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Trademarks, Geographical Indications and Environmental Labelling to Promote Biodiversity: The Case of Agroforestry Coffee in India
Abstract
The district of Kodagu, also called Coorg, in the Western Ghats of India produces 2% of the world's coffee, the expansion and intensification of which have reduced the forest cover by more than 30% in 20 years. Innovative actions are therefore urgently required to link economic development and biodiversity conservation, and stakeholders are exploring three strategies to add value to coffee from Coorg and prevent further biodiversity erosion: registration of trademarks; geographical indications; and environmental certification, via eco-labels. This article analyses their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the synergies between them.
... In India, coffee producers' associations are dysfunctional (Neilson and Pritchard 2007) and represent political organizations for lobbying rather than marketing or production cooperatives (Marie-Vivien et al. 2014). Most coffee farmers sell their coffee at the farm gate to purchasing agents who are often small, informal networks of locally based traders (Mercereau and Vignault 2008). ...
... Some producers engage directly with exporters and coffee auctioneers through more formal contracts. Recommendations on agricultural management and marketing of coffee are developed by the Coffee Board of India's research and marketing units and disseminated by its extension services as well as independently through various production guidelines, internet and information networks (Marie-Vivien et al. 2014). ...
... The certified buyer provides a premium for certified coffee that ranges from Rs50 ($US1) to Rs100 ($US2) per 50-kg bag of Robusta cherry and Arabica parchment, respectively (CAFNET 2011;Bose 2014). Following this initial process, a total of 187 producers has been certified in the study site (from a total of 43,775 producers) (Marie-Vivien et al. 2014). Two large buyers constitute the largest buyers of certified coffee and now drive certification by actively recruiting producers to participate. ...
Coffee is generally grown in areas derived from forest, and both its expansion and management cause biodiversity loss. Sustainability standards in coffee are well established but have been criticized while social and environmental impact is elusive. This paper assesses the issue-attention cycle of coffee production in India and Nicaragua, including producer concerns and responses over time to concerns (sustainability standards, public regulations and development projects). Systematic comparison of the socioeconomic, environmental and policy context in both countries is then used to explore potential effects of sustainability standards. Results show limits, in local context, to relevance of global certification approaches: in both countries due to naturally high levels of biodiversity within coffee production systems global standards are easily met. They do not provide recognition for the swing potential (difference between best and worst) and do not raise the bar of environmental outcomes though nationally biodiversity declines. Nicaraguan regulations have focused on the socioeconomic development of the coffee sector via strengthening producer organizations, while India prioritized environmental and biodiversity conservation. In India, externally driven sustainability standards partially replace the existing producer–buyer relationship while in Nicaragua standards are desired by producer organizations. The temporal comparison shows that recently local stakeholders harness improvements through their unique local value propositions: the ‘small producer’ symbol in Nicaragua and certification of geographic origin in India. Nicaragua builds on the strength of its smallholder sector while India builds on its strength of being home to a global biodiversity hotspot.
... According to Jena and Grote (2010), GIs are a strong tool for protecting national and local property rights and offering new export opportunities in the agri-food sector. Vivien et al. (2014) argue that GIs add value to a product, and GI labelling confirms its high quality as well as acting as a catalyst for developing rural areas (Zografos 2008). Regarding the environment, GIs are reported to prevent further erosion of biodiversity (Caenegem and Cleary 2017) and may embrace biodiversity conservation if stated in the specific GI standard (Vivien et al. 2014). ...
... Vivien et al. (2014) argue that GIs add value to a product, and GI labelling confirms its high quality as well as acting as a catalyst for developing rural areas (Zografos 2008). Regarding the environment, GIs are reported to prevent further erosion of biodiversity (Caenegem and Cleary 2017) and may embrace biodiversity conservation if stated in the specific GI standard (Vivien et al. 2014). In short, Nayak (2018, p. 1) summarises the objectives of GIs as: ...
... GI labelling can be an innovative approach to link economic development and biodiversity conservation (Vivien et al. 2014). However, as pointed out earlier, in mainland Tanzania there is no specific law governing GI protection, although other IPR and patent laws do exist. ...
A high proportion of commodities in African countries face limitations in penetrating international markets, mainly because of low quality and high transaction costs (TCs) of marketing. This study responds to two research questions. One, does honey from the Uyui district in Tanzania has the potential for geographical indication (GI) labelling, potentially enhancing quality? Two, can GI labelling reduce TCs and improve market access? 83 beekeepers, 50 honey traders and 50 consumers were selected randomly for interviews in Uyui District and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Both primary and secondary data were collected on, cultural and historical identity, the local ecosystem, marketing and value addition technologies. The policy and legal framework for GI certification were also reviewed. Seven honey samples from Uyui District were tested for physicochemical characteristics and compared with the international standards. Since there is no GI labelled honey in Tanzania currently, a hypothetical case was created for respondents to compare the likely TCs with the current honey on the market. The results show that the honey from Uyui meets international quality standards in terms of physicochemical characteristics. Also respondents perceived significantly lower TCs for the hypothetical GI-labelled than the non-GI-labelled honey. However, GI registration of Tanzania honeys is currently hindered by lack of relevant intellectual property right laws, limited cooperation among producers, and in the case of Uyui, a unique reputation has to be restored.
... The coffee industry has been one of the most active spaces for voluntary regulatory standards through certification oriented towards traceability, environmental sustainability, fair treatment of workers, quality, and price security (Marie-Vivien et al. 2014). Most of these regulatory regimes are third-party certifications, with potential to transform governance of global coffee chains (Muradian and Pelupessy 2005). ...
... This study shows that the density of native shade trees and exotic tree species was not statistically significant between RA-certified and non-certified farms. This finding is corroborated by existing ecological research in the landscape which shows that the coffee agroforestry system in Kodagu is already fairly biodiverse with tree densities comparable to natural forests (350 trees per hectare) and species diversity (280 species have been documented across coffee farms with an average of 55 species per hectare) (Garcia et al. 2010;Rani et al. 2011;Marie-Vivien et al. 2014). ...
Conservation initiatives are designed to address threats to forests and biodiversity, often through partnerships with natural-resource users who are incentivized to change their land-use and livelihood practices to avoid further biodiversity loss. In particular, direct incentives programmes that provide monetary benefits are commended for being effective in achieving conservation across short timescales. In biodiversity-rich areas, outside protected areas, such as coffee agroforestry systems, direct incentives, such as certification schemes, are used to motivate coffee producers to maintain native tree species, natural vegetation, restrict wildlife hunting, and conserve soil and water, in addition to encouraging welfare of workers. However, despite these claims, there is a lack of strong evidence of the on-ground impact of such schemes. To assess the conservation importance of certification, we describe a case study in the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot of India, in which coffee growers are provided price incentives to adopt Rainforest Alliance certification standards. We analyse the conservation and social outcomes of this programme by studying peoples' experiences of participating in certification. Despite high compliance and effective implementation, we find a strong case for the endorsement of 'business as usual' with no changes in farm management as a result of certification. We find that such 'business as usual' participation in certification creates grounds for diminishing credibility and local support for conservation efforts. Working towards locally relevant conservation interventions, rather than implementing global blueprints, may lead to more meaningful biodiversity conservation and increased community support for conservation initiatives in coffee landscapes.
... For example, Bowen and Valenzuela Zapata (2009), analysing Mexican Tequila, argue that the negative effects of GI protection result from the failure to link product quality to the characteristics of its terroir. Marie-Vivien et al. (2014) discuss the advantages of protecting a GI based on the reputation of the agroforestry ecosystem and on the history of coffee from Coorg (India), compared with other ecolabels such as Utz-Certified coffee and Rainforest Alliance, because of the adaptability of the PS to local conditions. ...
... The opportunity provided by the protection of GIs to adapt production rules to local environmental specificities (Marie-Vivien et al., 2014) does not appear to have been fully exploited in the olive-oil sector. Indeed, one might expect -ceteris paribus -the PSs of PDOs-PGIs with a small territory to contain more, and more specific, enforceable rules than the big PDOs-PGIs, due to greater homogeneity in agro-ecological and soil profile conditions. ...
The link between food and the environment constitutes a core issue from the consumer’s point of view andin the political debate. Geographical indication products, due to their association with specific territories and links to specific local resources, can improve economic, social and environmental sustainability.The present paper investigates the relationship between the legal protection of geographical indications and the environment, analyzing the Product Specifications of the 107 olive-oil geographical indications registered in the European Union. We performed the analysis using a set of indicators related to six thematic areas of potential environmental impact, including tree varieties, intensity of production, phytosanitary and fertilization methods, soil and water management, harvesting and post-harvestingtechniques, and environmental awareness. Results indicate that environmental concerns are not considered to a great extent in the Product Specifications; indeed, they result more from the need to attain specific product qualities than from any direct interest in the environment. In any case, some relevant differences do exist between all six thematic areas(rules on the use of specific rare varieties and on maximum production limits are the most widespread ones in this sense) and between European Union countries (France and Italy are characterized by thehighest levels of environmental care).We identified some cases in which producers recognize that territorial specificities are highly importantin shaping the quality of the product, and they consequently pay specific attention to positive environ-mental effects. Moreover, the data analysis shows a ‘greening’ of Product Specifications over time, which evidences a trend towards a more comprehensive conception of typical products and GIs, related notonly to organoleptic and hedonistic characteristics, but also to environmental and social ones. In conclusion, although protection of geographical indications cannot be considered to constitute an environmental tool per se, it can potentially play a positive role in environmental conservation, acting as a barrier to the increasing intensification of the olive-oil sector and thus preserving traditional farming systems. Indeed, geographical indications provide the opportunity for territorialisation of environmental-friendly production rules, taking into account local specificities. The paper also argues that public policies can play a significant role in supporting the producers’ initiatives towards “greener” geographical indications.
... For example, Bowen and Valenzuela Zapata (2009), analysing Mexican Tequila, argue that the negative effects of GI protection result from the failure to link product quality to the characteristics of its terroir. Marie-Vivien et al. (2014) discuss the advantages of protecting a GI based on the reputation of the agroforestry ecosystem and on the history of coffee from Coorg (India), compared with other ecolabels such as Utz-Certified coffee and Rainforest Alliance, because of the adaptability of the PS to local conditions. ...
