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The Effect of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation and Static Stretch Training on Running Mechanics
Abstract
Caplan, N, Rogers, R, Parr, MK, and Hayes, PR. The effect of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation and static stretch training on running mechanics. J Strength Cond Res 23(4): 1175-1180, 2009-There is a long-standing belief that increased range of movement (RoM) at the hip or knee will improve running mechanics; however, few studies have examined the effect of such an increase in RoM. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of 2 methods of stretch training (static and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation [PNF]) on high-velocity running. Eighteen rugby league players were assessed for maximum sprinting velocity. They were randomly allocated into 2 stretch training groups: PNF or static. Each group trained their hamstrings 4 d x w(-1) for 5 weeks. Pre- and posttraining subjects were videoed while running at 80% of maximum velocity. The video was digitized to identify biomechanical changes in hip flexion (HF), knee extension (KE), stride length (SL), stride rate (SR), and contact time (tc). Stretch training resulted in gains (p < 0.05) in HF for the static stretch (SS) (4.9%) and PNF (7.6%) groups. There were reductions in KE (p < 0.05) for SS (1.0%) and PNF (1.6%) groups. Stride mechanics were also altered after training. There were increases in SL (p < 0.05) for SS (7.1%) and PNF (9.1%) and a concomitant reduction in SR (p < 0.05) for SS (1.9%) and PNF (4.3%). No changes were observed in tc in either group. In conclusion, both SS and PNF training improved HF RoM and running mechanics during high-velocity running. These findings suggest that stretch training undertaken at the end of regular training is effective in changing running mechanics.
... Em estudo realizado por Rosa, Padilha, Carvalho e Mossini, em que foram observados os ganhos na flexibilidade em isquiotibiais após a aplicação de alongamentos ativo, passivo e FNP, a técnica FNP se mostrou a mais eficiente, seguida pelo alongamento ativo e, por último, pelo passivo (estático) 3 Contrariando os estudos que mostraram a superioridade de uma técnica sobre a outra, diversos estudos observaram diferenças que não foram consideradas significativas entre os dois tipos de alongamento 4,[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] . ...
... O estudo realizado por Caplan, Rogers, Parr e Hayes comparou a influência das técnicas FNP e alongamento estático na flexão do quadril e na extensão do joelho e na mecânica de funcionamento durante uma corrida de alta velocidade, medindo o comprimento e o ritmo do passo 14 . Para a flexão de quadril, foram observados ganhos significativos tanto para FNP quanto para alongamento estático, porém, se comparadas as duas técnicas, não houve diferença significativa. ...
... Alguns autores encontraram uma vantagem da técnica FNP sobre o alongamento estático 7,3,8 , enquanto Davis, Ashby, McCale, McQuain e Wine apontaram maiores benefícios na aplicação do alongamento estático em relação à do FNP 5 . Ainda há os autores que não encontraram diferenças significativas entre as duas técnicas4,[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] .Diante da diversidade de resultados encontrados na literatura, o objetivo desta revisão é, por meio do levantamento dos resultados de estudos realizados com as técnicas de alongamento FNP e estático, determinar aquela que apresenta maiores benefícios para ganhos de flexibilidade. ...
... Results of this investigation are consistent with several studies (14,(22)(23)(24)(25) and a review of the literature (26), indicating that PNF produces increases in strength and neuromuscular activity. Similar to our results, in the context of team sports players recovering from the hamstring muscles injuries, it has been reported that PNF exercises can be effective in improving strength and neuromuscular activity (14). ...
... Similarly, Nelson et al. (24) showed improvements in muscular strength and athletic performance after 8 weeks of PNF training. Furthermore, Caplan et al. (22) investigated the effects of a five-week PNF stretching protocol on stride rate and stride length and they reported an increase in both parameters. Additionally, Nelson et al. (25) found that PNF is more effective than traditional strength in terms of strength gains and athletic performance over a short period of 8 weeks. ...
Background: Hamstring injuries are common in sports that involve rapid, forceful lengthening of the hamstring muscles, such as sprinting, jumping, and kicking. This type of injury is more likely to occur in team sports such as football and handball. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate chronic effects of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching on muscle strength and neuromuscular activity of the hamstring muscle. Methods: Six male team sports players (age: 24.38 ± 1.94 years; height: 180.73 ± 6.05 cm; body-mass: 80.23 ± 10.42 kg) were recruited for this study. Participants completed a 2-month rehabilitation program that included three sessions per week of contract-relax (CR) PNF stretching. Neuromuscular activity and strength were evaluated by electromyography (EMG) and force sensor before and after 8 weeks of CR-PNF stretching. Results: The neuromuscular activity of the medial and lateral hamstring muscles was significantly different between pre-and post-training for the apex and area of muscle (P < 0.01). Similarly, there was a large difference between pre- and post-training for hamstring muscle strength (medial and lateral) in the contract and relax positions (P < 0.001). Conclusions: Eight weeks of contract-relax proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching is effective in increasing neuromuscular activity and muscle strength in the hamstring muscles.
... Results of this investigation are consistent with several studies (14,(22)(23)(24)(25) and a review of the literature (26), indicating that PNF produces increases in strength and neuromuscular activity. Similar to our results, in the context of team sports players recovering from the hamstring muscles injuries, it has been reported that PNF exercises can be effective in improving strength and neuromuscular activity (14). ...
... Similarly, Nelson et al. (24) showed improvements in muscular strength and athletic performance after 8 weeks of PNF training. Furthermore, Caplan et al. (22) investigated the effects of a five-week PNF stretching protocol on stride rate and stride length and they reported an increase in both parameters. Additionally, Nelson et al. (25) found that PNF is more effective than traditional strength in terms of strength gains and athletic performance over a short period of 8 weeks. ...
... Results of this investigation are consistent with several studies (14,(22)(23)(24)(25) and a review of the literature (26), indicating that PNF produces increases in strength and neuromuscular activity. Similar to our results, in the context of team sports players recovering from the hamstring muscles injuries, it has been reported that PNF exercises can be effective in improving strength and neuromuscular activity (14). ...
... Similarly, Nelson et al. (24) showed improvements in muscular strength and athletic performance after 8 weeks of PNF training. Furthermore, Caplan et al. (22) investigated the effects of a five-week PNF stretching protocol on stride rate and stride length and they reported an increase in both parameters. Additionally, Nelson et al. (25) found that PNF is more effective than traditional strength in terms of strength gains and athletic performance over a short period of 8 weeks. ...
Background: Hamstring injuries are common in sports that involve rapid, forceful lengthening of the hamstring muscles, such as sprinting, jumping, and kicking. This type of injury is more likely to occur in team sports such as football and handball. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate chronic effects of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching on muscle strength and neuromuscular activity of the hamstring muscle. Methods: Six male team sports players (age: 24.38 ± 1.94 years; height: 180.73 ± 6.05 cm; body-mass: 80.23 ± 10.42 kg) were recruited for this study. Participants completed a 2-month rehabilitation program that included three sessions per week of contract-relax (CR) PNF stretching. Neuromuscular activity and strength were evaluated by electromyography (EMG) and force sensor before and after 8 weeks of CR-PNF stretching. Results: For the neuromuscular activity of the medial and lateral hamstring muscles, there was a significant difference between pre- and post-training for the apex and area of muscle (P < 0.01). Similarly, there was a great difference between pre- and post-training for hamstring muscle strength (medial and lateral) in the contract and relax positions (P < 0.001). Conclusions: Contract-relax-proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching after an eight weeks of rehabilitation period is effective in increasing neuromuscular activity and muscle strength of the hamstring muscles.
... While researchers have investigated the effectiveness of stretching routines mostly on males, including rugby players (Caplan et al., 2009;Fletcher & Jones, 2004), sprinters (Jonhagen et al., 1994), soccer players (Sayers et al., 2008), and young adults (Bradley et al., 2007), this is the first study to examine a yoga (stretching) programme for female rugby players. After measuring the players and comparing with the norms available the author (s) found out that players flexibility was below these norms (Gray & Naylor, 2009). ...
... There is a considerable amount of literature indicating that static and dynamic stretching (as used in this study during the yoga session) are effective at improving flexibility in both acute and chronic settings (Caplan et al., 2009;Kokkonen et al., 2007;LaRoche & Connolly, 2006;Worrell et al., 1994). However, to our knowledge, there is a paucity of information on the effectiveness of a yoga training or a mixed-method (static and dynamic) stretching routine on improving sprint performance and flexibility. ...
