 2004). Moreover, cohabiting couples are more negative, less cohesive, and have poor problem-solving and communication abilities (Cohan and Kleinbaum 2004). ...
Masturbation is the stimulation of sexual organs usually to the point of orgasm with an essential autoerotic component. Due to the high prevalence of this sexual behavior, it was and still is a matter of debate if masturbation is a normal action without any side effects and even if it is advantageous or it is associated with side effects necessitating public education how to avoid it. In addition, it is a common question if masturbation is religiously lawful or not. In this study, I assess the results of scientific studies about this sexual behavior and also shed some light on the Islam’s view about it.
... They may also result from distinct patterns of relationship formation. For example, sexual involvement occurs more rapidly among minority than white couples, which may elevate the risk of conception, reduce relationship quality, and affect subsequent union transitions (Sassler et al., 2012). Finally, the relationship context of nonmarital fertility is decidedly different between college-educated pregnant women and less educated women (panel 3, Table 4). ...
This paper provides new estimates of changing patterns of serial cohabitation, using data from the 1995 and 2002 National Survey of Family Growth. Serial cohabitation is defined as having multiple premarital cohabiting relationships. Analyses indicate that rates of serial cohabitation increased by nearly 40 percent over the late 1990s and early 2000s, and rates were especially high among young adults and recent marriage cohorts. A large majority of women – 75 percent – nevertheless lived only with men they eventually married. Although rates of serial cohabitation are higher among never-married women than ever-married women, there is little indication that single women – even older single women – have embraced serial cohabitation as an alternative to marriage or even as an intensive kind of dating. The results show that serial cohabitation is heavily concentrated among disadvantaged populations (e.g., women who grew up in single parent families). Early sexual activity and teen childbearing are especially important “risk” factors for serial cohabitation in the never-married population. There is little evidence, however, that recent shifts in the sociodemographic risk profile of the US population have been responsible for observed increases in single-instance or serial cohabitation. Increases in serial cohabitation have been broadly experienced across population groups in America.
We posit that evaluators of relationship education interventions can explore a policy relevant outcome by assessing relationship stability and conflict in a single index that is based on the literature on the effects of divorce and marital distress on children. We provide an empirical example from a randomized trial. The U.S. Administration for Children and Families funds community‐based projects using relationship education with a foundational goal of fostering stable and healthy relationships. Assessing this outcome requires an approach different from separately analyzing stability and relationship quality. We used data (N = 1,156 couples) from a randomized trial of Family Expectations to test the Stable Low‐Conflict Index, comparing couples assigned to the intervention to couples assigned to an untreated control group at a follow‐up 8 to 9 months postintervention. Intervention couples were more likely to be in a stable, low‐conflict relationship at the follow up than control couples (b = .36, SE = .15, odds ratio = 1.44, p = .014). An index based on empirical precedence showed evidence of an intervention impact in a community‐based program. Evaluators of family policy linked interventions may advance the field by exploring outcomes that encapsulate aspects of both relationship stability and quality.
Relative to other species, human females invest considerable effort in attracting and retaining mates. Stroll the aisles of any bookstore and you may come across titles such as “Get the guy: Learn secrets of the male mind to find the man you want and the love you deserve” (Hussey, 2014), and “Texts so good he can't ignore: Sassy texting secrets for attracting high-quality men” (Bryans, 2018). A desire to attract and retain mates underlies diverse facets of women’s psychology and behavior, including displaying or enhancing aspects of one’s personality and physical appearance. Not surprisingly, these efforts correspond with men’s mate preferences. Human males are unique in their relative choosiness surrounding their mates, especially within the context of long-term pair-bonding. Look further in that bookstore aisle and you might come across a title such as “The man's handbook for choosing the right woman” (Daniels, 2009). In this chapter, we examine the theoretical rationale underlying female intersexual selection. We begin with a discussion of the theory underlying human mate choice, highlighting why men’s choosiness has been selected for, and why this compels women to exert effort toward attracting men. We then discuss specific characteristics of men’s short-term and long-term mate choice, and the multitude of tactics women utilize to better embody those traits. We describe preliminary evidence surrounding how intersexual selection may have shaped some phenotypic traits in women as costly signals of underlying fertility or immunocompetence. Finally, we discuss both individual and contextual differences among women in their mating effort and provide suggestions for future research directions aimed at further understanding how intersexual selection has shaped women’s mating psychology.
Objective
This study compared the relationship quality of US midlife adults in dating, living apart together (LAT) relationships, cohabitation, and marriage.
Background
Unmarried partnerships are gaining ground in midlife but how these partnerships compare to each other and to marriage is unclear. From an incomplete institutionalization perspective, those in unmarried relationships, especially LAT relationships but also cohabitations, face challenges due to unclear relationship norms and expectations, which may eventuate in poorer relationship quality than that of the married. Alternatively, cohabitation and, by extension, LAT relationships offer flexibility and autonomy and thus may function as an alternative to marriage marked by comparable relationship quality.
Method
Data were drawn from the 2013 Families and Relationships Survey, a nationally representative survey of US adults. The analytic sample was composed of adults aged 50–65 in a partnership (N = 2166). Multivariable models compared the associations between relationship type (dating, LAT, cohabiting, and married) and relationship quality (happiness, support, commitment, disagreement, and instability).