... The opportunity provided by the protection of GIs to adapt production rules to local environmental specificities (Marie-Vivien et al., 2014) does not appear to have been fully exploited in the olive-oil sector. Indeed, one might expect -ceteris paribus -the PSs of PDOs-PGIs with a small territory to contain more, and more specific, enforceable rules than the big PDOs-PGIs, due to greater homogeneity in agro-ecological and soil profile conditions. ...
... Studies have reported that premiums are paid for a range of products in food industry, such as milk, fruits, eggs, and others, that are certified with labels like low carbon, traceability, organic, and eco-labels [1,[27][28][29][30]. In recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in the value of environmental goods and services due to rising demand for environmental conservation and healthy food by stakeholders, including regulations and consumers [27,28,[31][32][33][34][35][36]. ...
... The Indian coffee industry has made a distinct mark over time on the global coffee map. All coffees in India are cultivated beneath a "well-defined two-tier shadow canopy of evergreen legumes," which is unique in the world [10]. India today has 16 distinct coffee kinds grown in 13 different coffee-growing regions, the majority of which are in the country's southern region. ...
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to learn about how in India coffee producers as well as
how the country is gaining international recognition, as well as how India's coffee growing
integration with the global process has caused major difficulties that arise in the coffee
industry's agricultural sector in India and to know how suitable areas for coffee cultivation.
To comprehend major issues confronting coffee-producing countries, and the situation is
steadily deteriorating. To be aware, coffee is thought to have been cultivated for the longest
time outside of the world in India.
Objective: The focus of this article is to understand the background of how coffee was
discovered and brought to India. Additionally, to understand the many varieties and areas of
India that produce coffee utilizing PESTEL analysis
Design/Methodology/Approach: The information for the study was obtained from secondary
sources like google, journal papers, new stories, literature, reports, magazines and books.
Findings: Coffee species that are important for breeding or production are described. Soil
preparation, seedling production, harvesting, and post-harvest processing are all discussed as
important aspects of coffee cultivation. The most critical technological aspects of this crop are
compared, including full sun vs. shaded cultivation systems, arabica vs. Robusta coffee
production, and low vs. high technological input.
Research limitations/implications: There are few sources for references, few topics are not
highlighted, and most of the information is obsolete, thus gathering relevant data was difficult.
Originality/Value: This research is unique in that it aims to trace the past of India's coffee
industries as well as the various coffee laws implemented as an outcome of coffee growers.
Paper type: A Research Case study paper on Growth of Coffee Cultivation on Plantation in India an overview.
Keywords: Coffee origin, Coffee growth, Cultivation, consumption, production, PESTEL
Analysis.
... The Indian coffee industry has made a distinct mark over time on the global coffee map. All coffees in India are cultivated beneath a "well-defined two-tier shadow canopy of evergreen legumes," which is unique in the world [10]. India today has 16 distinct coffee kinds grown in 13 different coffee-growing regions, the majority of which are in the country's southern region. ...
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to learn about how in India coffee producers as well as how the country is gaining international recognition, as well as how India's coffee growing integration with the global process has caused major difficulties that arise in the coffee industry's agricultural sector in India and to know how suitable areas for coffee cultivation. To comprehend major issues confronting coffee-producing countries, and the situation is steadily deteriorating. To be aware, coffee is thought to have been cultivated for the longest time outside of the world in India. Objective: The focus of this article is to understand the background of how coffee was discovered and brought to India. Additionally, to understand the many varieties and areas of India that produce coffee utilizing PESTEL analysis Design/Methodology/Approach: The information for the study was obtained from secondary sources like google, journal papers, new stories, literature, reports, magazines and books. Findings: Coffee species that are important for breeding or production are described. Soil preparation, seedling production, harvesting, and post-harvest processing are all discussed as important aspects of coffee cultivation. The most critical technological aspects of this crop are compared, including full sun vs. shaded cultivation systems, arabica vs. Robusta coffee production, and low vs. high technological input. Research limitations/implications: There are few sources for references, few topics are not highlighted, and most of the information is obsolete, thus gathering relevant data was difficult. Originality/Value: This research is unique in that it aims to trace the past of India's coffee industries as well as the various coffee laws implemented as an outcome of coffee growers. Paper type: A Research Case study paper on Growth of Coffee Cultivation on Plantation in India an overview.
... Few studies investigate the value of trademarks for sustainability (i. e. social or environmental) goal achievements (e.g., Marie-Vivien et al., 2014). However, in addition to trademarks' value for economic outcomes, these IPRs are also likely to relate to the sustainability outcomes of social startups for several reasons. ...
Prior research shows that trademarks positively relate to startups' growth and survival. However, empirical evidence on the impact of intellectual property rights (IPRs), especially trademarks, on the development of social startups' hybrid outcomes is limited. Our study aims to fill this gap by investigating how early trademarking relates to the sustainability and economic outcomes of social startups. Based on a sample of 485 social startups from Germany, we find that social startups that register a trademark within the first three years of their existence have both significantly higher sustainability and economic outcomes. Additionally, we identify that the geographical scope of a trademark relates differently to social startups' outcomes. Our results contribute to the emerging literature on startups’ role to achieve sustainability outcomes and to IPR research that lacks an understanding of the importance of trademarks for sustainable entrepreneurship. We provide several practical implications for social startups, impact investors, and policy-makers.
... However, among the factors that affect the biodiversity, the knowledge forms and craft practices associated with local products are the most obvious because they are most directly visible [8,9]. Today, it has become a consensus that traditional knowledge related to local products or geographical indication (GI) products is of great significance for biodiversity conservation [10]. ...
Prunus mume has been cultivated for more than three millennia with important edible, ornamental, and medicinal value. Due to its sour taste, the Prunus mume fruit (called Meizi in Chinese and Ume in Japanese) is not very popular compared to other fruits. It is, however, a very favorite food for the Bai people living in Eryuan County, Dali of Yunnan, China. The local people are masters of making various local products with plum in different ways. In this research, we conducted field investigations in Eryuan County using ethnobotanical methods from August 2019 to July 2021, focusing on the Prunus mume (for its edible fruits). A total of 76 key informants participated in our semi-structured interviews. The survey recorded 37 species (and varieties) belonging to 11 families related to the Bai people’s Meizi-consuming culture. Among them, there are 14 taxa of plum resources, including one original species and 13 varieties. These 37 species are either used as substitutes for plum due to their similar taste or as seasonings to improve the sour taste of plum. The higher Cultural Food Significance Index value implies that Prunus mume, Chaenomeles speciosa, Phyllanthus emblica, Prunus salicina, and Chaenomeles cathayensis have high acceptance and use value in the Bai communities. Among the various local products traditionally made by the Bai people, carved plums, preserved plums, perilla-wrapped plums, and stewed plums are the most famous and popular categories in the traditional markets. Currently, the plum business based on the traditional Meizi-consuming culture of the Bai people is already one of Eryuan’s economic pillars. This study showed that plums play an important role in expressing the local cultural diversity, and they also help the local people by improving their livelihood through their edible value. In turn, for the sustainable use of plum resources, the Bai people positively manage local forests through a series of measures to protect the diversity of plum resources and related plant communities.
... OFS are increasingly mentioned in the debate over biodiversity, which will henceforth be referred to as cultural biodiversity 1 (CB) to emphasize the relevance of local knowledge and practices in the management of agricultural biological resources (Bérard and Marchenay 2006;King and Eyzaguirre 1999). However, this emergence of CB in food policy debates corresponds to different rationales, e.g. the economic benefits of its defense (Belletti et al. 2017;Marie-Vivien et al. 2014;Vandecandelaere et al. 2009), territorial development based on a common heritage (Grasseni 2011;Siniscalchi 2013;van Caenegem and Taylor 2017), and the protection of indigenous knowledge in the Global South (Blakeney 2013;Roussel and Verdeaux 2007). ...
In this article, we question to what extent origin-food labels, namely Geographical Indications (GIs) and Slow Food Presidia, may effectively account for cultural biodiversity (CB). Building on Foucault’s discourse theory, we question how the Slow Food movement and GI promoters have developed their own discourse and practice on CB, how these discourses contrast, and how they inform projects. Focusing on the practices to cultivate the microbiological life of three origin labeled cheeses (from France and Italy), we have revealed the gap between these institutional discourses and what happens on the ground. We argue that how actors’ relationships in the marketplace unfold, from public authorities to the collectives of producers to consumers, may threaten the effects that these experiences of alternative food productions may have in the defense of biodiversity, causing, for instance, the loss of diversity of the invisible microbial ecosystems of artisan raw milk cheese. However, we conclude that, despite limitations, the mediatized institutional narrative on CB can amplify the political voice of local actors by fostering community and social relationships between the farmers.
... One way to reduce these demands is through the establishment of multinational import bans on deforestation-associated commodities 44 , which must be coupled with internal enforcement and more efficient use of forest resources (for example, through technological developments). Additionally, strategies such as environmental certification and labelling schemes could be used to give consumers in wealthy countries an opportunity to reward environmentally friendly practices 45 . This may be especially effective in reducing the occurrence of selective illegal logging, which is often difficult to monitor and may be prevalent in large reserves that tend to have high apparent deforestation rates and are more likely to be downsized, downgraded or degazetted 46 (Fig. 4). ...
Protected areas are a key tool in the conservation of global biodiversity and carbon stores. We conducted a global test of the degree to which more than 18,000 terrestrial protected areas (totalling 5,293,217 km2) reduce deforestation in relation to unprotected areas. We also derived indices that quantify how well countries’ forests are protected, both in terms of forested area protected and effectiveness of protected areas at reducing deforestation, in relation to vertebrate species richness, aboveground forest carbon biomass and background deforestation rates. Overall, protected areas did not eliminate deforestation, but reduced deforestation rates by 41%. Protected area deforestation rates were lowest in small reserves with low background deforestation rates. Critically, we found that after adjusting for effectiveness, only 6.5%—rather than 15.7%—of the world’s forests are protected, well below the Aichi Convention on Biological Diversity’s 2020 Target of 17%. We propose that global targets for protected areas should include quantitative goals for effectiveness in addition to spatial extent. A global analysis of deforestation rates in more than 18,000 terrestrial protected areas shows that, once protected area effectiveness is taken into account, only 6.5%—rather than 15.7%—of the world’s forests are protected, well below the Aichi Target of 17%.