There is an ongoing search on how to enhance the sprint performance of athletes. One should likely start investigating beyond traditional sport-training techniques about enhancing the sprinting ability of an athlete. Female rugby players were randomly assigned to one of the two groups; an experimental group (n = 5) and a control group (n = 5). Data were collected during pre-season and end- season on hamstring flexibility and sprint performance. Unpaired t-tests with an alpha level of p ≤ 0.05, Pearson correlation coefficient for the correlation. The experimental group significantly improved their straight leg raise test (SLR) by 29.1 ± 15.3-degrees (mean % change ± 95% CI, p < 0.05) and 5 m sprint time -10.4 ± 10.2 % compared to the control group 2.9 ± 15.3-degree (p = 0.05), and time difference of 9.9 ± 6.1% respectively. There was also a moderate negative correlation between SLR and 5 m sprint performance time (r = -0.29, p < 0.05 statistical significance. Results indicate that a 12-week yoga training helped improve the hamstring flexibility and performance of the 5 m acceleration phases of the 20 m sprint of rugby union players compared to a control group. Yoga helped rugby players to improve their hamstring flexibility when practiced alongside normal rugby training but maybe did little to improve sprint measures greater than 5 m performance during the season.
... These findings are consistent with many studies that indicated significant improvements in VJ following PLYOT program for 6-8 weeks (Manouras et al., 2016;Santos, Janeira, & Research, 2011). The improvement in muscular power variables of COMB group attribute to the combined effects of PNF and PLYOT on condition the PNF stretching completed after PLYOT to induce increase in muscular power and athletic performance (Caplan, Rogers, Parr, Hayes, & Research, 2009;Nelson, Kokkonen, Arnall, & Research, 2005), a previous studies has proofed that the merging of strength and flexibility training reduce muscle-tendon unit (MTU) hysteresis more than strength training Singularly, hysteresis is the energy lost as heat during extension of viscoelastic substances (Kubo & Science, 2005). These findings are consistent with the study of (Ramachandran & Pradhan, 2014) who observed the statistically significant increase in vertical jump height in trained basketball players after 2-week of combining PLYOT and stretching. ...
... These findings are consistent with some of the studies that observed the statistically significant improvements in flexibility in female dancer and gymnasts after 6-month of PLYOT (McGilvray, Haslam, & Sport, 1999;Patil, 2016). The improvement in flexibility variables of COMB group attribute to the combined effects of PNF and PLYOT on condition the PNF stretching completed after PLYOT to induce an increase in ROM and flexibility (Caplan et al., 2009;Nelson et al., 2005). ...
The knowledge gained through this study could help to make plyometric training more effective when Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) stretching added to the workouts without having to isolate strength and flexibility on separate sessions. The aim of this study was to compare the individual and combined effects of 6-week of PNF stretching and plyometric training (PLYOT) in muscular power and flexibility for young volleyball players Thirty-seven male young volleyball players participated in the current study. They were distributed into four groups; PNF (n = 10), PLYOT (n = 10), Combining PNF and PLYOT (COMB) (n = 10), and control group without PNF and PLYOT (CON) (n = 7), they were tested before (PRE) and after (POST) 6-week training for muscular power [i.e. vertical jump (VJ), seated medicine ball throw (SMTH), and rotational power ball throw (RPTH)] and flexibility [i.e. sit& reach test (SRT), shoulder& wrist flexibility test (SWFT), and trunk rotation test (TRT)]. The results have shown significant effects of the time for all study variables (p ≤ 0.05) of all groups except CON group had no significant effects (p ˃ 0.05). There were statistically significant differences favor COMB group (p ≤ 0.05) at the POST evaluation in muscular power variables in comparison with the PNF and PLYOT groups, while no statistically significant differences (p ˃ 0.05) were found between PNF, PLYOT, and COMB in all flexibility variables. In conclusion the combined effect of PNF and PLYOT has surpassed the individual effect of them on muscular power but not on flexibility variables.
... In 8 of these studies there were only positive effects (Nelson et al. 1986, Ryan, Rossi & Lopez 2010, Pacheco et al. 2011, Arazi et al. 2012, Paz et al. 2012, de Deus Gomes et al. 2014, Akbulut & Agopyan 2015, Saltan, Yumin & Yeşim 2015, there were null effect in 13 of them (Young & Elliott 2001, Christensen & Nordstrom 2008, Wallmann, Gillis & Martinez 2008,Yuktasir & Kaya 2009, de Paiva Carvalho et al. 2009, Molacek et al. 2010, Jordan et al. 2012, Place et al. 2013, Dallas et al. 2014, Ferreira et al. 2105, Oliveira et al. 2016, Sozbir et al. 2016, Papadimitriou et al. 2017. Additionally while there were both effects in 3 studies (Godges et al. 1989, Serzedelo Corrê a, Pereira & Gomes 2003, Kofotolis et al. 2002, there was negative effect in 1 study together with both effects (Caplan et al. 2009), (Table 1). ...
... The findings in Kofotolis et al. (2002)'s study showed that PNF training (8 weeks, 3 times a week) is as effective as isokinetic training in increasing vertical jumping ability. The findings of Caplan et al. (2009) indicate that stretching exercises after regular trainings are effective on running mechanics. In another study, the striking velocities of soccer players increased who performed PNF stretching exercises (8 weeks) (Akbulut & Agopyan 2015). ...
The role of flexibility on athletic performance is going on to be studied both acutely and how it affects the performance in the long-term. It is important to understand the effects of various stretching types and define the most appropriate form in order to maximize the human movement and performance. Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching techniques are commonly used at athletic and clinic settings with the aim of optimizing motor performance and rehabilitation in order to increase range of motion. Yet, new research results put forth that the relation between performance and stretching is not as its thought and come up to this belief with suspicion. The aim of this review is to focus on the positive effects of PNF stretching on performance and to provide the reader with the latest researches on athletic performance. The researches reveal that PNF stretching can increase athletic performance in the long-term. Besides, it is more possible to obtain and maintain the benefits of PNF techniques if they are performed accurately and consistently.
... All of the parameters improved after the use of PNF by 7, 6%, 1,6%, 9,1% and 4,3% respectively. The protocol lasted for five weeks and had a frequency four times per week (Caplan et al., 2009). ...
... Furthermore, similar findings with our study found and in other investigation which showed positive results after the use of stretching exercises PNF after five weeks in legs mobility in rugby athletes. So, any attempt to improve mobility is suitable in sports that presented greater burdens of musculature complex (Caplan et al., 2009). ...
The warm up exercises comprise stretching. A stretching exercise is the proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF). To examine the effect of PNF, 23 swimmers (11 boys and 12 girls), aged from 12-15 years participated in the training program that included this type of stretching. 11 swimmers (5 boys-6 girls) performed for eight weeks, three times per week in addition to swimming training, six PNF exercises for the lower limbs with total duration 10 minutes (PNF) while the other 12 swimmers (6 boys-6 girls) were the control group (C) following only the swimming workout. Leg's range of motion measured with electrical goniometer and performance evaluation test included 10 seconds, 2 and 10 minutes freestyle kick at maximum intensity with kickboard. The distance that were covered, the number of kicks and the blood lactate concentration, three minutes after the effort, were measured. The test protocol was carried out at the begging, the 4th and the 8th week of investigation. The statistical analysis did not reveal a significant effect of PNF at leg mobility. The performance improved the same in both of groups (PNF, C). In conclusion, the use of distending stretching (PNF) did not affect positive or negative at the parameters that we study.
... PNF has also been shown to enhance performance in submaximal exercises like jogging. A five-week PNF stretching program significantly improved stride rate and length in 18 professional rugby players [51]. Additionally, PNF stretching improved muscular strength similarly to weight training and significantly boosted athletic performance in untrained females. ...
Purpose: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of PNF on pain, motor function, fatigue, and
quality of life in MS patients.
Method: A randomized, controlled, single-blind study was conducted. Forty-four patients were
randomly assigned to either the PNF Group (PNFG, n = 22, 16 female) or the Control Group (CG,
n = 22, 16 female). PNFG underwent supervised combined aerobic and PNF training thrice
weekly for 8 weeks, while CG followed a home exercise regimen. Various measures were
employed, including the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) for pain, Timed Up and Go (TUG) test,
Functional Reach Test (FRT), Six-Minute Walk Test (6-MWT), Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS), Fatigue
Impact Scale (FIS), Dexterity Questionnaire-24 (DextQ-24) and Multiple Sclerosis Quality of Life-
54 (MSQoL-54).