Results
The incomplete institutionalization perspective was supported for LATs, who tended to report poorer relationship quality than marrieds. For cohabitors, this perspective received mixed support. Although cohabitors reported less happiness and commitment than marrieds, which aligned with the incomplete institutionalization perspective, the groups did not differ on relationship support, disagreement, or instability, supporting the cohabitation as an alternative to marriage perspective. Dating, LAT, and cohabiting relationships were remarkably alike.
Conclusion
This study has implications for understanding the shifting landscape of relationships in midlife which in turn may shape individual health and well-being.
The ability to conceptualize and treat sexual problems has been widely accepted as a crucial skill to master the MFT training. However, clients’ sexual relationships are often ignored by clinicians because of a lack of experience or training, or personal discomfort. In this content analysis, we review sex and sex therapy research within MFT and family studies journals since the turn of the century. Of the 13,919 articles published within the 15 journals, 137 focused on sexuality or sex therapy. The articles were divided into five themes: sexual and relational health, sexual diversity, treatment and contributors of sexual dysfunction, sex therapy practices, and sexual education and development. Implications for clinical practices, sex therapy integration, and future research are discussed.
Using data from the 2010 Married and Cohabiting Couples survey, this study tests the correlates of relationship satisfaction among 752 married couples and 323 cohabiting couples, using the social exchange framework and the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM). Specifically, it considers how conflict in work-family balance, fairness in the division of paid and unpaid work at home, and prior relationship history are associated with relationship satisfaction. Dyadic data analysis with structural equation modeling is used to determine the respective contributions of each respondent’s predictors (i.e., actor effects) and his/her spouse’s or partner’s predictors (i.e., partner effects). No gender differences in actor and partner effects emerge, yet the actor and partner effects remain distinct for both groups. Fairness in the division of paid and unpaid work at home, as well as less conflict in balancing work and family responsibilities, act as rewards for both married and cohabiting couples. Prior relationship history does not have any significant actor effects for either group, but the partner effects are significant for cohabiting couples. Some of these results suggest that relationship dynamics differ between married and cohabiting couples. Specifically, the negative partner effects of both prior relationship history and conflict in work-family balance on relationship satisfaction are significantly stronger among cohabiting couples than among married couples.
The authors examine factors associated with the advancement or dissolution of newly formed sexual relationships. Data from the 2006-2010 National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) was used to examine women and men aged 18-39 (n = 2,774) whose most recent sexual relationship began within the 12 months before their interview. Results indicate that newly formed sexual relationships are often transitory. By 12 months, only 23% of respondents remained in nonresidential sexual relationships, another 27% were cohabiting with that partner, and half had ended their relationships. Sexual relationships formed before age 25 are significantly more likely to break up than to transition into cohabitation. Indicators of social class disadvantage, such as living with a stepparent, expedited cohabitation, whereas measures of advantage, such as having a college-educated mother, deterred transitions into shared living. Racial differences also emerge: Blacks were less likely than Whites to transition rapidly into shared living.
Using data from the nationally representative 2010 Married and Cohabiting Couples Survey of different-sex cohabiting and married couples, we compared the relationship quality of today’s cohabitors and marrieds. Consistent with diffusion theory and recent conceptual work on the deinstitutionalization of marriage, we found that the relationship between union type and relationship quality is now bifurcated with direct marrieds reporting the highest relationship quality and cohabitors without marriage plans reporting the lowest marital quality. In the middle were the two largest groups: marrieds who premaritally cohabited and cohabitors with plans to marry. These two groups did not differ in terms of relationship quality. This study adds to the growing literature indicating that the role of cohabitation in the family life course is changing in the contemporary context.
Claimed rights to sexual expression unlinked to the creation of children are among the strongest challenges facing the free exercise of religion in the United States today. Such rights gained importance by means of a series of Supreme Court opinions associating consensual sexual expression unlinked to children with human dignity and even personal identity. These were accompanied by legal and cultural movements, led by more privileged Americans, diminishing children's rights in favor of adults', in the context of sex, marriage, and parenting. Laws and regulations protecting and promoting sexual expression detached from children are powerfully affecting religious institutions that operate health care, educational, and social services available to all Americans; the Catholic Church is a particularly prominent supplier of all of these services. Respecting the Catholic Church, it is possible but quite difficult to maintain respect for its free exercise of religion in the current environment, potentially by highlighting its measurable contributions to the common good. It might also be useful to show the close link between Catholic teachings on sex and marriage and the entire Catholic cosmology, such that coercing Catholics to behave otherwise is tantamount to coercing them to practice a different faith.
This chapter is an overview of how scholars of the family and of sexuality approach the family as an institution. It discusses the main theoretical perspectives and methods used by family scholars to study the role of the family in the organization and expression of sexuality and reproduction. The chapter provides a review of literature that examines the effect of various family structures on the sexual behavior and expression of family members. Information is provided about changing cultural norms and statistics regarding premarital sex, divorce, cohabitation, delayed childbearing, nonmarital childbearing, and same-sex relationships.