... Ugly "agroforestry" transitions either de facto end up destroying primary forests, regardless of their stated intention not to do so, or increase the risk that such deforestation will happen. Such ugly practices refer primarily to legitimated schemes such as extending 'planted forests' (Kröger 2014)-often referred to as part of agroforestry practice-that end up transforming pristine forests into mixed plantations of cacao, coffee, banana, and açai or even a mix of eucalyptus, acacia, and pine or oil palm alongside which some land is dedicated to agriculture (Koussihouèdé et al., 2020;Kröger, 2018;Marie-Vivien et al., 2014). ...
This article canvasses the current definitions and framings of “agroforestry” in different academic literature and policies. Three key framings of “agroforestry” are identified in the scholarship and explored for their differences. The findings suggest that the distinct schools of research on “agroforestry” focus on distinct points of departure, and these baseline situations from which transitions to what is called “agroforestry” occur vary in distinct ways from monoculture plantations to primary forests. Political-economic analysis is used to scrutinize three key “agroforestry” transition categories: agroecological, agribusiness, and forest degradation, which the article identifies as agroecoforestry (the good), agrobizforestry (the bad), and agrodeforestry (the ugly) transitions, respectively. Examples of each type are provided based on field research in Brazil, and the results are put into a global perspective. The categories are helpful in identifying the “agroforestry” transitions that are currently marketed as good solutions but might also have negative impacts and in highlighting the agroecological agroforestry transitions that would help simultaneously increase global food production, adapt to and mitigate the climate crisis, and achieve equity and social justice.
... There are many cases in which the relationship between geographical indications, conservation of biodiversity, and traditional knowledge have been successful (Bérard and Marchenay 2006). However, conserving the environmental elements on which the production is based is not the same as conserving the biodiversity or the ecosystem's functioning (Marie-Vivien et al. 2014). In fact, the Butia odorata is not an endangered species. ...
The protection of human-environmental relations is a subject that involves different kind of legal frameworks that crosses the field of environmental management. This work discusses the incidence of global logics of private property protection behind a project of technological innovation with a group of artisan families who make food products derived from palms in south-eastern Uruguay. The innovation project is part of an attempt to conserve specific ecosystems configured by these palms. This paper analyses the expectations, demands and conflicts regarding the protection of the local knowledge and suggests that environmental management must carefully consider to what extent they interfere in everyday life.
... This is made all the more relevant insofar as producers themselves seek autonomy both from and within markets; smallholder coffee households have elsewhere actively sought to develop autonomous production spaces through niche markets (Mutersbaugh 2002). Such approaches to maintaining diversity in coffee production within the study region have also been considered, including registration of trademarks, geographical indications (i.e., terroir), and environmental certification via eco-labels (Marie-Vivien et al. 2014), but few formal systems have yet been attempted. ...
Tropical and subtropical plantation agriculture has been shown to be compatible with the conservation of biodiversity, but the specific practices, conditions, and farmer strategies associated with such diversity remain poorly understood. In the ecologically rich region of India’s Western Ghats, specifically, farm-scale tree species diversity is a key structural condition explaining avian diversity. Surveying a sample of coffee plantations in the region, we examine farm-scale conditions that give rise to biodiversity. Results suggest that larger plantation size, recent increase in canopy density, and the cultivation of Coffea arabica varieties all encourage tree species diversity necessary for habitat. Results also suggest, however, that these structural conditions are more labor and pesticide intensive. These findings raise some serious questions about the sustainability of biodiversity in this context and suggest difficult trade-offs under conditions of demographic transition, declining labor availability, and concern about chemical inputs all encourage tree species diversity necessary for habitat. Results also suggest, however, that these structural conditions are more labor and pesticide intensive. These findings raise some serious questions about the sustainability of biodiversity in this context and suggest difficult trade-offs under conditions of demographic transition, declining labor availability, and concern about chemical inputs.
... They use the term 'terroir' to refer to product characteristics linked to a specific geographic area and landscape management. Especially for coffee and cocoa systems, studies have already shown that Geographic Indications can transmit values of sustainable landscape management to markets and consumers (Marie-Vivien et al. 2014) and also protect intellectual properties regarding place-based traditional processing techniques (Quiñones-Ruiz et al. 2015). More generally can be said that food systems are strongly interconnected with regional social-ecological characteristics and, therefore, highly relevant for the corresponding landscape (Penker and Wytrzens 2005) and its various values (Raymond et al. 2016). ...
In the face of unsustainable land-use changes including intensified agricultural production and land abandonment, agroforestry systems have the potential to support a diversity of social and ecological functions in agricultural landscapes. Mediterranean agroforestry landscapes have been conserved through traditional practices, and new concepts are necessary to assure the viability of these practices. Labels bear the opportunity to indicate sustainable management along the supply chain and, at the same time, generate higher incomes for sustainably producing farms. We have used an expert-based Delphi survey with three iterative surveys to analyse (1) the relevance of different sustainability aspects in agroforestry systems, (2) the suitability of derived indicators for labelling, and (3) the specific potentials and barriers for labelling agroforestry production or ecological UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)—are considered relevant for agroforestry systems. Translating these goals into suitable indicators is the more challenging step, revealing the lack of appropriate data, the complexity of sustainability challenges, and a low willingness for producers to adapt their practices as key limiting factors. The assessment of the labelling schemes indicated coherent responses despite the diverse backgrounds of participants. Alongside eco-labels and social labels, Geographic Indications were suggested as the most suitable options for the agroforestry context, although these have not been invented for reflecting sustainability in the first place. Although experts are highly aware of social-cultural values of agroforestry systems, they see little potential to use those social-cultural aspects for labelling agroforestry products. Initial costs and missing consumer awareness for agroforestry are major reasons for not joining labelling schemes. We discuss the possibility of an agroforestry label and why elements of Geographic Indication labels may fit well for this purpose.
... In the case of coffee, it is said that inadequate state effort has gone into promotion of Indian coffee as shade produced and hence ecologically more sustainable (Marie-Vivien et al. 2014). Eco-labelling, GI certifications are possibilities, but as Marie-Vivien et al. (2014) point out, such measures too may be inadequate, given the emphasis on globally uniform standards that tend to pay less attention to variations in local biodiversities. ...
... In the case of coffee, it is said that inadequate state effort has gone into promotion of Indian coffee as shade produced and hence ecologically more sustainable (Marie-Vivien et al. 2014). Eco-labelling, GI certifications are possibilities, but as Marie-Vivien et al. (2014) point out, such measures too may be inadequate, given the emphasis on globally uniform standards that tend to pay less attention to variations in local biodiversities. ...
The Chapter focuses on three plantation crops-tea, coffee and rubber given their prominence in the plantation crop basket, particularly in terms of the extent of dependent livelihoods. The Chapter develops a critique of the premises underlying some of the interventions based on a vague understanding of sustainability and restructuring of the plantation sectors in India. We point out the limitations of a commodity-centric approach that tends to dominate policy interventions aimed to revive the plantation economy. Alongside the worsened labour conditions, we point out how issues of land grab, and gender, reinvestment and ecological sustainability are also emerging as equally important aspects of the plantation question. Finally, we discuss few possible pathways towards a 'high road' that emphasises the ‘sustainability’ dimension. As a corollary, we stress the importance of public research and development (R&D) not merely in terms of quantum of investments but importantly on the nature of priority-setting with regard to issues that require research attention. We also highlight challenges in governance, such as poor implementation of the plantation labour act (PLA), exit or diversification of capital without ensuring decent livelihoods for labour in large plantations, and concentration of marketing power that allow little room for value redistribution.
... The district of Kodagu, also known as Coorg, produces one third of India's coffee primarily cultivated by the Kodava community. 248 In 2008, Conservation International recognized the Western Ghats as a biodiversity hotspot, one of only thirty-six in the world. 249 Smallholder coffee cultivation within forests and protected areas has substantially increased since 1977. ...
Critical scholarship on geographical indications (GIs) has increasingly focused upon their role in fostering development in the Global South. Recent work has drawn welcome attention to issues of governance and sparked new debates about the role of the state in GI regulation. We argue that this new emphasis needs to be coupled with a greater focus upon local social relations of power and interlinked issues of social justice. Rather than see GI regimes as apolitical technical administrative frameworks, we argue that they govern emerging public goods that should be forged to redress extant forms of social inequality and foster the inclusion of marginalized actors in commodity value chains. In many areas of the world, this will entail close attention to the historical specificities of colonial labor relations and their neocolonial legacies, which have entrenched conditions of racialized and gendered dispossession, particularly in plantation economies. Using examples from South Africa and South Asia, we illustrate how GIs conventionally reify territories in a fashion that obscures and/or naturalizes exploitative conditions of labor and unequal access to land based resources, which are legacies of historical disenfranchisement. Like other forms of neoliberal governmentality that support private governance for public ends, however, GIs might be shaped to support new forms of social justice. We show how issues of labor and place-based livelihoods increasingly influence new policy directions within Fair Trade agendas while concerns with "decolonizing" agricultural governance now animate certification initiatives emerging from new social movements. Both initiatives provide models for shaping the governance and regulation of GIs in projects of rural territorial development that encompass
... Renewal is possible for further periods of ten years as long as it is used. 6 Registered GIs in India include Aranmula metal mirror, Malabar pepper, Pokkali rice, Darjeeling tea, Pochampilly Ikat, Coorge orange and Mysore betel vine, etc. Up until 2016 there were 248 products registered as GIs in India. ...