Results: PNFG exhibited significant improvements in VAS (p = 0.000), FRT (p = 0.001), TUG
(p = 0.000), 6-MWT (p = 0.000), FIS (p = 0.007), DextQ-24 (p = 0.033), MSQoL-54 scores (Physical
Health Composite, Mental Health Composite, p = 0.005, p = 0.002, respectively) (p < 0.05). CG also
showed improvements in VAS (p = 0.018), TUG (p = 0.000), 6-MWT (p = 0.000), FSS (p = 0.006),
psychosocial function (p = 0.007), MSQoL-54 (Physical Health Composite, Mental Health
Composite, p = 0.017, p = 0.001, respectively), DextQ-24 ADL scores (p = 0.045) (p < 0.05). PNFG
outperformed CG in DextQ-24 (Dressing, p = 0.038) and MSQoL-54 subscales (emotional well-
being, energy, health perception, p = 0.007, p = 0.037, p = 0.044, respectively) (p < 0.05).
Conclusions: This is the first randomized controlled trial to show that PNF improves upper limb
motor function (skill) and quality of life in MS patients. PNF and home physiotherapy effectively
improved pain, motor function, fatigue and quality of life, with the PNF group achieving better
outcomes. Both modalities offered accessible rehabilitation options.
... Nelson et al. (2005) also reported improved muscle strength and athletic performance after 8 weeks of PNF training. Caplan et al. (2009) found an increase in stride speed and stride length after a five-week PNF protocol. In addition, Zaidi et al. (2023) showed increased EMG activity during isometric contractions after four weeks of PNF intervention, and Miyahara et al. (2013) reported increased hamstring strength in young university students. ...
Introduction: Athletes with CP were more prone to limb injuries. Stretching had long been considered beneficial for improving muscle performance and reducing the risk of injury. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation was a technique used to enhance muscle elasticity and increase peak torque and muscle strength. Objective: To analyze the effect of adding Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation exercises on quadriceps and hamstring muscle strength in cerebral palsy athletes. Methodology: The study was conducted at the NPC Indonesia Training Center. The subjects consisted of 24 athletes diagnosed with cerebral palsy, aged 18-40 years, who underwent intervention three times per week for four weeks on both limbs. The subjects were divided into two groups: 12 individuals in the treatment group received a resistance training program with additional Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation exercises, and 12 in the control group underwent resistance training only. Results: There was a significant increase in muscle strength in the treatment group for the dominant quadriceps (p=0.043), non-dominant quadriceps (p=0.001), dominant hamstring (p=0.002), and non-dominant hamstring (p=0.008). In the control group, significant increases were observed in the dominant hamstring (p=0.024) and non-dominant hamstring (p=0.013), but not in the dominant quadriceps (p=0.530) or non-dominant quadriceps (p=0.420). Compared to the control group, a significant difference was found in non-dominant quadriceps strength (p=0.020), but no differences were observed in dominant quadriceps strength (p=0.396) or hamstring strength (p=0.271, p=0.204). Conclusions: The addition of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation exercises significantly increased quadriceps and hamstring strength in cerebral palsy athletes compared to those without it.
... Funnel plots of standard errors for knee pain (A) and range of motion (B) in the meta-analysis. SE, standard error; SMD, standardized mean difference solely enhancing quadriceps strength[43][44][45]. Thus, whether considering surgery or opting for conservative treatment in patients with KOA, knee joint ROM remains a critical factor. ...
... Current research found in the international literature highlights that most patients with low ulnar nerve injuries return to their pre-surgery professional and social activities within approximately 12 months, if they went through a proper rehabilitation program (Caplan, 2018 ...
The objective of this paper is to highlight the importance and effectiveness of the proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation techniques in the rehabilitation of the ulnar nerve paralysis, caused by a trauma in the
lower third portion of the forearm. The most serious effect of this trauma was the complete disruption of the ulnar
nerve (neurotmesis), the patient losing both his motor and sensory function in the area covered by the nerve. The
study started by identifying the degree of motor, sensory and trophic injury in the injured area immediately after
surgery, then creating a strategy for a physical therapy intervention that would aim for an effective rehabilitation in
the shortest amount of time possible.
Research methods. The subject in this case study went through a cycle of five physical therapy sessions per
week, of 90 minutes each, over the course of 17 months. The main research methods used were the observation, the
exploration and assessment, the experimental method and the graphical representation method. The results were
centralized in tables and represented as charts, in order to make it easier to highlight and interpret them.
Results. The interpretation of the results recorded during the initial and final assessments of the patient has
emphasized the fact that the use of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation techniques has led to effective results,
such as: the correction of muscular imbalances, the stimulation of the motor response, the increase of joint mobility,
of muscle strength, the improvement of trophicity.
Conclusions. It has been proven that the methods and techniques used in this physical therapy program
were effective, leading to results that were maintained over a long period of time after the intervention, giving the
patient a chance to return to his previous professional activities.
Key words: neurotmesis, ulnar nerve, facilitation.
... Stretching exercises may increase ROM by raising the pain threshold, stretch tolerance and sarcomere numbers. [36][37][38] The current results support the findings of Suzuki's research, which showed that improving joint flexibility and multiple muscle strength was more important than increasing quadriceps strength alone. 39 The current study also supports Chow et al's study, which showed that 2 weeks of stretching, was beneficial for total knee arthroplasty patients given that it improved ROM and postoperative outcomes. ...
Objective
This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of rectus femoris stretching on pain intensity, knee range of motion (ROM), spatiotemporal gait parameters and function in patients with knee osteoarthritis (KOA).
Methods
This parallel group, single-blinded randomised controlled trial was conducted in two outpatient physical therapy clinics. Study participants (n=60, with age>45 years) with mild-to-moderate bilateral KOA were randomised into the study group (SG) and control group (CG). SG received rectus femoris stretching exercises together with stretching exercises of the calf, hamstring and iliotibial band, strength exercises for the quadriceps, gluteus medius, gluteus maximus and calf muscles, whereas, the CG received all exercises mentioned for SG except rectus femoris stretching. Pain intensity, ROM, spatiotemporal gait parameters and function were measured before and after 4 weeks of treatment.
Results
The SG showed a significant improvement in the visual analogue scale, Western Ontario and McMaster Universities measure and ROM (p<0.001). The SG also had a significantly greater step length and speed than CG (p<0.001). Extension ROM did not significant difference between the groups (p>0.05).
Conclusion
Simple rectus femoris stretching exercises are easy to perform even at home and are beneficial for pain, flexion ROM, function and spatiotemporal gait parameters, such as step length and speed, in KOA patients if the compliance with the exercise regimen is good.
Trial registration number
Pan African Clinical Trials Registry PACTR202003828737019.
... Stretching exercises do not take a long time, but it must be remembered that the benefits and positive values of the practices do have a perfect influence on the perpetrator. Static Stretching exercises and PNF have an excellent effect on RoM in the hips and knees related to step mechanics during high-speed walking(Caplan et al., 2009;Lim, 2011).Based on the description above, it can be stated that proper stretching or flexibility exercises are needed for students, according to age and to support their activities. Passive static stretching exercises are the most frequent and joint stretching exercises done by students, while PNF exercises are still rarely done, considering that their implementation requires special attention. ...
Flexibility is an important basic component in sports activities, which supports the achievement of the maximum performance of an athlete. Exercises are needed for stretching proper this study aimed to determine: (1) the effect of passive static stretching on shoulder flexibility, (2) the effect of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) stretching on shoulder flexibility (3) determine which exercise is better on shoulder flexibility between stretching and PNF. the method used is experimental with pretest and post-test design. The research sample was 16 students of the Sport Coaching Education study program, Faculty of Sport, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta. research data was obtained using the sit and reach test. Data analysis using an independent sample test with the help of the SPSS 22.0 program. The results of the study (1) passive static stretching effect on togok flexibility, the test results show the value of sig. 0.00 < 0.05. (2) practice PNF affects the flexibility of stakes. The study results show that both passive tactical stretching exercises and PNF exercises have a significant effect on increasing flexibility, but empirical data states that PNF exercise is more effective in increasing flexibility.
... Similarly, the active straight leg raise of the FMS™ assesses both hamstring flexibility and hip extension (Cook et al. 2014), and this domain of hip extension is associated with greater sprint and running velocity (Carter and Greenwood 2015). Improving flexibility and hip mobility has also been associated with improvements in running mechanics, when engaged in sub-maximal sprinting speeds (Caplan et al. 2009), often observed within second level school physical education classes for adolescents. Given that these selected skills and patterns appear to correlate with one another across both domains of movement in youth, it is unsurprising that the current findings observed how the FMS TM modestly converges with both locomotion and balance in Irish youth. ...