Life for emerging adults is vastly different today than it was for their counterparts even a generation ago. Young people are waiting longer to marry, to have children, and to choose a career direction. As a result, they enjoy more freedom, opportunities, and personal growth than ever before. But the transition to adulthood is also more complex, disjointed, and confusing. This book draws on 230 in-depth interviews with a broad cross-section of emerging adults (ages between eighteen and twenty-three) to investigate the difficulties young people face today, the underlying causes of those difficulties, and the consequences both for individuals and for American society as a whole. Rampant consumer capitalism, ongoing failures in education, hyper-individualism, postmodernist moral relativism, and other aspects of American culture are all contributing to the chaotic terrain that emerging adults must cross. The book identifies five major problems facing very many young people today: confused moral reasoning, routine intoxication, materialistic life goals, regrettable sexual experiences, and disengagement from civic and political life. The trouble does not lie only with the emerging adults or their poor individual decisions but has much deeper roots in mainstream American culture-a culture which emerging adults have largely inherited rather than created. Older adults, the book argues, must recognize that much of the responsibility for the pain and confusion young people face lies with them. Rejecting both sky-is-falling alarmism on the one hand and complacent disregard on the other, the book suggests the need for what it calls "realistic concern"-and a reconsideration of our cultural priorities and practices-that will help emerging adults more skillfully engage unique challenges they face.
Monitoring sexual activity and contraceptive use among U.S. adolescents is important for understanding differences in their risk of pregnancy. In 2013, the U.S. birth rate for teenagers aged 15-19 dropped 57% from its peak in 1991 (1), paralleling a decline in the teen pregnancy rate (1-2). But these rates are still higher than those in other developed countries (3-4). Using data from the 1988 to 2011-2013 National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG), this report provides trends and recent national estimates of sexual activity, contraceptive use, and childbearing among teenagers aged 15-19.
All material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission; citation as to source, however, is appreciated.
Rapid and widespread changes in relationship formation and dissolution over the past 50 years have revealed new patterns in romantic and sexual relationships, particularly among emerging adults. In this study, grounded theory methods were used to investigate the role of one such pattern, stayovers, in the development of romantic relationships among 22 college students and college graduates. The results indicated that some young couples stay overnight between three and seven nights per week while living in separate homes. This arrangement functioned as a comfortable and convenient alternative to forming more lasting, and therefore riskier, commitments such as full-time cohabitation and marriage. Stayovers served as a stopgap measure between casual dating and making more formal commitments.
This study uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to determine what aspects of parental involvement are related to sexual initiation, whether parental involvement explains the association between family structure and sexual debut, and whether these relationships differ among boys and girls or among non-Latino/a white, African American, and Latino/a adolescents. Results indicate that among young women and non-Latino/a white adolescents, four aspects of parental involvement - shared dinnertime, participation in shared activities, relationship quality, and communication about sex - are significantly and independently related to sexual initiation. When these young people have positive relationships with their parents, share mealtimes, and participate in shared activities, they are less likely to initiate sex. With a few exceptions, these parenting practices are not related to sexual debut among young men or African American and Latino/a adolescents. Findings also suggest that parental involvement does not mediate the association between family structure and sexual debut; rather, these aspects of adolescents' family lives are independently related to adolescent sexual initiation. © 2006 by Pacific Sociological Association. All rights reserved.
This study examined the association between family structure history and adolescent romance. Using a national sample drawn from Add Health (N= 13,570), family structure at Wave I was associated with the likelihood that adolescents were involved in a romantic relationship at Wave II and, among those in a relationship, the number of relationships they had since Wave I. Cumulative family instability and its timing were also associated with these outcomes and largely drove the family structure effects. Gender and age interactions suggest that experiences of family instability were more consequential to the romantic lives of boys and younger teens.
Using 3 subsamples of remarried respondents (n =1,583, 971, and 926) in the first wave of the National Survey of Families and Households, this study investigates how different types of cohabitation, especially postdivorce cohabitation, affect the timing and quality of remarriage in the United States. Ordinary Least Squares regression analysis indicates that postdivorce cohabitation in general and postdivorce cohabitation with multiple partners in particular delay remarriage. Furthermore, echoing previous research findings on the relationship between premarital cohabitation and relationship quality, the ordered logistic analysis shows that postdivorce cohabitation with a spouse is associated with lower levels of remarital happiness, and postdivorce cohabitation of all types tends to be associated with higher levels of remarital instability. Implications of these findings are briefly discussed.
Research has extensively examined matching on race and other characteristics in cohabitation and marriage, but it has generally
disregarded sexual and romantic relationships. Using data from the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth and the National
Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we examine the tempo of key transitions in the recent relationships of young adults
ages 18–24. We focus on how the racial mix of partners in relationships is associated with the timing of sex, cohabitation
and marriage. We find evidence that relationships between white men and minority women proceed more rapidly from romance to
sexual involvement and from sexual involvement to cohabitation compared to relationships involving other racial combinations.
Our findings have important implications for social exchange perspectives on mate selection.
This book tells the definitive story of the sexual and relationship values and practices of young adults. The authors draw upon their analysis of nationally representative data and scores of in-person interviews to help shed light on numerous questions about the sex lives of young Americans, including how long their relationships last, how quickly they become sexual, why the double standard is so stubborn, who remains a virgin and for how long, how gender imbalances in college change the rules of mating, the "price" of sex and its effects on relationship security, how online social networking and porn alter the market in relationships, how emerging adults think about marriage and relationship permanence, who marries early, why the age at marriage is rising rapidly, and how "red" and "blue" politics are reflected in our sexual choices. This book reveals striking disparities between college students and those who never pursued higher education, between conservatives and liberals, and between men and women in their experiences of romantic and sexual relationships. Although women continue to make great strides in higher education and the economy, their relationships are stalling and making many of them unhappy. Quests for sexual chemistry fall short or even backfire, revealing discordant experiences with serial monogamy among many men and women. And yet the powerful scripts of sexual equality and romantic individualism propel emerging adults forward to try again. The result is an omnibus study of sex and relationships in the lives of heterosexual emerging adults in America.