Unlike other IPRs, GI protection is intended for a group of persons who are residing in a locality using the name (title). It is the reputation of the product based on its quality that is attained due to geographical factors and prolonged use that makes a GI different from a trade mark. GI protection has not been prominent in India. In December 1999 the Indian Parliament passed the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 (GI Act). According to this law, any association of persons, producers, organizations, or authorities established by or under the law can apply for the registration of a GI. The applicant must represent the interests of the producers and give the details of the GI, including its special features, quality, reputation or other characteristics and its relation to the geographical area. Up until 2016 there were 248 products registered as GIs in India. It is the consumer perceived value of the GI that makes GI products unique in the market. The benefits of GI registration can be enjoyed by the producers only if the GI is properly marketed. In this empirical study, the researcher has identified the producer based on the activity he is doing in the GI business. The specific condition for treating a respondent to this study as a ‘producer’ is his/her direct involvement in the production. The process of identifying the actual producer is a very important aspect, since the law creates a wide scope in the definition of producer to cover persons other than persons involved in direct production. The basic intention of this article is to examine whether the GI protection benefited the actual producer and whether the producer has actually realized that GI protection is helping them in marketing. The article also attempts to cover the knowledge of the GI producer towards the Indian GI protection system. Most of the existing research has examined only the conceptual ideas around GI protection and their implications. But the present study looks at the subject on an empirical level.
... Conversely, market-based promotion of biodiversity (Pirard, 2012), e.g. based on payment for ecosystem services or forest certification, would enhance AFS carbon storage as well as climate change adaptation and mitigation (Vaast et al., 2016). Finally, beyond the co-benefit of C storage and tree diversity in native AFS reported here, financial incentive systems could support native AFS coffee production (Marie-Vivien et al., 2014) as coffee bean quantity and quality were shown to be enhanced for coffee plant grown under diverse shade tree canopy (Nesper et al., 2017). The conservation of tree diversity and C stocks in the Western Ghats needs a flexible and participatory approach, considering farmers' perceptions of trees and forests, economic and ecological requirements (Pfund et al., 2011). ...
The ongoing introduction of the exotic Grevillea robusta tree species into agroforestry systems (AFS) of the Indian Western Ghats could become a threat to both climate change mitigation and tree diversity conservation.
Here, we quantified carbon (C) storage and shade tree diversity in native forests and coffee AFS under contrasted management (native versus exotic shade trees, Robusta versus Arabica systems) at 67 plots along a 3500 mm precipitation gradient in the Cauvery watershed, India.
Despite a substantial reduction of shade tree cover in native AFS compared to forest (from 90% to 32% in the high precipitation area), native AFS and forests displayed high and comparable C stocks (max. 228 MgC ha −1
and 234 MgC ha -1, respectively) and tree diversity (max. 44 and 45 species, respectively). Both variables were negatively impacted by the introduction of G. robusta, especially in Robusta coffee systems (max. 158 MgC ha −1 ,12 species).
The current trend toward the introduction of G. robusta in coffee AFS of the study area (exotic agroforestry) negatively affects C storage and tree diversity, especially in Robusta coffee systems. Policy makers should take
advantage of the carbon-tree diversity positive correlation found in the agroforestry landscape of the Western Ghats of India to promote conservation and climate change mitigation.
... However, they come with serious failings like deforestation, damage to biodiversity, high inputs of pesticide and fertilizers and soil/water deterioration [6]. India which is the sixth largest coffee producer (311.52 thousand tones in the year 2013-2014) mainly relies on the traditional shade grown coffee and is one of the countries know to grow coffee in the most eco-friendly conditions [7]. Moreover, apart from being branded as premium coffee, shade grown coffee cultivators have advantage of hidden income in the form of intercropped plantations like pepper, cardamon, orange, banana and vanilla [8]. ...
Light is a survival quotient for all photosynthetic plants and its reception is very complex due to direct
regulation by photoreceptors and their downstream transcriptional factors or indirectly by circadian rhythm.
Shade-grown coffee cultivation though less productive than the sun tolerant varieties, pose high potential as
benefit to the environment. Other than high nutrient soil associated with shade-cultivated coffee, light is
another important difference when compared to full sun cultivation practice. It is thus important to study if
light has a role in accumulation of caffeine - the most undesired compound in coffee. Light irradiation of
suspension cultures of Coffea arabica enhances caffeine content. However, no such study is available on
whole plants, which are anticipated to act in accord with organismal homeostasis. Moreover, the promoter of
theobromine synthase-like gene involved in caffeine biosynthesis carries several light responsive motifs. In
this report, it is shown that in complete darkness the caffeine content in young leaves of 1 year old seedlings
is very low (0.094±0.003 mg/100 mg tissue dw.). However, it increases to 5.9 folds within 6hrs of exposure
to light. In addition, caffeine content drops (0.218±0.03 mg/100 mg tissue dw.) when light exposed plants are
returned to complete dark. Transcript analysis further reveals that this difference is due to regulation of the
caffeine biosynthetic genes. A further discussion to the effect of dark and light on levels of caffeine is also
provided. Though cup quality of shade-grown coffee is indefinite, this study clearly demonstrates the role of
light in regulation of caffeine biosynthesis.
... Pepper vines, which can be grown at higher densities in G. robusta dominated systems, provide additional and important income to farmers (Garcia et al., 2010). Environmental certification through ecolabelling could overcome these economic disadvantages of native trees, but at present none of the existing labels has standards which contribute sufficiently to the preservation of diverse shade tree covers in Kodagu (Marie-Vivien et al., 2014).Organic management incurs no disadvantage in terms of reduced coffee productivity and coffee quality, while high inputs of NPK − fertilizer in conventional managed plantations do not substantially improve coffee production. Yet farmers continue to apply NPK − fertilizer (despite its relatively high cost), as it is perceived beneficial to do so. ...
Intensification of multispecies coffee agroforests reduces shade tree diversity with implications for tropical biodiversity. We investigated how tree biodiversity and its effects on coffee production and quality changes along a gradient of intensification (from diverse multispecies to Grevillea robusta dominated shade) across 25 Coffea canephora agroforests in Kodagu, India. Intensification causes a marked reduction in tree biodiversity (Shannon's diversity: 2.74 to 0.29). Reduced tree diversity negatively affected both coffee production and quality (in terms of bean size), and increased incidences of pest attack, the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei). These results were consistent across a broad rainfall gradient (1060 mm yr⁻¹ to 4370 mm yr⁻¹) and management systems (conventional vs. organic farming and irrigation). Our results reveal important co-benefits of multispecies agroforestry systems for biodiversity conservation and coffee production. Nonetheless, intensification provides farmers with new livelihood options and income sources. To maintain high diversity agroforests, these opportunity costs need to be accounted for in developing realistic market strategies for biodiversity conservation.
... To conclude, we would like to emphasize our results, suggesting some evidence on the international trade between Italy and each exporter country. In this context, Italy should improve the existing bilateral and multilateral agree-ments mainly improving the quality standard required from the consumers, implementing more efficient certification and labeling systems that seek to enhance environmental and social sustainability (Raynolds et al., 2007;Marie-Vivien et al., 2014) and to ensure the exact origin of the product, and limiting trade tariff-related and regulatory barriers. It is worth reaffirming that coffee is crucial to the economies and politics of many developing countries since its cultivation, processing, trading, transportation, and marketing provide employment for millions of people worldwide (Mussatto et al., 2011). ...
After the US and Germany, Italy is the third world’s largest importer of green coffee, above all from Brazil, Vietnam and India, being also the second roasted coffee producer, exporter and consumer in EU, after Germany. Given the importance of coffee import in Italy, this paper applies the gravity model to investigate the influence of the main variables affecting the Italian coffee import. In particular, the aim of this paper is to identify the most influent factors determining the level of import flows between Italy and its 11 main coffee export partners. Our results show that the exporters’ GDP, their coffee production, the distance between the Italian capital town and those of the other partners, and finally the continental territorial boundary affect the Italian coffee import, as well as the tradition to drink coffee and the consumers’ demand for quality.
... Increasing effects of free trade push governments and producers to protect national and/or regional products using geographical indications (GIs), or trademark licensing. The challenges of Basmati rice, Darjeeling Tea, Champagne, Parma Ham, Feta Cheese, Sidamo, Yirgacheffe Coffee, Café de Colombia, and Cognac are typical examples (Broude, 2005b;Das, 2006;Marie-Vivien, 2008;Jena and Grote, 2010;Gervais, 2013;Marie-Vivien et al., 2014;WIPO, 2014b). ...
Purpose
Geographical indications (GIs) have been implemented across the EU for agricultural and food products for many years and consumers know them well. However, developing countries and/or transitioning economies do not have sufficient experience to apply GIs. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate ways to implement GI in domestic markets in countries in which there are no common logo and control/tracking systems to help GI holders manage the process.
Design/methodology/approach
This study uses a qualitative case study to describe a process to implement GI registered food products in domestic markets. The system was developed by the author and applied by the Gemlik Commodity Exchange (GTB).
Findings
A registration system that allows inspection of producers in GI limits should be established. For good practice and to ensure correct registration, an efficient, established control system, promotion, and conservancy of GI-holding organizations are essential.
Practical implications
GTB implemented two projects, for which a GI logo and labels with quick-response (QR) codes were created. A regional, GI promotion project was conducted, and after one year, there was no increase in consumer demand, but entering markets became easier, and traders of PDO products began to experience increases in orders and/or shortening of intervals. Long-term implications of the system could not be measured since one year had passed.
Originality/value
This study develops and demonstrates a QR tracking system for implementation of GIs.
... To conclude, we would like to emphasize our results, suggesting some evidence on the international trade between Italy and each exporter country. In this context, Italy should improve the existing bilateral and multilateral agree-ments mainly improving the quality standard required from the consumers, implementing more efficient certification and labeling systems that seek to enhance environmental and social sustainability (Raynolds et al., 2007;Marie-Vivien et al., 2014) and to ensure the exact origin of the product, and limiting trade tariff-related and regulatory barriers. It is worth reaffirming that coffee is crucial to the economies and politics of many developing countries since its cultivation, processing, trading, transportation, and marketing provide employment for millions of people worldwide (Mussatto et al., 2011). ...
After the US and Germany, Italy is the third world’s largest
importer of green coffee, above all from Brazil, Vietnam
and India, being also the second roasted coffee
producer, exporter and consumer in EU, after Germany.