Background: The meaningful assessment of motor competence is well positioned for school-based curricular emphasis, through the integration of motor skills and movement patterns in both primary, and second level school physical education. Aligned with the growing interest in holistic motor competence assessment in physical education, the aim of this study was to assess the convergent validity between fundamental movement skills and functional movement assessments in a large cohort of adolescent youth.
Method: A sample of 583 adolescents, aged between 12 and 16 years old participated in the study. Ten fundamental movement skills were assessed in line with the behavioural components from the Test of Gross Motor Development, and the Get Skilled Get Active resource. Seven specific functional movements were also assessed, using the existing protocol from the widely established Functional Movement Screen. All data were analysed using Bayesian procedures, in which the Bayes factors provided information about the probability of a hypothesis being true.
Findings: The results indicate that it is very probable (BF10 > 10,000:1) that boys show higher actual motor competence levels in the object control subset of fundamental movement skills, when compared to girls. Moreover, a positive association between the total scores of the Functional Movement Screen and the locomotion subset of fundamental movement skills was found to be very probable (BF10 = 7.737).
Discussion: This study provides evidence of convergent validity between functional movement and fundamental movement skill assessments in adolescence. This study presents an evidence-informed rationale for physical education pedagogues to move beyond traditional perceptions of movement as being exclusively pertaining to physical skills, to a more holistic concept of motor competence comprising of both movement skills and movement patterns.
Conclusion: The current study broadens the assessment perspectives of motor competence within physical education, by specifically heightening physical education teachers’ awareness towards the possible complementarity of both locomotion and movement patterns in the psychomotor domain of adolescent learning in physical education.
KEYWORDS: Movement; children; measurement; school; locomotion;
... Consequently, since increased ROM was previously found to positively influence the stretchshortening cycle, which causes the muscle to generate greater force, increases the rate of force development and decreases the ground time, these may contribute in improving muscular performance and running economy (endurance capacity) [22]. A study for example, has shown that rugby players who increased their lower limps ROM with flexibility training, improved their running mechanics when running at 80% of their maximum velocity [23]. It is possible therefore that, the professional players included in the "good" levels of flexibility group, evaluated in our study, to have benefited during the bleep-test when the pace progressively become greater to 80% of their maximum velocity during the bleep-test, contributing to improve their endurance capacity. ...
There is growing confusion of whether stretching training (static or dynamic) affect athletes’ performance. Studies suggested that acute pre-competition stretching, may diminish maximum speed and muscular explosiveness performance in very short but powerful athletic trails/events. Similarly, studies suggested that by increasing the range of motion, with flexibility training, may negatively influence performance in long-distance runners. However, how safe is for soccer scientists/coaches to generalize results from studies that did not utilize soccer players and without taking into consideration the demands, needs, environment and the nature of soccer as a sport? In this opinion, we will focus specifically on the effect of sit-and-reach flexibility levels on elite young and mature/professional soccer-players’ physical fitness performance. Studies from our laboratory observed positive results of the effect of “good” levels of sit-and-reach flexibility on elite soccer players’ physical fitness performance.
Keywords: Flexibility training; Physical fitness performance; Elite soccer players
... The intervention group received the posterior knee musculature stretching during uphill treadmill walking, and studies demonstrated that the ROM increased as a result of stretching due to 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 Table 3. Between-group differences analysis. increased stretch tolerance [43], sarcomere numbers [44], and the pain threshold [45]. Also, stretching can stimulate the Golgi tendon organ and inhibit the stretched muscle motor unit; consequently, muscle relaxation and an increase in joint ROM have occurred [46]. ...
Purpose: This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of physiotherapy with uphill walking versus physiotherapy alone on the disability of patients with knee osteoarthritis.
Methods: This study was a randomized clinical trial carried out on 30 patients (5 males and 25 females) with moderate knee osteoarthritis aged between 40 and 65 years. They were assigned to the intervention and control groups. Both groups received 10-session routine physiotherapy, and the intervention group received an 8-degree treadmill walking at a speed of 1.1m/s for 30 minutes in each session. The participants’ disability was measured before, immediately after, and 20 days after the 10-session treatment by the Persian version of Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS). The data were analyzed through the repeated measures analysis of variance in SPSS V. 22. The significant level was set at 0.05.
Results: Statistical analysis showed significant improvements in the activity of daily living (P≤0.01) and quality of life (P
... Therefore, the use of the US in both groups increases the soft tissue extensibility and improves knee ranges. The intervention group received the posterior knee musculature stretching during uphill treadmill walking, and studies demonstrated that the ROM increased as a result of stretching due to increased stretch tolerance [43], sarcomere numbers [44], and the pain threshold [45]. Also, stretching can stimulate the Golgi tendon organ and inhibit the stretched muscle motor unit; consequently, muscle relaxation and an increase in joint ROM have occurred [46]. ...
Purpose: This study aims to compare the effectiveness of uphill walking and physical therapy versus physical therapy alone on knee pain, excursion ranges, stride length, and walking speed in individuals with knee osteoarthritis.
Methods: In this randomized clinical trial, 30 patients with knee osteoarthritis participated. Both control and intervention groups received 10-session physical therapy. Moreover, the intervention group received an 8-degree treadmill walking at a speed of 1.1 m/s for 30 min in each session. Outcome measures, including pain, excursion ranges, stride length, and walking speed, were measured at baseline, post-treatment, and a 20-day follow-up.
Results: Significant improvements in stride length and walking speed were observed just in the intervention group from baseline to post-treatment (p ≤ 0.001) and from baseline to follow-up (p ≤ 0.001). Furthermore, significant improvement in excursion ranges was observed just in the intervention group from baseline to follow-up (p < 0.05).
Conclusions: This study revealed that the addition of uphill walking to physical therapy results in stride length and walking speed improvements and that it also has persistent effects on knee ranges, stride length, and walking speed as compared with physical therapy alone.
This clinical trial was registered at irct.ir (study ID: IRCT20171115034920N1).
• Implications for Rehabilitation
• Stretching exercises are recommended to correct knee flexion contracture and uphill treadmill walking is a form of functional stretching.
• This study shows 10 sessions of combined uphill treadmill walking and physical therapy provided superior improvements in stride length and walking speed at 10-session or 20-day follow-up, and active and passive excursion ranges at 20-day follow-up compared with physical therapy alone.
• Physical therapist may consider uphill treadmill walking when designing a physical therapy for patients with knee osteoarthritis to promote the results of the rehabilitation programs.
... Historically, this practice was maintained since it enforced possible effects on improved performance and injury prevention [3][4][5]. However, more recent studies have challenged these ideas, demonstrating that stretching before the main part of the training session does not prevent exercise-related injuries, and besides, depending on its type, intensity and volume, it can promote temporary decreases in neuromuscular performance and reduction of performance [2,6,7]. ...
... In contrast, the Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) still presents gaps regarding its effect on performance. These manifestations, the explosive force, especially of the lower limbs, is one of the most important factors that determine the physical condition of the athlete and their performance (Caplan et al., 2009), especially when this ability is inherent to the sport, that can be affected by stretching. Another important indicator of the athlete's physical performance is muscular endurance that can also be affected by stretching protocols performed during the warming up phase of a training session (Barroso et al., 2012;Franco et al., 2008). ...
Stretching during warm-up has been widely discussed for exerting a possible influence on performance. Thus, the purpose of this study was to verify the influence of the Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) in the explosive force (EF) and the jump resistance (JR) of athletes. Eight male basketball players (21 ± 5 years; 176 ± 0 cm; 74.93 ± 14.2 kg; 23 ± 3.9 kg/m2) underwent two PNF protocols: a) Protocol 1: four
repetitions with 5- second maximum voluntary isometric contraction followed by 30 seconds of passive stretching and b) Protocol 2: four repetitions with 5-second maximum voluntary isometric contraction followed by 60 seconds of passive stretching. For the assessment of EF and JR the height of the countermovement vertical jump was considered measured through the Jump System Pro. The Student t test was used to compare the heights of the jumps between pre and post stretching moments for the two analyzed variables. EF (Protocols 1 and 2 t (7) = 1,372, p = 0,212, and t (7) = 1,315, p = 0,229, respectively) and JR (Protocols 1 and 2, t (7) = 1,491, p = 0,179, and t (7) = 0446, p = 0,668, respectively) did not differ significantly (p>0.05) after both stretching protocols. The results of this study show that the stretching protocols used did not acutely affect the performance of EF and JR of basketball athletes.