Explanations for the risks associated with premarital and nonmarital cohabitation (e.g., higher Fates of breakup and divorce, lower relationship satisfaction, and greater risk for violent interaction) have focused on levels of conventionality, including attitudes about commitment to the institution of marriage. However, relatively little attention has been paid to the role of interpersonal, not institutional, commitment. In a national random sample (United States), Premarital and nonmarital cohabitation were associated with lower levels of interpersonal commitment to partners, suggesting links to further understanding of risk in these relationships. Premarital cohabitation was particularly associated with less committed and less religious males. Prior findings associating cohabitation with lower levels of happiness and religiosity, and higher levels of negative interaction (for men) were replicated.
This study investigated the extent to which reports of marital problems in 1980 predicted divorce between 1980 and 1992, the extent to which these problems mediated the impact of demographic and life course variables on divorce, and gender differences in reports of particular marital problems and in the extent to which these reports predicted divorce. Wives reported more marital problems than husbands did, although this was due to husbands' tendency to report relatively few problems caused by their spouses. A variety of marital problems predicted divorce up to 12 years in the future. A parsimonious set of marital problems involving infidelity, spending money foolishly, drinking or drug use or both, jealousy, moodiness, and irritating habits mediated moderate proportions of the associations between demographic and life course variables and divorce.
We examined the subjective processes by which premarital partners (n = 113) become more or less committed to wed over time. Two commitment processes were identified. In relationship-driven commitments, commitment evolved smoothly with few reversals. To explain changes in commitment, partners focused on their interaction and activities with one another and with their joint network and on positive beliefs about the relationship and about network members. Event-driven commitments had more extreme changes in commitment, with sharp downturns alternating with sharp upturns. Partners attributed changes to episodes of self-disclosure and conflict, negative relationship beliefs, separate interaction with network members, and negative network beliefs. On several measures, event-driven partners reported more negative relationship experiences and were less compatible. Yet the two groups did not differ on love or other indicators of involvement. The implications of the two processes for marital decisions are discussed.
Using data from the young and mature women samples of the National Longitudinal Survey, this paper examines how the determinants of divorce (and separation) vary by the duration of marriage. In general, we find little evidence that the strength of previously identified predictors of divorce varies by marital duration. Variables such as race, wife's labor force participation, husband's employment, and urban residence seem to influence the probability of divorce, irrespective of the stage in the marital life course. The principal exception to this finding is the effect of wife's education, which appears to decrease the probability of divorce at early marital durations but to increase it at later durations. There is also suggestive evidence that the effects of home ownership and age at marriage may vary by marital duration.
This study uses national longitudinal data to explain the intergenerational transmission of divorce. Parental divorce is associated with an increased risk of offspring divorce, especially when wives and both spouses have experienced the dissolution of their parents' marriage. Offspring age at marriage, cohabitation, socioeconomic attainment, and prodivorce attitudes mediate modest proportions of the estimated effect of parental divorce. In contrast, a measure of interpersonal behavior problems mediates the largest share of the association. The findings suggest that parental divorce elevates the risk of offspring divorce by increasing the likelihood that offspring exhibit behaviors that interfere with the maintenance of mutually rewarding intimate relationships.
Within a sample of 51 middle-aged wives, a strong correlation was found between length of time spent dating their current spouses and current marital satisfaction. At the same time, correlations between marital satisfaction and age at marriage and number of break-ups during the dating period were not significant. A heterogeneous dispersion of residuals was detected such that those who dated only a short period of time provided a much wider range of responses for marital satisfaction than those who dated a longer time. Thus, a longer period of dating was associated with a higher probability of a happy marriage but did not appear to be a necessary condition. Implications for premarital education are discussed.
The present study examined the connection between having sexual intercourse with a premarital partner for the first time and the effect on the subsequent relationship. This questionnaire study surveyed 447 college students concerning personal factors and characteristics of their relationships with their premarital partners. The results indicated that several factors were related to the effect on the relationship. Quality of the relationship as a sexual decision factor was the best predictor of positive effect on the relationship. Suggestions for research on premarital sexuality are discussed as well as implications for intervention programs in family life education and high school and university human sexuality programs, and with premarital couples.
This article uses couple-level data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N= 2,263) to investigate factors associated with unmarried parents’ expectations about marriage and the association between their expectations and subsequent union transitions. In most couples, both partners expect to marry, and their shared expectations are the strongest predictor of marriage and separation following their child's birth. Although men's expectations are somewhat more consequential for union transitions, marriage and relationship stability are more likely when at least one parent expects to marry. Factors such as children from previous relationships, distrust, conflict, and shared activities are also associated with union transitions. Findings about how expectations and other factors relate to marriage and separation may inform new marriage promotion initiatives.
Using cohort data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, this paper tracks the experiences of serial cohabitors. Results indicate that only a minority of cohabiting women (about 15% – 20%) were involved in multiple cohabitations. Serial cohabitations were overrepresented among economically disadvantaged groups, especially those with low income and education. They also were less likely than single-instance cohabiting unions to end in marriage rather than dissolve. If serial cohabitors married, divorce rates were very high — more than twice as high as for women who cohabited only with their eventual husbands. The results suggest the need to balance the government’s current preoccupation with marriage promotion with greater support of “at risk” unions that marriage promotion initiatives have helped create.