Given the importance of coffee import in Italy, this paper
applies the gravity model to investigate the influence of
the main variables affecting the Italian coffee import. In
particular, the aim of this paper is to identify the most
influent factors determining the level of import flows between
Italy and its 11 main coffee export partners. Our
results show that the exporters’ GDP, their coffee production,
the distance between the Italian capital town
and those of the other partners, and finally the continental
territorial boundary affect the Italian coffee import, as
well as the tradition to drink coffee and the consumers’
demand for quality
... Now, preliminary studies show an increase in the incidence and severity of the black twig-borer, Xylosandrus compactus in Robusta grown under Albizia. Because of those trade-offs, there is a high demand from farmers, NGOs, eco-labels and the industry for knowledge regarding which shade tree species to promote for coffee and cocoa agroforestry systems (Hughes, 2009;Kagezi et al., 2014;Marie Vivien et al., 2014). As for any other agricultural system, there is no 'one silver bullet' practice that will increase productivity, improve farmers' livelihood and sustain the environment (Coe et al., 2014). ...
This paper presents the main features of a unique decision-support tool developed for selecting tree species in coffee and cocoa agroforestry systems. This tool aims at assisting in the selection of appropriate shade trees taking into account local conditions as well as needs and preferences of smallholder farmers while maximizing ecosystem services from plot to landscape level. This user-friendly and practical tool provides site-specific recommendations on tree species selection via simple graphical displays and is targeted towards extension services and stakeholders directly involved in sustainable agroforestry and adaptation to climate change. The tool is based on a simple protocol to collect local agroforestry knowledge through farmers’ interviews and rankings of tree species with respect to locally perceived key ecosystem services. The data collected are first analysed using the BradleyTerry2 package in R, yielding the ranking scores that are used in the decision-support tool. Originally developed for coffee and cocoa systems of Uganda and Ghana, this tool can be extended to other producing regions of the world as well as to other cropping systems. The tool will be tested to see if repeated assessments show consistent ranking scores, and to see if the use of the tool by extension workers improves their shade tree advice to local farmers.
... Coffee is currently grown in 13 of the world's 25 biodiversity "hotspots" (areas of high biodiversity importance and vulnerability). Sometimes, as in the case of Coorg coffee (India) ( Marie-Vivien, Garcia, Kushalappa, & Vaast, 2014), the very reputation of the product is supported by its unique ecosystem and specific biodiversity. Coffee production also has a marked impact on social conditions in coffee-producing regions. ...
The protection of Geographical Indications (GIs) is being explored more and more worldwide as a tool for supporting local sustainable development. Focusing on wine and coffee value chains, this paper will set out in what way GI protection schemes can contribute to the provision of public goods, and illustrate how this contribution is being threatened by different failures that may occur within both valorization strategies and legal protection policies. By examining how private, collective, and public interventions front these failures, this paper will put forward economic arguments supporting a more comprehensive policy approach, to ensure GIs’ contribution to sustainable development.
Introducción
Aún cuando la cata de café es una herramienta utilizada desde hace muchos años en el proceso de comercialización [1], los protocolos de cata vigentes muestran empirismo y subjetividad. Con el avance del análisis sensorial, es posible incorporar nuevas técnicas y metodologías para llevar a cabo una cata de manera más objetiva y precisa. Entre ellas se encuentra el análisis descriptivo cuantitativo utilizando un panel de catadores entrenado [2], si bien, su utilización en café es relativamente reciente [3]. Debido a la competencia y sofisticación del mercado, la zona de producción es un elemento diferenciador en el mercado [4]. Para conocer el efecto de diferentes condiciones ambientales en las características sensoriales de la bebida de café, se aplicó una metodología de análisis descriptivo y cuantitativo a muestras de café producido en diferentes regiones de Guatemala.
Metodología
Un panel de evaluación sensorial conformado por 10 personas fue entrenado mediante la técnica de análisis descriptivo cuantitativo. La evaluación sensorial de la bebida de café fue realizada en un laboratorio con condiciones controladas. Las muestras fueron presentadas sin identificar y codificadas a los catadores que procedieron a la evaluación del olor, flavor, regusto, cuerpo de manera cuali y cuantitativa y de la acidez, dulzor, amargor y salado de manera cuantitativa. Un análisis de varianza se realizó para conocer el efecto de las condiciones ambientales y técnicas de análisis multivariante fue aplicado para caracterizar las bebidas de los cafés.
Resultados
La evaluación sensorial mediante un panel de jueces entrenados permitió caracterizar y tipificar la bebida de café procedente de las diferentes condiciones ambientales de Guatemala. Las variables cualitativas fueron determinantes para caracterizar la tipicidad del café de cada ambiente. El olor, el flavor y el regusto de la bebida fueron atributos fundamentales para diferenciar la bebida de los cafés de Guatemala.
Conclusiones
El análisis sensorial es una técnica adecuada para conocer la influencia del lugar de producción el café sobre las características organolépticas de la bebida. Se comprueba que las condiciones ambientales de la zona de producción del café en Guatemala influyen en el olor, el flavor y el regusto de la bebida.
Deforestation and biodiversity loss in agroecosystems are generally the result of rational choices, not of a lack of awareness or knowledge. Despite both scientific evidence and traditional knowledge that supports the value of diverse production systems for ecosystem services and resilience, a trend of agroecosystem intensification is apparent across tropical regions. These transitions happen in spite of policies that prohibit such transformations. We present a participatory modelling study run to (1) understand the drivers of landscape transition and (2) explore the livelihood and environmental impacts of tenure changes in the coffee agroforestry systems of Kodagu (India). The components of the system, key actors and resources, and their interactions were defined with stakeholders, following the companion modelling (ComMod) approach. The underlying ecological processes driving the system were validated through expert knowledge and scientific literature. The conceptual model was transformed into a role-playing game and validated by eight workshops with a total of 57 participants. Two scenarios were explored, a No Policy Change as baseline, and a Restitution of Rights where rights to cut the native trees are handed over to farmers. Our results suggest that the landscape transition is likely to continue unabated unless there is a change to the current policy framework. However, the Restitution of Rights risks speeding up the process rather than reversing it, as inter alia, the differential growth rate between exotic and native tree species, kick in.
The understanding of a Geographical Indication (GI), under an economic point of view, is connected to a strategy that aims at adding value to products or services whose characteristics are related to the territories in which they are inserted, with the premise of strengthening territorial economies, mainly in rural areas. GIs associated to agri-food products not only add value to these products, but also aim at providing easier access to either internal and/or external markets, promoting the inclusion of rural producers or disfavored regions in terms of commercial trade routes, besides contributing to the sustainable use of biodiversity and, consequently, of local genetic resources. Therefore, this work aims at providing an overview of the main scientific works regarding Geographical Indications (GIs) focused on the development of regional economies, especially in rural areas, considering in natura products. The methodology employed consisted of carrying out a systematic literature review on Scopus, Web of Science and Science Direct databases, based on a sequence of themes (Geographical Indication, Economic Development, Brazilian products in natura). Therefore, it was necessary to select the scientific articles corresponding to the combination of keywords, while also considering those works published in the last 10 years and with a score higher than 25 points, according to the criteria adopted in this work. The results of this research demonstrate the importance of GIs for promoting local economic development, through production and local services, adding value to the agri-food market and to its capacity in generating jobs and wealth.
Geographical indication (GI) identifies goods originating from a particular territory, where certain qualities and reputation of the product are essentially attributed to that origin. GIs connote value addition hence a tool for livelihood improvement among producers of local products. This is especially the case for honey, which is mainly produced rural areas in Ghana, where there are few other income sources. However, GIs are unknown in the country. This paper discusses various elements and storylines that commonly characterize registered GI products, focusing on GI honeys registered within the EU and the single GI honey registered in Africa, the Oku white Honey in Cameroon. The study is based on a literature review of GI honey records and the EU DOOR database, general literature, and complemented with fieldwork. A number of elements were identified to characterize GI honeys and can be grouped into three elements: indicative, essential, and supportive. The three groups of elements are important for the identification, development, and promotion of GIs in Ghana. Analyzing potential GI honey case within the three groups of elements shows Ghana has a GI legislation but has to develop the capacity for relevant state institutions necessary for GI building.
Despite sustained demand, the plantation economy, particularly for tea, coffee and rubber, is seen to be in a crisis and hence undermining the livelihoods of workers and small producers involved in the production of these commodities. Based on secondary literature, we elaborate the factors contributing to this ‘crisis’ in the plantation economy and what we see as problematic in the institutional response to this ‘crisis’ and hence in ensuring decent livelihoods for workers. First, we point out that the crisis is an outcome of shifts and slippages in governance regimes and a failure of capital to make sustained investments in the sector. We highlight gaps in governance such as exit of capital without ensuring decent livelihoods or decent living wages for labour in large plantations, casualization of work, reliance on small grower models and concentration of marketing power in tea and coffee value chains that allow little room for value redistribution. Second, we point out that plantation interests cannot be reduced merely to commodity-specific interests. Biodiversity, gender, politics of land grab and sustainability in terms of ecology are emerging as equally important aspects of the plantation question. A value chain approach that emphasizes ‘upgrading’ as a way out to secure better livelihoods ought to therefore also incorporate value creation and destruction of ecologies that currently sustain plantation crops and what this may imply for workers’ and small producers’ livelihoods. The strong productivist logic of some of the interventions in the plantation economy may therefore require a rethink and critical assessment. The chapter therefore develops a critique of the premises underlying some of the policy shifts. Finally, we discuss a few micro-level interventions to suggest possible pathways towards a ‘high road’ to addressing the crisis.