... De la misma forma que múltiples estudios han resaltado amplia- mente los beneficios de la FNP, hay estudios que no han permitido encontrar diferencia entre la utilización de la FNP y otras técnicas de estiramiento: la fuerza explosiva evaluada a través de saltos y espe- cialmente saltos contra caída (Drop Jump) no presenta mejora con la utilización de FNP (Yuktasir & Kaya, 2009), tampoco deportistas cuyo objetivo fundamental es la velocidad han demostrado eficien- cia mecánica (Caplan, Rogers, Parr, & Hayes, 2009), ni aquellos que expresan fuerza máxima a través del entrenamiento (Franco, Signorelli, Trajano, & Oliveira, 2008;Marek et al., 2005), donde los resul- tados favorecen incluso más el estiramiento dinámico, sobre otras técnicas como el estiramiento estático y el FNP (Manoel, Harris-Love, Danoff, V, & Miller, 2008), también poblaciones jóvenes parecen obtener resultados en la flexibilidad sin importar la técnica (Wallmann, Gillis, & Martinez, 2008). ...
En el mundo, el porcentaje de adultos mayores se encuentra en aumento, obligando al desarrollo continuo de políticas en salud. En razón a los cambios morfológicos y estructurales propios del músculo esquelético durante el envejecimiento, que llevan a su deterioro, varios modelos de ejercicio han sido puestos a prueba, incluyendo el entrenamiento de la fuerza explosiva y la flexibilidad. La Facilitación Neuromuscular Propioceptiva, ha surgido como una alternativa de entrenamiento, gracias a los resultados positivos demostrados en el área de la prevención y la rehabilitación; sin embargo en el adulto mayor sano no ha sido posible demostrar dichos beneficios, presentándose por el contrario dificultades en la aplicación de los programas, dados por los tiempos necesarios para hacer tangibles los resultados y los riesgos que con su implementación se puedan presentar. Es necesario desarrollar nuevas investigaciones que involucren técnicas combinadas de entrenamiento, con el fin de comprender y optimizar la respuesta al ejercicio físico en el adulto mayor.
... Static warm-up provides positive effects on the manifestation of explosiveness in athletes and this approach ensures easy improvement of pliability in only a couple of weeks (Woolstenhulme, Griffiths, Woolstenhulme, & Parcell, 2006;O'Hora, Cartwright, Wade, Hough, & Shum, 2011). Static stretching can also increase the mechanics of movements, especially regarding the fast movements of athletes (Caplan, Rogers, Parr, & Hayes, 2009). ...
... It is believed that such shift in optimum length might have prophylactic effects on exercise-induced muscle damage [2], which in turn might help preventing overuse injuries [56,57]. Furthermore, increase in muscle length following chronic stretching seems to increment muscle performance [58][59][60], especially in activities involving stretch-shortening cycle [61]. Nevertheless, more high-quality evidence is necessary to establish the real influence of adequate flexibility on muscle function. ...
Background: Both static stretching (SS) and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) have been widely investigated, it is believed that PNF might have an advantage over SS because of its possible neural mechanisms. However, it remains uncertain which one is the most effective strategy.
Objective: The aim of the present review was to compare the effects of SS and PNF stretching on hamstring flexibility.
Methods: The search included the databases Cochrane CENTRAL, MEDLINE (via Pubmed), Lilacs, PEDro, and manual search. Studies that have compared SS and PNF on hamstring flexibility in sedentary and recreationally active young adults were included. In contrast, studies with samples composed by children, elderly, and people with any dysfunction/disease were excluded.
Results: From the 757 studies identified, 19 were included in the systematic review, but only 12 had suitable data for the meta-analysis. The meta-analysis was divided into two types of tests: straight leg raise (SLR) and knee extension test (KET). Results from the SLR analysis showed no difference between SS and PNF either chronically (−2.56; 95%CI: −7.43 to 2.32) or acutely (−3.32; 95%CI: −11.58 to 4.93). Regarding the KET analysis, there was no difference between groups (0.93; 95%CI: −1.39 to 3.24).
Conclusion: In conclusion, both SS and PNF stretching can be effective in increasing hamstring flexibility.
... Then the participants had to jump as high as possible from a standing position. Unrestricted countermovement and free arm swing could be used preceding the jump (Caplan, Rogers, Parr, & Hayes, 2009;Heller et al., 1998;Kirmizigil, Ozcaldiran, & Colakoglu, 2014). The difference between vertical reach and jump height was used to represent vertical jump performance. ...
... Seven studies assessed MP using a functional test that followed the SSC principle. Four studies (Caplan, Rogers, Parr, & Hayes, 2009;Kokkonen, Nelson, Eldredge, & Winchester, 2007;Levenez et al., 2013;Wilson et al., 1992) found that an increase in flexibility promotes an increase in MP. One study found partial results (Hunter & Marshall, 2002), and two studies (Bazett-Jones, Gibson, & McBride, 2008;Yuktasir & Kaya, 2009) found no significant difference when compared stretching group to a control group (Table 1). ...
The aim of the current study was to investigate the influence of chronic stretching on muscle performance (MP) by a systematic review. The search strategy included MEDLINE, PEDro, Cochrane CENTRAL, LILACS, and manual search from inception to June 2016. Randomized and controlled clinical trials, non-randomized, and single group studies that have analyzed the influence of flexibility training (FT) (using any stretching technique) on MP were included. Differently, studies with special populations (children, elderly, and people with any dysfunction/ disease), and articles that have used FT protocols shorter than three weeks or 12 sessions were excluded. The MP assessment could have been performed by functional tests (e.g. jump, sprint, stretch-shortening cycle tasks), isometric contractions, and/or isotonic contractions. Twenty-eight studies were included out of 513. Seven studies evaluated MP by stretch-shortening cycle tasks, Ten studies evaluated MP by isometric contractions, and 13 studies assessed MP by isotonic contractions. We were unable to perform a meta-analysis due to the high heterogeneity among the included studies. In an individual study level analysis, we identified that 14 studies found positive effects of chronic stretching on MP. The improvements were observed only in functional tests and isotonic contractions, isometric contractions were not affected by FT. Therefore, FT might have an influence on dynamic MP. However, more studies are necessary to confirm whether FT can positively affect MP.
... One study found PNF stretching to be superior over SS in alteration of gait pattern. 74 Hip flexion and stride length increased (p < 0.05) and stride rate decreased (p < 0.05); therefore, the authors advocated stretching after training to alter running mechanisms. 74 ...
Introduction: The proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation-concept (PNF-concept) is a widely used rehabilitation concept, and is in many countries part of the undergraduate curriculum of physiotherapy education. It is also offered in postgraduate training worldwide. The modern physiotherapist is confronted with the application of evidence-based practice; therefore, the aim of this review is to summarize the available evidence for this rehabilitation concept. Method: A search was completed using Pubmed, ScienceDirect, PEDro, Cochrane library and the International PNF Association website. An evidence-based practice approach has been promoted in the field of physiotherapy since the early 1990s, hence we limited the search from 1990 until 2014. Major findings: Seventy-four sources that were found were categorized in: (A) PNF philosophy, (B) PNF basic principles and procedures, (C) PNF techniques in rehabilitation. In the reviewed publications, a variety of indications and subject populations were identified including: neurological, musculoskeletal, pulmonary, geriatric and mixed disorders. The publications varied in type and quality, ranging from case studies, clinical trials, randomized controlled trials and reviews. This variety of publications, treatment indications and outcome measures in the publications warranted a narrative review Discussion and conclusion: The scope and diversity of articles in the review make it difficult to study the PNF-concept in a methodical way, since different components of a comprehensive rehabilitation approach may act as confounders when measuring the effects of one specific part of the approach. There is a substantial body of research which supports the use of PNF as a comprehensive rehabilitation concept. The literature also describes that the PNF-concept is applied in clinical practice in a variety of populations and indications; however, efficacy for specific indications and populations requires further investigation.
... low back pain, myofascial pain or knee pain) [20][21][22]. In addition, it is also extensively applied in the field of sports medicine [23,24]. However, despite the extensive research in wide, clinical applications, neurophysiological mechanisms involved in transforming sensory inputs from the periphery to cortical motor outputs at the spinal level and supraspinal level are still unknown. ...