This study examines whether subjective or objective inequity in marriage is associated with later marital disruption. The sample of 1500 couples is from Waves 1 (1987—1988) and 2 (1992—1994) of the National Survey of Families and Households. The only subjective index of inequity associated with disruption is women's sense of being underbenefited, with greater underbenefit raising the risk of divorce. However, husbands' individual-level, as opposed to communal, orientation to the marriage also elevates the hazard of a break-up. Husbands' relative objective contributions to the relationship in the areas of freedom from disability, kinkeeping, domestic and paid labor, and organizational activities involving the children had either main or interactive effects on the risk of disruption.
This article is a review of the theory and recent literature on premarital relationship stability. First, current theories and models that have been used to explain the development of premarital relationships are discussed. Second, research since 1990 that focuses on the individual, dyadic, and social network factors that predict premarital relationship stability is presented. Third, we integrate the findings of the review into a commitment model and make some brief observations about theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues that must be addressed to further understand the development of premarital relationships.
The purpose of this study was to describe attributions about significant changes in involvement level during the course of permarital relationship development and dissolution. The Retrospective Interview Technique (RIT) (Fitzgerald & Surra, 1981) was employed to reconstruct, for 100 individuals, the history of serious, heterosexual, romantic relationships that had dissolved within the last twelve months. The average length of such relationships was 15.70 months. In all, 1,988 attributions were made concerning 797 significant turning points in these relationships. The attributions broke down as follows: 43 percent dyadic, 30 percent individual, 15 percent network, 12 percent circumstantial. Chi-square tests were conducted to test whether the distribution of the four types of attributions varied as a function of (1) stage of the relationship, (2) sign and magnitude of the change in the relationship, (3) gender and (4) initiator of the breakup of the relationship. Results indicate significant differences in the distributions of attributions for all four of these breakdowns. Discussion centres around the role of attributions in relationship development versus dissolution and around gender differences in romantic relationships.
This study examined the relationship between reasons given for changes in commitment, on the one hand, and the development of commitment and later marital satisfaction, on the other. Forty-one newlywed couples were interviewed to obtain graphs of changes in commitment during courtship and reasons for the changes, which were coded into fourteen categories. Four years later thirty-nine of the original participants completed a marital happiness questionnaire. Reasons involving intrapersonal norms were related to commitments formed rapidly. Reasons that concerned interaction with and attributions about the network were associated with dramatic changes in commitment, accelerated commitments, and lower marital satisfaction. Reasons involving alternative dating partners were connected to moderate changes in commitment; long, rocky courtships; and lower marital satisfaction. The association between dyadic reasons and the development of commitment was weak, although reasons that concerned agreement on stage of involvement, disclosure, and behavioural inter-dependence were related to marital happiness. We discuss two types of commitment processes, event-driven and relationship-driven, and their implications for marital outcomes.
Explanations for the risks associated with premarital and nonmarital cohabitation (e.g., higher rates of breakup and divorce, lower relationship satisfaction, and greater risk for violent interaction) have focused on levels of conventionality, including attitudes about commitment to the institution of marriage. However, relatively little attention has been paid to the role of interpersonal, not institutional, commitment. In a national random sample (United States), premarital and nonmarital cohabitation were associated with lower levels of interpersonal commitment to partners, suggesting links to further understanding of risk in these relationships. Premarital cohabitation was particularly associated with less committed and less religious males. Prior findings associating cohabitation with lower levels of happiness and religiosity, and higher levels of negative interaction (for men) were replicated.
As a result of the growth in out-of-wedlock childbearing and union instability, adults contemplating forming a new union are often already parents. This article examines the role of children in stepfamily formation, both coresident and not, using the 2,594 respondents in the National Survey of Families and Households who were not living with a partner in 1987/1988. We consider children of the respondent and of the partner, which allows us to examine the determinants of entering a stepfamily. We found that being a coresident father dramatically increases forming a union with a woman with children. Women’s coresidential children reduce women’s odds of forming unions with men who do not have children and increase them for unions with men who do.
In this paper, we examine the question of whether religion—affiliation, beliefs, and practice—provides a source of marital strength and stability in the lives of American couples. Unlike most previous studies, we focus on religion and marital quality among 433 low-income married couples with co-residential minor children, using recently collected survey data on both spouses sampled in the Marital and Relationship Survey (MARS). Our working hypothesis is that religiosity is a positive force for marital quality among low-income couples, and that a practicing faith can buffer the negative effects of economic stress on marital quality. The results indicate that most low-income couples have unexpectedly high scores on the various dimensions of marital quality (e.g., commitment, emotional support, etc.). Religious affiliation and personal religious beliefs are less important for marital quality than if couples share similar beliefs about God’s divine plans for them and their relationship, if they pray together, or if they attend religious services together. On the other hand, the stress-buffering hypothesis received little support in our analysis. At a minimum, the results clearly highlight the potential role of religion in the marital lives of low-income couples. The implication is that faith-based organizations (including churches and synagogues) may have a particularly strong role to play in nurturing the spiritual lives and enhancing the quality of the intimate marital relationships of their flocks.