Deforestation and biodiversity loss in agroecosystems are generally the result of rational choices, not of a lack of awareness or knowledge. Despite both scientific evidence and traditional knowledge that supports the value of diverse production systems for ecosystem services and resilience, a trend of agroecosystem intensification is apparent across tropical regions. These transitions happen in spite of policies that prohibit such transformations.We present a participatory modelling study run (1) to understand the drivers of landscape transition and (2) to explore the livelihood and environmental impacts of tenure changes in the coffee agroforestry systems of Kodagu (India). The components of the system, key actors and resources, and their interactions were defined with stakeholders, following the companion modelling (ComMod) approach. The underlying ecological processes driving the system were validated through expert knowledge and scientific literature. The conceptual model was transformed into a Role Playing Game and validated by 8 workshops with 57 participants. Two scenarios were explored, a No Policy Change as baseline, and a Restitution of Rights where rights to cut the native trees are handed over to farmers. Our results suggest the landscape transition is likely to continue unabated unless there is a change to the current policy framework. However, the Restitution of tree Rights risks speeding up the process rather than reversing it, as slow variables such the differential growth rate between exotic and native tree species kick in.
Geographical indications (GIs)—i.e. indications identifying goods
originating in a specific place and having quality, characteristics,
and reputation attributable to their geographical origin—are developing
fast in the Southeast Asian food sector, with a wide range
of new products such as Khao Hom Mali and Thung Kula Rong-Hai
(fragrant rice), Kampot pepper, or Nuoc Mam Phu Quoc (fish sauce).
After concentrating their efforts on registering GIs (to protect the
name against counterfeit), GI promoters needed to decide how to
control product compliance with GI specifications for specific quality.
This paper analyzes the control and certification procedures for
GIs in four Southeast Asian countries—Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia,
and Laos—and the challenges faced in building an efficient
yet appropriate system of controls in these countries. Influenced
by the “gold standard” of certification in place of organic agriculture,
finding appropriate GI control systems is one of the dilemmas
faced by these countries. The article discusses the main differences
between GIs and other agricultural standards—specifications that
are unique to each GI, endogenous, and based on local production
practices—and the consequences in terms of certification. Indeed,
in the case of GIs, other options than private third-party certification
could better ensure that GI rules are followed, which may rely
on the knowledge producers and connoisseurs have of the product.
Historically, few topics have proven to be so controversial in international intellectual property as the protection of geographical indications (GIs). The adoption of TRIPS in 1994 did not resolve disagreements, and countries worldwide continue to quarrel today as to the nature, the scope, and the enforcement of GI protection nationally and internationally. Thus far, however, there is little literature addressing GI protection from the point of view of the Asia-Pacific region, even though countries in this region have actively discussed the topic and in several instances have promoted GIs as a mechanism to foster local development and safeguard local culture. This book, edited by renowned intellectual property scholars, fills the void in the current literature and offers a variety of contributions focusing on the framework and effects of GI protection in the Asia-Pacific region. The book is available as Open Access.
[Presently, in India the Geographical Indications (GI) have emerged as an important form of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) issue. GI provides the producers of a region the exclusive right to use the indication for their products originating from that region. It also means that they have the right to prohibit any unauthorized use or imitation of the sign on a product that is not from the designated area or which does not have the qualities guaranteed by the GI. In India Twenty eight states have registered geographical indications, among them Karnataka alone registered 33 geographical indications up to 18th November 2015.It is around 14.47% of the total registered geographical indications in India. When it comes to enhancing the brand value of geographyspecific products, Karnataka gets highest number of GI tags in India.
In the context of de-regulation of the coffee sector, the registration of some Geographical Indications (GIs) has recently been implemented. This paper aims at answering to the following research question: how does GIs’ process (protection and management) help to rationalize the role of the state in the coffee sector? In Colombia, the National Coffee Growers Federation took all initiatives for the registration and implementation of Café de Colombia as a GI both in Colombia and in European Union and manages also the GI use. In Kenya, the Coffee Directorate registered the certification trademark “Coffee Kenya, So Rich So Kenyan” and acts as public body in charge of managing the coffee sector. Although both countries conceived different approaches, there is a common strategic line, which consists in attempting to secure downstream value of the long lasting origin coffee branding and in strengthening the quality management system. This paper shows that discrepancies in public intervention in the coffee industry depend on the empowerment of producers in this industry irrespective of the legal tool to protect GIs.
A geographical indication (GI) is a form of protection highlighted in the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It protects intangible economic assets such as the quality and reputation of a product through market differentiation. It is considered a promising tool at the international level to maintain multifunctionality in rural landscapes and involve local populations in biodiversity management and conservation. Using the example of an existing GI for Coorg orange, a crop frequently associated with coffee agroforestry systems in the mountain region of Kodagu (Western Ghats, India), we discuss how a GI can be successfully used by local producers and what conditions are needed for it to have a positive impact on the landscape and its associated biodiversity.
While well-known geographical indications, such as “Parmigiano Reggiano” or “Café de Colombia” are registered under both the GI and Community Trade Mark (CTM) systems, dual protection is a strategy that is by no means widely adopted by producer groups. Nevertheless, an appreciation of the mutually supporting roles of the GI and CTM can assist agricultural enterprise to achieve the consumer recognition necessary to the creation of reputation based on geographical origin.
Like trademarks or commercial names, geographical indications (GIs) are distinctive signs which permit the identification of products on the market. If they are used in the proper way and are well protected, they can become an effective marketing tool of great economic value. GIs indeed convey the cultural identity of a nation, region or specific area. They make it possible to add value to the natural riches of a country and to the skills of its population, and they give local products a distinguishable identity.
Crop productivity is improved by ecosystem services, including pollination, but this should be set in the context of trade-offs among multiple management practices. We investigated the impact of pollination services on coffee production, considering variation in fertilization, irrigation, shade cover, and environmental variables such as rainfall (which stimulates coffee flowering across all plantations), soil pH, and nitrogen availability. After accounting for management interventions, bee abundance improved coffee production (number of berries harvested). Some management interventions, such as irrigation, used once to trigger asynchronous flowering, dramatically increased bee abundance at coffee trees. Others, such as the extent and type of tree cover, revealed interacting effects on pollination and, ultimately, crop production. The effects of management interventions, notably irrigation and addition of lime, had, however, far more substantial positive effects on coffee production than tree cover. These results suggest that pollination services matter, but managing the asynchrony of flowering was a more effective tool for securing good pollination than maintaining high shade tree densities as pollinator habitat. Complex interactions across farm and landscape scales, including both management practices and environmental conditions, shape pollination outcomes. Effective production systems therefore require the integrated consideration of management practices in the context of the surrounding habitat structure. This paper points toward a more strategic use of ecosystem services in agricultural systems, where ecosystem services are shaped by the coupling of management interventions and environmental variables.
The relationship between Trademarks and Geographical Indications (GIs) has historically been tempestuous. Each of these quibbling siblings, members of the broader family of Unfair Competition law, entitles registrants to the exclusive use of a sign. So what happens when a GI collective and a trademark proprietor lay claim to the same sign within a single jurisdiction? As part of the renewed interest in TRIPs flexibilities and attempts at accommodating or reconciling differences between national laws, this paper explores a newly emerging space that may just be big enough for the both of them. The analysis draws on a recent World Trade Organization (WTO) Panel Report, which identifies the legal foundations for cohabitation. The Report coincides with doctrinal developments at the national and regional level which initially identified this zone of compromise: the geographical 'descriptive use' defence in trademark law. Coexistence is significant as it alters the dynamic of a venerable conflict between trademark and GI regimes, which has been locked in the language of trumps for several decades. Accordingly, this paper introduces the players and describes the game of one-upmanship prior to this development in Part I; outlines the WTO decision in Part II and then draws parallels with doctrinal developments in the EU and US which presaged the possibility of coexistence in Part III. It concludes with an endorsement of coexistence as an equitable solution.
This article tells the story of the battle between a US multi-national corporation and one of the world’s poorest countries over control of the name of a premium coffee growing region. The story illustrates the supremacy of trade marks over geographical indications, the strategic importance of licence agreements, and the potential for the intellectual property system to be used to benefit the citizens of least developed countries.
In the recent past, geographical indications (GIs) have emerged as a significant intellectual property rights issue in the Indian context. Since 15 September 2003, when the Indian GI Act came into force, more than a hundred Indian products have been registered as GIs. However, there are several practical challenges confronting the stakeholders in India when it comes to the realization of the potential benefits ingrained in GIs. Apart from effective enforcement of the rights in the relevant markets (domestic and export), the success of a GI is contingent, in a large measure, upon appropriate marketing and promotion of the product—tasks that are not only resource-intensive but also challenging to execute for many stakeholders from a developing country like India. It is all the more tricky to ensure that a fair share of the benefits accruing from the GI status of a product reaches the actual producers/artisans downstream in the supply chain, unless an appropriate institutional mechanism is set in place towards that end. Against this backdrop, the article attempts to explore the prospects for India in exploiting the potential benefits embedded in GIs and the key challenges confronting the country in its endeavour to realize such benefits.
Although sacred groves arc, important for conservation in India, The landscape that surrounds them has a vital influence on biodiversity within them. Research has focused on tree diversity inside these forest patches. In a coffee-growing region of the Western Ghats, however landscape outside sacred groves is also tree covered because Planters have retained native trees to provide shade for coffee plants. We examined the diversity of trees, birds, and macrofungi at 58 sites-10 forest-reserve sites, 25 sacred groves, and 23 coffee plantations-in Kodagu district. We measured landscape composition and configuration around each site with a geographic information system. To identify factors associated with diversity we constructed multivariate models by using a decision-tree technique. The conventional measures of landscape such as patch size did not influence species richness. Distance of sacred groves front The forest reserve bad a weak influence. The measures of landscape structure (e.g., tree cover in the surroundings) and stand structure (e.g., variability in canopy height) contributed to The variation in species richness explained by multivariate models. We suggest that biodiversity present within sacred groves bets been influenced by native tree cover in the surrounding landscape. To conserve this biodiversity The integrity of the tree-covered landscape matrix will need to be conserved.
The objective of the present article is to investigate the importance of geographical indications (GIs) in the coffee market, particularly for Honduran coffees. Geographical indications for coffee have emerged only recently, and only a few scientific studies have been carried out on this topic so far. The present article addresses this lack of research by highlighting recent developments in the coffee market and by presenting the results of a hedonic price analysis that used internet auction data for specialty coffees. The aim of this analysis is to investigate the influence of the region of origin on the achieved auction price of Honduran specialty coffee, controlling for other coffee attributes. The results indicate that coffees from the region Marcala, for which a denomination of origin was established in 2005, possess on average a higher quality than coffees grown in other Honduran regions. Consequently, since quality is the most important price determinant in the internet auctions, coffees from Marcala achieve on average a higher price than coffees from other Honduran coffee-growing regions. However, the hypothesis that Marcala coffees can also achieve a higher price due to an already established reputation could not be confirmed.