Background: This case report of a patient with a an avulsion brachial plexus injury demonstrates the effectiveness of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) integrated into hand therapy following a pedicled latissimus dorsi (LD) musculocutaneous flap transfer for elbow and fingers extension. Methods: A 29-year-old right-hand dominant male suffered from high-energy crushing and avulsion injury at the workplace. He presented with pain (5/10), numbness over right upper limb, shoulder strength weakness (2/5), and brachial plexus injury including median, radial and ulnar nerve palsies. A pedicled LD musculocutaneous flap was performed to reconstruct the elbow and hand function simultaneously in the primary stage. The treatment program was divided into three phases: (1) immobilization phase (within 4 weeks after surgery), (2) facilitation phase (4 to 8 weeks after surgery), (3) strengthening phase (8 weeks after surgery). Application of PNF principles (manual contact, visual input and verbal instructions) and techniques (rhythmic initiation, repeated stretch, combination of isotonics and irradiation with D1 extension) were guided in the facilitation phase and early stage of strengthening phase to facilitate active control of elbow and finger extension. Results: The patient could actively move the elbow and finger extensors after 2-weeks of PNF therapy. Up to 4 months after reconstructive surgery, the patient's elbow and fingers extensor reached strength of M4 and M3. In the next months, several palliative surgeries (e.g. elbow joint arthroplasty, thumb and wrist extension reconstruction) were performed. The patient returned to his original job as a manufactory worker 2 years after the accident. Conclusion: PNF may be an effective and specific component of rehabilitation in the recovery of function in the early phase post injury for a patient with a major upper arm traction avulsion amputation reconstructed by a pedicled latissimus dorsi muscle.
... Another study examined isometric strength of the hip extensors/flexors and knee extensors but these were found to be poor predictors of sprint performance (Kukolj, Ropret, Ugarkovic, & Jaric, 1999). A link between improved hip flexion range of motion and running mechanics has also been suggested (Caplan, Rogers, Parr, & Hayes, 2009). The aim of this study was to investigate a possible link between physiotherapy screening data and fitness testing results in Australian first class cricketers. ...
... Then the participants had to jump as high as possible from a standing position. Unrestricted countermovement and free arm swing could be used preceding the jump (Caplan, Rogers, Parr, & Hayes, 2009;Heller et al., 1998;Kirmizigil, Ozcaldiran, & Colakoglu, 2014). The difference between vertical reach and jump height was used to represent vertical jump performance. ...
It is believed that sport massage after intensive exercise might improve power and perceptual recovery in athletes. However, few studies have been done in this area. This study aimed to examine the effect of massage on the performance of bodybuilders. Thirty experienced male bodybuilders were randomly assigned to either a massage group (n = 15) or a control group (n = 15). Both groups performed five repetition sets at 75-77% of 1RM of knee extensor and flexor muscle groups. The massage group then received a 30-min massage after the exercise protocol while the control group maintained their normal passive recovery. Criteria under investigation included: plasma creatine kinase (CK) level, agility test, vertical jump test, isometric torque test, and perception of soreness. All variables were measured over 6 time periods: baseline, immediately after the DOMS inducing protocol, right after the massage, and 24, 48, and 72 h after the massage. Both groups showed significant (P < .001) decreases in jumping, agility performance, and isometric torque, but significant (P < .001) increases in CK and muscle soreness levels. The massage group in general demonstrated a better recovery rate. As such, a post-exercise massage session can improve the exercise performance and recovery rate in male bodybuilders after intensive exercise.
... 24,25 However PNF has been shown to be beneficial to increase stride length, frequency, and ROM. 26 Nelson found PNF is more beneficial than strength training in increasing strength and athletic performance in untrained individual. 27 Sayers did a study to determine which phase of a 30 meters sprint (acceleration or maximal velocity) was affected by pre performance static stretching on elite female soccer players and found that static stretching before sprinting results in slower time in acceleration and overall sprint time. ...
Background: A warm-up is important part of preparation for sprinting. There is popularity of doing stretching as part of warm up before athletic activity. The static stretching and PNF stretching is performed by athletes but their effectiveness on sprinting performance is in state of debate. The objective is to determine the effect of static stretching and PNF stretching on sprinting performance in college sprinters and to compare the effects of PNF stretching over static stretching on sprinting performance in college sprinters.
Method: A total of 100 subjects were taken for the study that fulfill the inclusion criteria and all were divided into group- A (static stretching) and group- B (PNF stretching) by simple random sampling method. Both the groups received 5 minutes of warm-up exercises. Pre-Post design was used, which consisted of running a 40-yard sprint immediately following 2 stretching conditions aimed at the lower limb muscles
Results: In static stretching group sprint time changed from 6.55 with standard deviation of 0.93 to 6.12 with standard deviation of 1.02 (P
... Por otro lado ha demostrado un efecto benéfico en programas de ejercicio, con miras a mejorar la estabilidad postural (Ryann, Rossi, & Lopez, 2010 ), y en aquellos que buscan no solo aumentar el rango de movilidad articular , sino también la eficiencia mecánica de la contracción tanto en miembros inferiores (Rees, Murphy, Watsford, McLachlan, & Coutts, 2007), como en miembros superiores (Decicco, V & Fischer, 2005), sin que se vea afectada la producción de fuerza a largo plazo (Higgs & Winter, 2009). De la misma forma que múltiples estudios han resaltado ampliamente los beneficios de la FNP, hay estudios que no han permitido encontrar diferencia entre la utilización de la FNP y otras técnicas de estiramiento: la fuerza explosiva evaluada a través de saltos y especialmente saltos contra caída (Drop Jump) no presenta mejora con la utilización de FNP (Yuktasir & Kaya, 2009), tampoco deportistas cuyo objetivo fundamental es la velocidad han demostrado eficiencia mecánica (Caplan, Rogers, Parr, & Hayes, 2009), ni aquellos que expresan fuerza máxima a través del entrenamiento (Franco, Signo- relli, Trajano, & Oliveira, 2008; Marek et al., 2005 ), donde los resultados favorecen incluso más el estiramiento dinámico, sobre otras técnicas como el estiramiento estático y el FNP (Manoel, Harris-Love , Danoff, V, & Miller, 2008), también poblaciones jóvenes parecen obtener resultados en la flexibilidad sin importar la técnica (Wallmann, Gillis, & Martinez, 2008). Todo lo anterior intenta demostrar que la FNP tiene efectos benéficos y múltiples aplicaciones, en ámbitos específicos como la prevención de lesiones y la rehabilitación de las mismas, pero que en busca de la mejora de las capacidades físicas en pacientes sanos sus beneficios no son superiores a los encontrados a través de otras técnicas de estiramiento. ...
... Por otro lado ha demostrado un efecto benéfico en programas de ejercicio, con miras a mejorar la estabilidad postural (Ryann, Rossi, & Lopez, 2010 ), y en aquellos que buscan no solo aumentar el rango de movilidad articular , sino también la eficiencia mecánica de la contracción tanto en miembros inferiores (Rees, Murphy, Watsford, McLachlan, & Coutts, 2007), como en miembros superiores (Decicco, V & Fischer, 2005), sin que se vea afectada la producción de fuerza a largo plazo (Higgs & Winter, 2009). De la misma forma que múltiples estudios han resaltado ampliamente los beneficios de la FNP, hay estudios que no han permitido encontrar diferencia entre la utilización de la FNP y otras técnicas de estiramiento: la fuerza explosiva evaluada a través de saltos y especialmente saltos contra caída (Drop Jump) no presenta mejora con la utilización de FNP (Yuktasir & Kaya, 2009), tampoco deportistas cuyo objetivo fundamental es la velocidad han demostrado eficiencia mecánica (Caplan, Rogers, Parr, & Hayes, 2009), ni aquellos que expresan fuerza máxima a través del entrenamiento (Franco, Signo- relli, Trajano, & Oliveira, 2008; Marek et al., 2005 ), donde los resultados favorecen incluso más el estiramiento dinámico, sobre otras técnicas como el estiramiento estático y el FNP (Manoel, Harris-Love , Danoff, V, & Miller, 2008), también poblaciones jóvenes parecen obtener resultados en la flexibilidad sin importar la técnica (Wallmann, Gillis, & Martinez, 2008). Todo lo anterior intenta demostrar que la FNP tiene efectos benéficos y múltiples aplicaciones, en ámbitos específicos como la prevención de lesiones y la rehabilitación de las mismas, pero que en busca de la mejora de las capacidades físicas en pacientes sanos sus beneficios no son superiores a los encontrados a través de otras técnicas de estiramiento. ...