We investigated 242 college students’ expectations about when sexual intercourse would first occur within different types of relationships. Participants reported their personal expectations, experiences, and beliefs about the sexual expectations of the “average woman” and “average man” in relationships with or without strong physical attraction and emotional involvement. Results show that, in general, men expect sexual intercourse after significantly fewer dates (approximately 9–11) than women do (approximately 15–18). In addition, expectations were related to actual experiences for women, but not men. Participants also tended to exhibit pluralistic ignorance about sex, believing in a norm for the average person of their gender that was considerably more permissive than were their own standards. The average man and woman were perceived as expecting sex earlier within a relationship and irrespective of physical attraction or emotional involvement. In contrast, most men and women only expected sex when they were attracted to a partner, although men were more likely than women to expect sex in the absence of emotional closeness. Implications of pluralistic ignorance and gender differences in sexual expectations are discussed.
Current research on the retreat from marriage emphasizes the economic underpinnings of family formation, especially among disadvantaged minorities. The paradox of Mexican American nuptiality is that first marriage rates among Mexican Americans are similar to those among Anglos, despite economic circumstances that closely approximate those of African Americans. Using event histories constructed from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, this study extends previous analyses by investigating the roles of both structural (e.g., pool of marriageable men) and cultural (e.g., familism) factors in the marriage transitions of 3,853 Mexican American, African American, and Anglo women. The results support three main conclusions. First, similarities are outweighed by differences in the marriage process across these groups. Second, cultural indicators do not explain group differences. Third, the unique aspects of the marriage process among Mexican Americans cannot be fully understood without taking their generational heterogeneity into account.
Using data from the 1987-88 National Survey of Families and Households, we found that couples who cohabited before marriage reported lower quality marriages, lower commitment to the institution of marriage, more individualistic views of marriage (wives only), and greater likelihood of divorce than couples who did not cohabit. Effects were generally stronger for those who had cohabited for longer periods before marriage. Social and economic characteristics accounted for the higher perceived likelihood of divorce among those who had cohabited less than a year; differences in marital quality and institutional commitment accounted for remaining effects of longer cohabitation, while marital individualism did not have significant effects on perceived likelihood of divorce.
Despite the burgeoning cohabitation literature, research has failed to examine social class variation in processes of forming and advancing such unions. Drawing upon in-depth interviews with 122 working- and middle-class cohabitors, we examine the duration between dating and moving in together, reasons for cohabiting, and subsequent plans. Transitions to cohabitation are more rapid among the working class. Respondents often cohabited for practical reasons-out of financial necessity, because it was convenient, or to meet a housing need. Regardless of social class status, few couples move in together as a "trial marriage." Nonetheless, middle-class cohabitors were more likely to have become engaged than their working-class counterparts. Our findings indicate the need to reassess common beliefs regarding the role served by cohabitation and suggest that cohabitation has become another location where family outcomes are diverging by social class.
This paper provides new estimates of changing patterns of serial cohabitation, using data from the 1995 and 2002 National Survey of Family Growth. Serial cohabitation is defined as having multiple premarital cohabiting relationships. Analyses indicate that rates of serial cohabitation increased by nearly 40 percent over the late 1990s and early 2000s, and rates were especially high among young adults and recent marriage cohorts. A large majority of women – 75 percent – nevertheless lived only with men they eventually married. Although rates of serial cohabitation are higher among never-married women than ever-married women, there is little indication that single women – even older single women – have embraced serial cohabitation as an alternative to marriage or even as an intensive kind of dating. The results show that serial cohabitation is heavily concentrated among disadvantaged populations (e.g., women who grew up in single parent families). Early sexual activity and teen childbearing are especially important “risk” factors for serial cohabitation in the never-married population. There is little evidence, however, that recent shifts in the sociodemographic risk profile of the US population have been responsible for observed increases in single-instance or serial cohabitation. Increases in serial cohabitation have been broadly experienced across population groups in America.
Substantial evidence indicates that marital dissolution has negative consequences for adult well-being. Because most research focuses on the average consequences of divorce, we know very little about factors that moderate this association. The present study tests the hypothesis that the effects of marital dissolution on adult well-being are greatest for those with young children in the home at the time of marital dissolution. Analysis of data from the National Survey of Families and Households (N= 4,811 men and women married at the baseline interview) supports this hypothesis, especially among women. For women without young children, marital dissolution appears to have few negative consequences for psychological well-being. Differential exposure to secondary stressors that accompany marital dissolution partly explains these patterns.
We investigate the link between premarital cohabitation and trajectories of subsequent marital quality using random effects growth curve models and repeated measures of marital quality from married women in the NLSY-79 (N = 3,598). We find that premarital cohabitors experience lower quality marital relationships on average, but this is driven by cohabitors with nonmarital births. Premarital cohabitors without nonmarital births report the same marital quality as women who did not cohabit before marriage. Nonmarital childbearing is more strongly associated with lower subsequent marital quality for White women than for Black or Hispanic women. Marital quality declines at similar rates for all couples regardless of cohabitation or nonmarital childbearing status. These findings are robust to numerous alternative model specifications.
This paper explores the relationship of family ties to the marital happiness of husbands and wives from intact and disrupted families of origin and to the likelihood that they will divorce by the 4th year of their marriage. Respondents were 199 Black and 173 White couples interviewed as part of the “Early Years of Marriage” study. Analyses showed differences in family connectedness according to whether the family of origin was disrupted, and some variations by race were also evident. Regression analyses revealed that among all spouses, but especially among wives from divorced families, increased closeness to their husbands' families predicted increased happiness in their marriages. Hazard models showed that when husbands' or wives' parents were divorced or separated, couples' closeness to the husbands' family reduced their risk of divorce. Findings are discussed in the context of family systems theory and gender roles related to the forging of links with kin networks.