Traditional shade coffee plantations of Kodagu district, in the Western Ghats of southern India, harbor a high density and
diversity of trees. Local farmers appreciate native biodiversity, but plantation economics and public policies drive them
to gradually replace the original diversified cover with exotic shade trees such as Grevillea robusta, which grows fast and can be easily traded as timber. In order to identify and recommend native timber trees with fast growth rates, we compared the growth performance of four
common native species against that of G. robusta, by fitting steel dendrometer bands on 332 shade trees. Results showed that in general G. robusta had the fastest growth rates, but large trees of the native Acrocarpus fraxinifolius had faster growth in the wet western side of the district. Computer projections of long term performance showed that most
species were influenced by bioclimatic zone. Species-specific local environmental effects also occurred, including competition
from coffee bushes for A. fraxinifolius, influence of aspect for G. robusta, and management block effects for Lagerstroemia microcarpa. Our results show that native species potentially could produce timber at rates equivalent to those of exotic species. However,
as in many tropical countries, data on growth rates of native trees within mixed-cover plantations are scarce and this study
underlines the urgent need to screen for fast-growing species. Such information provides a strong basis for recommending appropriate
changes in public policies that would improve tree tenure security and encourage farmers to grow more native species.
KeywordsSilver oak–Bioclimatic zone–Mixed effects model–Topography–Competition index–Tropical
In the former age of national capitalism, the achievement of market fairness was embedded in a normative framework generated by government, labor unions, and perhaps religious authority. In the current age of global capitalism, new actors such as NGOs, industry associations and public–private partnerships provide the normative framework that corporations use for social legitimacy. In this context, standard-setting processes operate as new forms of social contract where the state, rather than being directly involved between the parties, provides a form of basic guarantee while (more or less accountable) NGOs and firms are in charge of hammering out the bargains. This article examines the dynamics of this new configuration through the case study of sustainability initiatives in the coffee sector. It addresses four questions: (1) Are these standards effective in communicating information and creating new markets? (2) To what extent do they embed elements of collective and private interests? (3) Is sustainability content actually delivered to their intended beneficiaries? and (4) What is the role of public policy in addressing their shortcomings?
Geographical Indications have evolved in recent years to protect indigenous knowledge in the agrifood sector without hampering the ethos of free trade. Supporters regard them as useful tools for protecting national property rights and offering new export opportunities, while opponents consider them as barriers to trade. This article provides theoretical justifications for them, based on insights from the New Institutional Economics, and cites Darjeeling tea and Basmati rice as Indian examples highlighting some of their dynamic institutional aspects. The new legal framework for GIs is mainly based on the international level. Copyright (c) The Authors 2010. Journal compilation (c) 2010 Overseas Development Institute..
The new approaches advocated by the conservation community to integrate conservation and livelihood development now explicitly address landscape mosaics composed of agricultural and forested land rather than only protected areas and largely intact forests. We refer specifically to a call by Harvey et al. (2008) to develop a new approach based on six strategies to integrate biodiversity conservation with sustainable livelihoods in Mesoamerican landscape mosaics. We examined the applicability of this proposal to the coffee agroforests of the Western Ghats, India. Of the six strategies, only one directly addresses livelihood conditions. Their approach has a clear emphasis on conservation and, as currently formulated risks repeating the failures of past integrated conservation and development projects. It fails to place the aspirations of farmers at the core of the agenda. Thus, although we acknowledge and share the broad vision and many of the ideas proposed by this approach, we urge more balanced priority setting by emphasizing people as much as biodiversity through a careful consideration of local livelihood needs and aspirations.
In order to alleviate the impacts of the low coffee prices in recent years, sustainable coffee production and certification have been a logical strategy for many producers to: a) differentiate their product in the market place; and, b) shift their production cost structure away from more input intensive techniques. This paper explores the two most widely recognized certification schemes (organic and “fairtrade”) to determine whether certification to these systems is actually benefiting producers. It then explores the principal differences in production costs and price premiums for the two systems and their effect on different categories of producers. Finally, it considers the dynamics of the conventional and sustainable coffee markets to assess the likely medium to long-term economic outlook for producers involved in the certification schemes. The research is based on a combination of published sources and detailed primary source data (interviews and surveys) gathered by the CIMS Foundation.
Plus d'un agriculteur sur quatre dans le monde travaille en Inde où vit et mange un milliard d'habitants. De l’indépendance du pays en 1947 à la levée contrainte, en avril 2001, de barrières au commerce condamnées par l’OMC, ce livre explique comment la fédération indienne s’est hissée parmi les premiers producteurs mondiaux d’aliments, mais aussi pourquoi elle demeure un espace de grande pauvreté. La question est traitée dans ses diverses dimensions, qu’elles se rapportent à l’environnement (culturel et naturel, local et international), aux structures (publiques et privées), aux produits (végétaux et animaux, bruts et transformés). Les tenants et aboutissants de la Révolution verte du blé et du riz sont bien sûr exposés, mais aussi ceux d’autres révolutions moins connues (Révolution blanche du lait, Révolution jaune des oléagineux, Révolution bleue de l’aquaculture…), sans oublier les filières émergentes de l'horticulture ou de la viande blanche, et les produits qui font toute la saveur des Indes (épices et condiments, plantations tropicales…). Ceci avant d’aborder trois grands thèmes aussi transversaux que fondamentaux : la pauvreté et la sous-nutrition, la dégradation de l’environnement naturel et la récente libéralisation de l’économie. Écrit pour un large public (étudiant, chef d’entreprise, enseignant-chercheur…) et structuré comme un manuel, cet ouvrage est sans précédent par le bilan historique qu'il dresse et l'avenir qu'il dessine.
The paper explores the question of geographical indications (GIs) in developing countries. It begins with GIs in the TRIPS agreement and the positions of developing countries within these negotiations and how these countries have been implementing the obligation to protect GIs within their territories. The paper explores the potential benefits of GIs for developing countries but cautions that developing countries are likely to face considerable constraints in developing GI strategies. It makes the point that while GIs offer significant benefits, legal protection alone will not bring about the desired effects. Instead, it calls for developing countries to follow a well-informed and locally grounded approach in the design of GI strategies.
The commodity nature of green coffee is the main cause of the 'coffee paradox' (falling producer prices and rising consumer prices). Geographical Indications (GIs) may be an effective 'decommodifier' of the coffee market, but many constraints have to be overcome. Based on an analysis of how the characteristics of the coffee production system shape the positions of local stakeholders and, thus, the GI building process, this article identifies some constraining factors that can seriously undermine the capacity the GI has to decommodify the market and attain a fairer distribution of the benefits for local producers
Geographical indications (GIs) are remarkably different from other instruments of intellectual property rights (IPRs). Their acreage to the local provides an original scheme of governance. Contrary to other IPRs, GIs have only been homogenized in a very small way in the international legal framework. The issue is whether GIs are implemented as any other IPR, due to their collective and public dimensions. In particular, what is the role conferred to the state in the protection of GIs? The French legal framework, which largely influenced the European legal framework, is based on long traditions of protection of the appellations of origin and GIs where the role of the state has been declining, in order to give more responsibilities to the producer groups. The control task has been transferred from the state to the certification bodies to increase the guarantee of quality. The Indian experience, a post-TRIPS Agreement (the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) example, shows a state and its agencies which are very active in the process of filing GI applications, including being themselves the applicant and eventually the proprietor. This might be justified by the lack of strong producer organization. These different roles of the state between France/Europe and India give a new understanding of the legal nature of GIs.
Geographical Indications find favour amongst different ‘development’ constituencies because they relate to locally stabilised cultural practices. GI-specifications may foster the cultural integrity of products throughout the supply chain while also enabling the accumulation of economic returns within the region of production. In approaching questions of GIs and localisation, the study frames GIs as clubs: like a club, GIs can only be used by those who adhere to the specifications. This draws attention to an underlying social construction of a consensus amongst producers, who are not only competitors, but differentially endowed and socially located. The study uses Feni, a liquor distilled in Goa from either fermented cashew apple juice or coconut toddy, as a case study. Registered in February 2009 to Goa Government’s Department for Science and Technology and the Goa Cashew Feni Distillers and Bottlers Association, the report notes the political investment of the state and identifies a thin line between providing the space for consensus-making and coalescing an agreement. The specifications are testimony to problems of translating historical changes and contemporary diversity associated with a cultural product into a legal document. Beyond these tensions, the amendments are needed for localisation. On the one hand, a more flexible set of specifications might accommodate the diversity of contemporary distilling practices (e.g. ‘extra/local’ pot-still), while clearer specifications on sourcing raw-materials and post-distilling processes, may localise cultural and economic control. Finally, as with any club, GIs also entail exclusion. In the Feni case, this is ironically of the coconut version which has clear antecedents to the cashew in Goa. While common law user rights may ameliorate the exclusion, amendments to the specifications for inclusion are recommended.