En el mundo, el porcentaje de adultos mayores se encuentra en aumento, obligando al desarrollo
continuo de políticas en salud. En razón a los cambios morfológicos y estructurales propios
del músculo esquelético durante el envejecimiento, que llevan a su deterioro, varios modelos
de ejercicio han sido puestos a prueba, incluyendo el entrenamiento de la fuerza explosiva y la
flexibilidad. La Facilitación Neuromuscular Propioceptiva, ha surgido como una alternativa de
entrenamiento, gracias a los resultados positivos demostrados en el área de la prevención y la
rehabilitación; sin embargo en el adulto mayor sano no ha sido posible demostrar dichos beneficios,
presentándose por el contrario dificultades en la aplicación de los programas, dados por los
tiempos necesarios para hacer tangibles los resultados y los riesgos que con su implementación
se puedan presentar. Es necesario desarrollar nuevas investigaciones que involucren técnicas
combinadas de entrenamiento, con el fin de comprender y optimizar la respuesta al ejercicio
físico en el adulto mayor
... The Fencing lunge is a closed‐kinetic‐chain unique skill in which its technique differentiates the elite from the sub‐ elite fencers (Harmenberg et al., 1991). Passive stretching, although seemingly not having any effect on movement technique, may have a negative effect on coordination and force production (Samuel et al., 2008), while simultaneously increasing stride length (Caplan et al., 2009). All these biomechanical altera‐ tions may in turn modify lunge mechanics through loss of control and power output (Fletcher and Jones, 2004). ...
Acute Effects of Stretching on Flexibility, Power and Sport Specific Performance in Fencers
Elite athletes are eager to perform to the best of their ability, regardless of different warm-up stretching techniques used before training or competition which actually help or hinder specific performance variables. The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effects of static or ballistic stretching on flexibility and leg power characteristics of fencing performance in fencers of both genders. Ten male and ten female international level fencers participated in this study. Each subject performed static or ballistic stretching (3 sets of 20 sec) on three muscles of the lower limbs on separate days. Flexibility, squat jump, countermovement jump, drop jump, time and power of lunge and shuttle run test were measured before and after different stretching interventions. Neither static nor ballistic stretching exercises affected flexibility, jumping ability and leg functional fencing performance tests. Moreover, stretching conditions did not affect differently. The results of this study suggest that static or ballistic stretching in the later stages of a general warm-up normally used before training or competition does not hinder specific performance in fencing. Consequently, fencers can continue performing any type of stretching before training or competition at their preference.
... Profesyonel sporcunun performansını artıran proprioseptif rehabilitasyon tekniklerinin kullanımı gittikçe önemli bir konu haline gelmektedir. [25][26][27] Propriyosepsiyon ile kas gücü, laksite ve denge gibi diğer performans ölçütleri arasındaki ilişki daha sonraki yıllarda gündemi oldukça meşgul edeceğe benzemektedir. [28] KaynaKlar ...
... Another study examined isometric strength of the hip extensors/flexors and knee extensors but these were found to be poor predictors of sprint performance (Kukolj, Ropret, Ugarkovic, & Jaric, 1999). A link between improved hip flexion range of motion and running mechanics has also been suggested (Caplan, Rogers, Parr, & Hayes, 2009). The aim of this study was to investigate a possible link between physiotherapy screening data and fitness testing results in Australian first class cricketers. ...
... Another study examined isometric strength of the hip extensors/flexors and knee extensors but these were found to be poor predictors of sprint performance (Kukolj, Ropret, Ugarkovic, & Jaric, 1999). A link between improved hip flexion range of motion and running mechanics has also been suggested (Caplan, Rogers, Parr, & Hayes, 2009). The aim of this study was to investigate a possible link between physiotherapy screening data and fitness testing results in Australian first class cricketers. ...
Background and Purpose
Warm‐up (WU) is a commonly practiced technique aimed at preparing athletes for physical activity. Although coaches and athletes consider WU essential, there is still an ongoing debate about its effectiveness. This might be due to the fact that WU procedures often rely on experiences rather than scientific research. During WU, athletes may pursue intermediate goals such as ensuring proper ranges of motion in joints, which seem crucial particularly for runners' ankle joints. Hence, the aim of this study was to evaluate influence of whole‐body vibration (WBV), drop jump (DJ), and a combination of both (WBV + DJ) in terms of ankle dorsiflexion and running parameters among recreational runners.
Methods
Sixteen runners performed as a WU: five sets of 30 s calf raises without WBV (CTRL), five sets of 30 s calf raises during WBV, five sets of six DJ, five sets of 30 s calf raises during WBV followed by 6 DJ. Range of motion (ROM) of the ankle joint was measured in a prone position using an inclinometer for the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles, separately. Measurements were conducted before and after WU, and after a 3000 m run.
Results
There was no interaction for time and WU for left ( p = 0.926) and right ( p = 0.738) soleus muscle as well as for left ( p = 0.748) and right ( p = 0.197) gastrocnemius muscles. No difference ( p = 0.914) for the running time was found.
Discussion
WBV, drop jumps, or a combination of both did not affect ankle dorsiflexion and running time.
Background
Stretching has garnered significant attention in sports sciences, resulting in numerous studies. However, there is no comprehensive overview on investigation of stretching in healthy athletes.
Objectives
To perform a systematic scoping review with an evidence gap map of stretching studies in healthy athletes, identify current gaps in the literature, and provide stakeholders with priorities for future research.
Methods
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 and PRISMA-ScR guidelines were followed. We included studies comprising healthy athletes exposed to acute and/or chronic stretching interventions. Six databases were searched (CINAHL, EMBASE, PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science) until 1 January 2023. The relevant data were narratively synthesized; quantitative data summaries were provided for key data items. An evidence gap map was developed to offer an overview of the existing research and relevant gaps.
Results
Of ~ 220,000 screened records, we included 300 trials involving 7080 athletes [mostly males (~ 65% versus ~ 20% female, and ~ 15% unreported) under 36 years of age; tiers 2 and 3 of the Participant Classification Framework] across 43 sports. Sports requiring extreme range of motion (e.g., gymnastics) were underrepresented. Most trials assessed the acute effects of stretching, with chronic effects being scrutinized in less than 20% of trials. Chronic interventions averaged 7.4 ± 5.1 weeks and never exceeded 6 months. Most trials (~ 85%) implemented stretching within the warm-up, with other application timings (e.g., post-exercise) being under-researched. Most trials examined static active stretching (62.3%), followed by dynamic stretching (38.3%) and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching (12.0%), with scarce research on alternative methods (e.g., ballistic stretching). Comparators were mostly limited to passive controls, with ~ 25% of trials including active controls (e.g., strength training). The lower limbs were primarily targeted by interventions (~ 75%). Reporting of dose was heterogeneous in style (e.g., 10 repetitions versus 10 s for dynamic stretching) and completeness of information (i.e., with disparities in the comprehensiveness of the provided information). Most trials (~ 90%) reported performance-related outcomes (mainly strength/power and range of motion); sport-specific outcomes were collected in less than 15% of trials. Biomechanical, physiological, and neural/psychological outcomes were assessed sparsely and heterogeneously; only five trials investigated injury-related outcomes.
Conclusions
There is room for improvement, with many areas of research on stretching being underexplored and others currently too heterogeneous for reliable comparisons between studies. There is limited representation of elite-level athletes (~ 5% tier 4 and no tier 5) and underpowered sample sizes (≤ 20 participants). Research was biased toward adult male athletes of sports not requiring extreme ranges of motion, and mostly assessed the acute effects of static active stretching and dynamic stretching during the warm-up. Dose–response relationships remain largely underexplored. Outcomes were mostly limited to general performance testing. Injury prevention and other effects of stretching remain poorly investigated. These relevant research gaps should be prioritized by funding policies.
Registration
OSF project (https://osf.io/6auyj/) and registration (https://osf.io/gu8ya).
Walking is a major goal for most patients. Effective walking requires the ability to change direction and to walk backward and sideways as well as forward. Being able to go up and down curbs, climb stairs and hills, and open and close doors increases the utility of the activity. To be totally functional the individual should be able to get down onto the ground and back up to standing again.
Das Gehen hat für die meisten Patienten einen besonders hohen Stellenwert, um selbständig zu bleiben; deshalb ist das uneingeschränkte Gehen meist das wichtigste Ziel des Patienten in der Behandlung. Zum besseren Verständnis des Ganges ist es wichtig, die Grundbegriffe der Ganganalyse von J. Perry zu beherrschen. Während des Trainings werden die Behandlungsprinzipien und viele Techniken der PNF-Methode beim stehenden und beim gehenden Patienten angewandt.