I use qualitative interview data from a sample of 44 cohabiting couples who have children together to investigate how they view their unions and how the presence of children influences the meanings they attach to them. I find most cohabiting parents begin cohabiting in response to a pregnancy but do not believe they should stay in a relationship because of shared children. They view cohabitation as a practical response to parenthood that allows them to coparent and share expenses yet avoid the greater expectations of commitment, relationship quality, and more traditional and scripted family roles they associate with marriage. Cohabiting parents do not believe they should marry because they have a child together but value the symbolic aspects of marriage.
Using the Interpersonal Exchange Model of Sexual Satisfaction, we consider how infidelity, pornography consumption, marital satisfaction, sexual frequency, premarital sex, and cohabitation are associated with married couples’ sexual satisfaction. Data from 433 couples are analyzed with structural equation models to determine the contributions of (a) each respondent’s predictors (actor effects) and (b) his/her spouse’s predictors (partner effects). No gender differences in actor and partner effects emerge. Marital satisfaction and sexual frequency act as rewards and increase sexual satisfaction. A partner effect emerges for marital infidelity, suggesting that a spouse’s infidelity is costly for sexual satisfaction. Finally, some evidence suggests that pornography consumption is costly for own and spouse’s sexual satisfaction, especially when pornography is used by only one spouse.
Almost all our knowledge about cohabitation in the United States rests on analysis of nationally representative, large-scale surveys. We move beyond this work by drawing on 115 in-depth interviews with a sample of young men and women with recent cohabitation experience. These data allow us to address two issues of central interest to family studies. First, we use our qualitative data to assess the measurement of cohabitation in surveys and the census. We find that current measurement strategies are probably underestimating cohabitation, and we may need to find new ways to measure cohabitation. Second, we employ qualitative findings to address issues relating to how we empirically model union formation. We find that the movement into cohabitation is not akin to marriage. It is often not a deliberate decision. Couples do not appear to be deciding between cohabitation and marriage; rather, their decision seems to center around whether to remain single or cohabit. These results have important implications for our analysis and understanding of cohabitation.
This research investigates whether first sexual intercourse during adolescence is associated with increased risk of first marriage dissolution and tests whether the results are consistent with causal or selection explanations. Drawing on a sample of 3,793 ever-married women from the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth, this study estimated event-history models of first-marriage dissolution. Results indicate that wanted sexual debut in later adolescence does not directly increase the risk of marital dissolution but is linked indirectly as a result of subsequent premarital sexual outcomes. Sexual debut that is not completely wanted or that occurs before age 16 is associated with increased risk of marital dissolution. The results suggest that the timing and context of adolescent sexual debut have important implications for marital stability.
Drawing on longitudinal, qualitative interviews with parents in the Fragile Families Study, this paper examines the narrative frames through which partners in stable and unstable unions viewed tensions over economic issues, domestic responsibilities, personal problems, communication, trust, and their family and social networks. These interviews suggest that parents in stable unions framed tensions as manageable within the context of a relationship they perceived to be moving forward, whereas those in unstable unions viewed tensions as intolerable in relationships they considered volatile. Three years later, parents’ narrative frames generally guided their decisions about maintaining or dissolving relationship, but some parents changed their interpretations in response to unexpected positive or negative events, with important implications for union longevity.
Several studies have shown that many college women engage in unwanted sexual activity with a dating partner. However, little research has examined the differences between women who comply with requests for unwanted sexual activity and women who do not. This study utilized an attachment theory framework to investigate individual differences in women’s compliant sexual behavior. An ethnically diverse sample of 125 college women who had consented to unwanted sex with a current dating partner completed measures of their attachment style, commitment to their current relationship, perceptions of their partner’s commitment, and willingness to consent to unwanted sex in a hypothetical scenario. Results showed that attachment style and commitment perceptions were associated with women’s willingness to consent to unwanted sex with a dating partner in the hypothetical scenario and their reasons for this decision. As predicted, anxiously attached women were the most willing to consent to unwanted sex, and they often cited fears that their partner would lose interest in them as reasons for their compliance. Contrary to hypotheses, avoidantly attached women were not the least willing to consent to unwanted sex. They often reported passively complying with a partner’s sexual request in order to fulfill relationship obligations. The importance of sexuality to attachment formation in dating relationships and the potential consequences of consenting to unwanted sex are discussed.
Over one half of young adults have lived or will live with a partner before marriage. Many studies indicate that the majority of cohabitors plan to marry their partners, yet research examining relationship progression is rare. This article deciphers the processes underlying entrance into informal unions. Data are from 25 open-ended interviews with cohabitors who had lived together for at least 3 months. For many, the relationship progressed rapidly; over one half moved in with partners within 6 months of initiating romantic relationships. Primary reasons for cohabiting included finances, convenience, and housing needs; cohabiting as a trial marriage was not mentioned as the principal reason for moving in together. Plans for marriage remain abstract even when respondents determine that they and their partners are compatible.
Using detailed data on the childhood living arrangements of children taken from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG), the impact of multiple dimensions of parent histories on the likelihood of offspring divorce is investigated. Although past research is replicated by finding a positive impact of parental divorce on offspring divorce, the author also finds that living apart from both parents, irrespective of the reason, is associated with an increased risk of divorce. In particular, children who were born out of wedlock and who did not experience parental divorce or death experience a very high risk of marital disruption. However, neither the number of transitions in childhood living arrangements nor parental remarriage appear to substantially affect the risk of marital dissolution. Finally, variations in the timing of and circumstances surrounding marriage appear to mediate a substantial proportion of the effect of parent histories on offspring divorce.