Despite extensive provisions for their protection in the TRIPS Agreement, “geographical indications” (GIs) remain one of the least harmonized and most debated components of the international intellectual property system. Yet to date there has been little discussion as to how economic growth from GI-based marketing occurs. This study explores the potential for GIs as a tool to promote developing country agriculture in two specific products: coffee and chocolate (cocoa). The study explores and refutes a conceptual error that strengthening GI law will, by itself, substantially help developing countries. This error mistakes the piling up of laws for the accumulation of reputational capital, the real way to help developing world agricultural products. Concerning the international debate about strengthening GI law – that is, the “extension” of TRIPS Article 23 to protect all GI names without consumer confusion – the study concludes that such “usurpation” protection generally will not help developing world agricultural products, although it could help coffee and cocoa producers better control the use of coffee names in “blends.”Instead of advocating new legal norms, the study looks at the practical barriers to promotion of coffee and cocoa GIs and concludes that most developing countries which hope to promote their coffees and cocoas through GI-based marketing will need to rely on large corporations to make the investment in building GI consumer awareness. This trend – western companies using developing world GIs to differentiate their products – is well underway and moving toward narrower and narrower geographic specifications. These narrower specifications are good for farmers and means that GI-based marketing of coffee and cocoas may actually move closer to a true terroir theory – without any changes in law. Eschewing any a priori role of the state or central government in GI systems, the study looks at the quality control and marketing experiences of Jamaica (Jamaica Blue Mountain Coffee) and Ethiopia (Harrar, Yirgacheffe, and Sidano), concluding that the weakness of public institutions in many developing countries and the history of central governments extracting rents from farmers should caution us against any GI laws that rely too heavily on government regulation. The study also seeks to debunk the more strident advocacy that GI protection is a good means to protect developing countries’ “traditional knowledge” (TK) and “traditional cultural expressions” (TCE). The connection between legal protection of GIs and the protection of TK/TCE is complex and includes cases where extremely successful GIs actually are detrimental to local traditions.
The debate and negotiations in progress at the international level concerning the protection of geographical indications (GI) are of direct interest to the local agricultural products and foodstuffs called terroir products. Beyond the protection of the use of their name, which is the founding principle of this system, and the legal and economic considerations this system implies, new questions are being raised about these products concerning the diversification of farming and sustainable development. More and more, and in a favourable context, another major issue is becoming apparent: the biological and cultural diversity linked to these products. This questioning concerns the status and the future of these local resources in our societies and whether or not GIs can help maintain this diversity. Protecting local and traditional products through the GI system can contribute to conserving biodiversity at various levels: domestic animal breeds, plant varieties, microbial ecosystems, and landscapes. This is also a way of maintaining in a formal way shared knowledge and practices, since they underpin the protected resource. Taking account of these elements offers an opportunity to think about agriculture differently and leads us to propose an innovative approach to local products. Several examples taken in France will help show how links can be established between the protection of GI, cultural biodiversity, and local knowledge.
Terroir, the concept of an essential link between location of production and a specific quality attribute, is emerging as a contentious issue in trade negotiations and disputes. This issue is manifest through disputes and disagreements about appropriate protection of ‘geographical indications’ (GIs). This paper explores the differences in approach taken by the EU and the US towards GI protection, and illustrates the nature of the legal and economic arguments. The transatlantic dispute is spreading to other countries through the inclusion of GI protection in regional and bilateral trade pacts. It also has implications for the eventual conclusion of the WTO Doha Round negotiations, as the terroir issue arises in both the agricultural and the Trade-Related Intellectual Property (TRIPS) agendas, once again pitting the US and EU as protagonists. But there are signs of change in these positions as the GI system in the EU comes under review and producers in the US reconsider the possible advantages of location-based identifiers. These issues are important in a number of food sectors, and are likely to be persistent. They deserve more attention from practising applied economists than they have yet received.
Among developing countries, one can identify both proponents and opponents of extending the use of geographical indications (GIs) beyond wines and spirits. Such an extension is currently being discussed under the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) of the World Trade Organization. While labeling is mostly based on private initiatives, GIs are considered to be long-term public rights. Proponents therefore regard GIs as the stronger tools for protecting their national property rights and offering them new opportunities to develop their export markets. Opponents, however, consider GIs to be new barriers to trade that impede their export opportunities. This article clarifies these positions and pulls together some evidence on costs and benefits related to GIs versus labels.
Traditional mountain societies are characterized by their close interconnection with nature and natural resources. They depend upon natural resources and biodiversity for their sustainable livelihood concerns (Ramakrishnan 1992a; Ramakrishnan et al. 1994; 1996). This linkage with nature and natural resources extends beyond the economic realm; social, cultural and spiritual dimensions also play a significant role (Ramakrishnan et al. 1998). Traditional mountain societies have a holistic view of the ecosystem and the social system. This relationship with nature is based on coexistence rather than competition, which results in agricultural strategies that are adapted to the natural environment and the sustainable use of natural resources. The result of this relationship is a set of institutional arrangements that evolved towards ecological prudence. The ultimate objective is the sustainable use of natural resources through compromises between environmental risks on the one hand, and productivity concerns on the other.
The concept of local production is a particular reality in France, both in the field itself, home to a huge variety of such products, and in the imagination of the French people. Regional products, terroir products, local, traditional and free-range products... There are countless terms to define this uniquely varied family that is thought to add meaning and promote attachment and as such, much coveted. The protection measures now in place make some of these products seem particularly interesting. Within such a context, what matters is to understand what makes local products special, exploring certain concepts, emphasizing what really makes them different and trying to make sense of their profusion and variety. To do that, we need to look at the cultural criteria that link a place with a particular history and social group.In addition to formal procedures for the protection of geographical indications, various other initiatives also help to add value to local products. Part of coordinated (but basically unofficial) campaigns, they reflect the efforts of players from all walks of life but mainly the public sector (Ministries of Agriculture, Tourism and the Environment).Not all countries have the same relationship with place. A product’s place within a territory is determined by various factors, some more important than others depending on that country’s economic and social history, culture, local balances of power and natural environment.
Latin America's coffee market continues in economic crisis. Sustainable coffee production and certification is one option for economic recuperation and social and environmental sustainability for the region's coffee producers. This paper explores four viable certification processes (Organic, Fair Trade, Rainforest Alliance, and Utz Kapeh) by first defining their requirements. Then, an assessment of microeconomic impacts is given, where the production processes of sustainable and conventional coffee are evaluated and compared. Finally, the paper presents their future relevance and entrepreneurial potential by considering long-term market perspectives. Information about sustainable production in Latin America was gathered through primary sources in interviews and markets analyses conducted by the CIMS Foundation.
Payments for environmental services (PES) represent a new, more direct way to promote conservation. They explicitly recognize the need to address difficult trade-offs by bridging the interests of landowners and external actors through compensations. Theoretical assessments praise the advantages of PES over indirect approaches, but in the tropics PES application has remained incipient. Here I aim to demystify PES and clarify its scope for application as a tool for tropical conservation. I focus on the supply side of PES (i.e., how to convert PES funding into effective conservation on the ground), which until now has been widely neglected. I reviewed the PES literature for developing countries and combined these findings with observations from my own field studies in Latin America and Asia. A PES scheme, simply stated, is a voluntary, conditional agreement between at least one “seller” and one “buyer” over a well-defined environmental service—or a land use presumed to produce that service. Major obstacles to effective PES include demand-side limitations and a lack of supply-side know-how regarding implementation. The design of PES programs can be improved by explicitly outlining baselines, calculating conservation opportunity costs, customizing payment modalities, and targeting agents with credible land claims and threats to conservation. Expansion of PES can occur if schemes can demonstrate clear additionality (i.e., incremental conservation effects vis-à-vis predefined baselines), if PES recipients' livelihood dynamics are better understood, and if efficiency goals are balanced with considerations of fairness. PES are arguably best suited to scenarios of moderate conservation opportunity costs on marginal lands and in settings with emerging, not-yet realized threats. Actors who represent credible threats to the environment will more likely receive PES than those already living in harmony with nature. A PES scheme can thus benefit both buyers and sellers while improving the resource base, but it is unlikely to fully replace other conservation instruments.
Resumen: Los pagos por servicio ambientales (PSA) representan una forma nueva y más directa para promover la conservación. Explícitamente reconocen la necesidad de abordar las ventajas los trade offs los intereses de los propietarios de tierra y de los actores externos mediante compensaciones. Las evaluaciones teóricas exaltan las ventajas de PSA en relación con métodos indirectos, pero la aplicación de PSA en los trópicos ha permanecido incipiente. Aquí trato de desmitificar a PSA y clarificar sus alcances en su aplicación como una herramienta para la conservación en los trópicos. Me concentro en el lado de la oferta de PSA (i.e., como convertir el financiamiento de PSA en conservación efectiva), el cual ha sido ampliamente descuidado hasta ahora. Revisé la literatura sobre PSA en países en desarrollo y combiné estos hallazgos con observaciones de mis propios estudios de campo en Latinoamérica y Asia. En pocas palabras, un esquema PSA es un acuerdo voluntario y condicional entre por lo menos un “vendedor” y un “comprador” sobre un servicio ambiental bien definido—o un uso de suelo que se presume produce ese servicio. Los mayores obstáculos para los PSA efectivos incluyen limitaciones por parte de la demanda y la falta de conocimiento sobre su implementación por parte de la oferta. El diseño de programas de PSA puede mejorar mediante la definición explícita de líneas de base, el cálculo de los costos de oportunidad de la conservación, la adaptación de modalidades de pago y la identificación de agentes con credibilidad en su posesión de tierras y en sus amenazas a la conservación creíbles. La expansión de los PSA puede ocurrir si los esquemas pueden demostrar adicionalidad (i.e., efectos incrementales de la conservación frente las líneas de base predefinidos), si la dinámica de la subsistencia de los recipientes de PSA es entendida mejor, y si las metas de eficiencia son balanceadas con consideraciones de justeza. Se argumenta que los pagos de los servicios ambientales son más adecuados para escenarios de costos de oportunidad de la conservación moderados en terrenos marginales y en escenarios con amenazas emergentes, no materializadas aun. Los actores que representan amenazas creíbles al ambiente tendrán mayor probabilidad de recibir PSA que aquellos que ya viven en armonía con la naturaleza. Por lo tanto, un esquema PSA puede beneficiar tanto a compradores como a vendedores al mismo tiempo que mejora la base de recursos, pero es poco probable que reemplace completamente a otros instrumentos de conservación.
The 'Common Code for the Coffee Community' (4C) was developed as a multi-stakeholder initiative designed to embed sustainability principles in the mainstream coffee industry. It elicited widespread condemnation from producer countries during its initial 'testing phase'. Focusing on Indian opposition, this article comes to the conclusion that, unless key issues as defined by producer-country interests are addressed, any initiatives to advance the economic, social and environmental sustainability of the industry are likely to be seen as vehicles within a neo-imperialist agenda seeking to establish consumer-country control over the product supply chain. Copyright 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
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