The patterning of sexual interaction in male-female dyads and the links between sexual behavior and emotional intimacy were investigated as part of a two-year study of college dating couples. Despite generally permissive and egalitarian attitudes, traditional sexual role playing in which the man encourages intercourse and the woman limits the couple's sexual intimacy was common. Three types of couples were compared: sexual traditionalists who abstained from coitus, sexual moderates who had coitus only after emotional intimacy was established, and sexual liberals who had coitus prior to developing emotional intimacy. Findings are discussed in terms of the psychological meaning of sexual behavior for young adults.
Premarital cohabitation has consistently been found to be associated with increased risk for divorce and marital distress in the United States. Two explanations for this “cohabitation effect” are discussed: selection and experience. We present an empirically based view of how the experience of cohabitation may increase risk for relationship distress or divorce for some people beyond what is accounted for by selection. Specifically, using a commitment framework, we suggest that some couples who otherwise would not have married end up married because of the inertia of cohabitation. We discuss practice implications for relationship transitions that are characterized more by sliding than deciding, especially where a transition such as cohabitation increases inertia to remain in a relationship regardless of quality or fit.
Using nationally representative data from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth, I estimate the association between intimate premarital relationships (premarital sex and premarital cohabitation) and subsequent marital dissolution. I extend previous research by considering relationship histories pertaining to both premarital sex and premarital cohabitation. I find that premarital sex or premarital cohabitation that is limited to a woman's husband is not associated with an elevated risk of marital disruption. However, women who have more than one intimate premarital relationship have an increased risk of marital dissolution. These results suggest that neither premarital sex nor premarital cohabitation by itself indicate either preexisting characteristics or subsequent relationship environments that weaken marriages. Indeed, the findings are consistent with the notion that premarital sex and cohabitation limited to one's future spouse has become part of the normal courtship process for marriage.
Scientific study of marital satisfaction attracted widespread attention in the 1990s from scholars representing diverse orientations and goals. This article highlights key conceptual and empirical advances that have emerged in the past decade, with particular emphasis on (a) interpersonal processes that operate within marriage, including cognition, affect, physiology, behavioral patterning, social support, and violence; (b) the milieus within which marriages operate, including microcontexts (e.g., the presence of children, life stressors and transitions) and macrocontexts (e.g., economic factors, perceived mate availability); and (c) the conceptualization and measurement of marital satisfaction, including 2-dimensional, trajectory-based, and social-cognitive approaches. Notwithstanding the continued need for theoretical progress in understanding the nature and determinants of marital satisfaction, we conclude by calling for more large-scale longitudinal research that links marital processes with sociocultural contexts, for more disconfirmatory than confirmatory research, and for research that directly guides preventive, clinical, and policy-level interventions.
This study examines how sample attrition and missing partner data influence studies of cohabitors’ union transitions. We rely on data from both waves of the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH). Cohabitors with missing partner information or who were lost-to-follow-up have significantly fewer years of schooling and lower yearly earnings than cohabitors with complete data. Multiple imputation techniques are used to construct missing partner information and outcomes. Relying on prospective data from both waves of the NSFH that has not been corrected for selective data loss misrepresents cohabiting couple’s outcomes by: (1) overstating the extent to which cohabiting couples marry; (2) underestimating the amount of time spent in cohabiting unions; and (3) misrepresenting the effects of men’s economic characteristics on union transitions. Our results suggest that theories regarding how economic characteristics shape marriage transitions among singles may not be appropriate for those already living together.
Blacks report lower marital quality and face a higher risk of marital dissolution than Whites, but little is known about how Hispanics compare to these two groups. We examine five dimensions of marital quality as well as marital dissolution for Blacks, Whites, and Mexican Americans using data from the National Survey of Families and Households (N = 6231). Mexican Americans and Whites have similar levels of marital quality, whereas Blacks report poorer marital quality than these two groups. Blacks face higher odds of marital disruption than either Mexican Americans or Whites, but this is because of Blacks’ lower marital quality. Consistent with the paradox of Mexican American nuptiality, we conclude that aspects of Mexican American culture may play a role in preserving marital quality and stability for this group despite their precarious economic situation.
This paper examines the factors associated with the tempo of low-income couples’ relationship progression into sexual involvement and coresidence. Data come from a recently-collected survey, the Marital and Relationship Survey (MARS) that obtained information from low- to moderate-income married and cohabiting couples. Over one-fifth of male and female respondents reported becoming sexually involved with their current partner within the first week of dating. Entrance into shared living was also quite rapid; about one-third of respondents moved in with their partner within 6 months. Furthermore, about two-thirds of married respondents initially cohabited with their partners. Indicators of family disadvantage accelerated entrance into sexual involvement and coresidence; these effects are more pronounced for women than men. Our results also suggest that the pace of relationship progression, into sexual involvement as well as shared living, has accelerated among unions formed more recently.
In this theoretical paper, we review central concepts in the psychological literature on relationship commitment to provide a foundation to discuss two themes related to long-term romantic relationships and marriages. First, we describe and discuss the role that commitment plays in stabilizing romantic attachment. Second, we use empirical research on cohabitation to highlight how the formation of commitment can be undermined by what are now common trajectories of couple development. The first topic underscores an increasingly important role for commitment in an age of companionate marriage. The second topic draws attention to dynamics that can affect the strength of romantic commitments, especially in marriage.