This review updates the knowledge on the use of bioprogressive philosophy in current rehabilitation paradigms, focusing on age-related ailments and antiaging strategies. It is a holistic approach that combines aspects of biology and function into the realm of rehabilitation therapy. The bioprogressive philosophy, with assistance of modern technological developments, such as microgravity-producing devices and techniques, enables personalized and targeted therapeutic approach that seems the most effective in rehabilitation and prevention of neuro-myo-sensory disorders that compromise the homeostatic body harmony, particularly in old age. The review defines the aging, discusses the most common physical dysfunctions, linked to posture, balance, or gait, and gives cues to modern antiaging rehabilitative approaches. The emphasis is put on the proprio-neuromuscular facilitation, a combination of stretch technique that steps into the bioprogressive approach, as currently the best method in the world of physical rehabilitation.
RESUMEN
El rendimiento en carreras de larga distancia depende de una serie de factores fisiológicos (VO2max, umbral anaeróbico, economía de carrera, edad, género, tipos de fibras musculares, fatiga y raza), ambientales (aire/viento, temperatura, humedad, altura y pendiente del terreno), psicológicos (intervención, dirección de la atención y música), ligados al entrenamiento (entrenamiento de resistencia, fuerza, aclimatación al calor y a la altitud) y biomecánicos (antropometría, ¿leg-stiffness¿, flexibilidad, patrón de pisada, calzado y parámetros espacio-temporales). A día de hoy, todavía existe un gran desconocimiento sobre la verdadera influencia de algunos de ellos. En concreto, la influencia de ciertos parámetros biomecánicos como el patrón de pisada y/o los parámetros espacio-temporales sobre la economía de carrera, su relación con parámetros fisiológicos y repercusión en el rendimiento sigue siendo difusa. Es posible que el origen de estas discrepancias esté en las limitaciones tecnológicas de los instrumentos de análisis utilizados.
Para intentar dar respuestas a algunas de estas cuestiones, la presente Tesis se ha propuesto los siguientes objetivos: 1- adaptar y validar un nuevo método para registrar las variables espacio-temporales (i.e. tiempos de contacto y de vuelo, frecuencia y amplitud de zancada) durante la carrera en tapiz rodante, lo que permitirá analizar automáticamente un alto y representativo número de pasos con ambos pies, 2- analizar la influencia del patrón de pisada (talonador vs planta entera/antepié) en la economía de carrera y otras variables biomecánicas, 3- examinar simultáneamente la influencia de las variables antropométricas, fisiológicas y biomecánicas en el rendimiento.
La validación del nuevo método (SportJump System Pro; plataforma de contacto láser insertada en un tapiz rodante y conectada a un software específico) se llevó a cabo con un total de 15 corredores, los cuales realizaron 7 series de carrera entre 10 y 22 km¿h-1. Se registraron simultáneamente los tiempos de contacto y de vuelo con una cámara de vídeo de alta velocidad (método de referencia) y el nuevo método. Éste sobreestimó el tiempo de contacto y subestimó el tiempo de vuelo a todas las velocidades de carrera analizadas. Sin embargo, las diferencias entre ambos métodos no dependieron del patrón de pisada y/o masa del corredor, y pudieron ser corregidas en función de la velocidad de carrera. En definitiva, el nuevo método mostró ser fiable y sensible a pequeños cambios en las variables espacio-temporales de la carrera, siendo la herramienta utilizada en las subsiguientes fases experimentales de esta Tesis Doctoral.
El análisis de la influencia del patrón de pisada en la economía de carrera y las variables biomecánicas, se llevo a cabo comparando las variables biomecánicas y fisiológicas de la carrera de 10 atletas talonadores y 10 atletas de planta entera/antepié, con un buen y similar nivel de rendimiento en media maratón. No se observaron diferencias en el VO2max y umbrales aeróbico y anaeróbico, sin embargo, los corredores talonadores fueron entre 5.0-9.3% más económicos que los de planta entera/antepié a velocidades submáximas. A su vez, los corredores talonadores mostraron un mayor tiempo de contacto y un menor tiempo de vuelo a todas las velocidades de carrera, sin diferencias en la frecuencia y amplitud de zancada. Así, las diferencias en el tiempo de contacto y de vuelo podrían explicar las variaciones en la economía de carrera.
Por último, la influencia de las variables antropométricas, fisiológicas y biomecánicas sobre en el rendimiento en la carrera fue examinada mediante el análisis de 48 corredores de diferente nivel. Estos fueron divididos en 4 grupos en función de su marca en media maratón. Se observaron diferencias entre grupos y correlaciones con el rendimiento en las variables ligadas al entrenamiento (experiencia y volumen de entrenamiento), antropométricas (masa, índice de masa corporal y sumatorio de pliegues cutáneos), fisiológicas (VO2max, umbral aeróbico y anaeróbico y economía de carrera) y biomecánicas (patrón de pisada). Los corredores de mayor nivel mostraron un menor de tiempo de contacto a la misma velocidad de carrera que los de menor nivel, pero esto fue debido al mayor porcentaje de corredores de planta entera/antepié en el grupo de mayor nivel. Teniendo en cuenta el patrón de pisada, estas diferencias desaparecieron. La frecuencia y amplitud de zancada fueron similares para todos los grupos de corredores a la misma velocidad de carrera. Por lo tanto, las variables espacio-temporales de la carrera (tiempo de contacto y de vuelo, frecuencia y amplitud de zancada) no fueron sensibles al rendimiento.
En conclusión, a partir de la adaptación y validación de un nuevo método para la medición de los parámetros espacio-temporales durante la carrera, se han podido extraer las siguientes conclusiones: 1- los corredores talonadores son más económicos que los de planta entera/antepié a velocidades de carrera submáximas, 2- los corredores de planta entera/antepié presentan aproximadamente un 10% menos de tiempo de contacto que los corredores talonadores, lo que les puede favorecer a altas velocidades de carrera (> 20 km¿h-1), 3- las variables espacio-temporales de la carrera no parecen ser sensibles al nivel de rendimiento.
ABSTRACT
Long-distance running performance depends on several factors such as physiology (VO2max, anaerobic threshold, running economy, age, gender, muscle fibre composition, fatigue and ethnicity), environment (air/wind, temperature, humidity, altitude and slope), psychology (intervention, focus of attention and music), training (endurance, resistance, heat acclimation and altitude training) and biomechanics (anthropometry, “leg-stiffness”, flexibility, foot strike pattern and spatio-temporal parameters). Nowadays, the real influence of some of these variables is still unknown. In particular, the influence of some biomechanical parameters such as foot strike pattern and/or spatio-temporal parameters on running economy, their relationship with physiological parameters and the impact on running performance are controversial topics of discussion. It is possible that the technological limitations of the measuring instruments have generated this discrepancy.
The present Thesis would try to explain these issues by the following aims: 1- adapt and validate a new method to measure spatio-temporal variables (i.e. contact and flight times, step rate and length) during treadmill running, which would allow to register automatically a high and representative number of steps of both feet, 2- analyze the influence of foot strike pattern (rearfoot vs midfoot/forefoot) on running economy and other biomechanical variables, 3- examine simultaneously the influence of anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical variables on running performance.
The validation of the new method (SportJump System Pro; a contact laser platform inserted in a treadmill and connected to a specific software) was performed with 15 runners, who completed 7 sets of running between 10 and 22 km·h-1. Contact and flight times were registered with a high-speed video camera (gold stardard method) and the new method. The new technology overestimated the contact time and underestimated the flight time at every running speed. However, these differences between both methods did not depend on runners’ foot strike pattern or mass, and they could be corrected according to running speed. In conclusion, the new method was validated, being reliable and sensitive for detecting small changes in running spatio-temporal parameters, being the analysis tool used in next experimental phases of this Thesis.
The analysis of the influence of foot strike pattern on running economy and biomechanical variables was perfomed by comparing biomechanical and physiological variables of 10 rearfoot and 10 midfoot/forefoot well-trained runners with a similar level of performance in a half-marathon. No differences were observed in VO2max and aerobic and anaerobic thresholds. Nevertheless, rearfoot strikers were between 5.0 and 9.3% more economical than midfoot/forefoot strikers at submaximal speeds. Step rate and length were not different between groups, but rearfoot strikers showed longer contact time and shorter flight time than midfoot/forefoot strikers at all running speeds. Thus, the differences in contact and flight time could explain running economy differences.
Finally, the influence of anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical variables on running performance was carried out analyzing 48 runners of different level. They were divided into 4 groups according to their performance level in a half-marathon. Significant differences between groups and correlations with performance were observed in training-related (experience and km per week), anthropometrics (mass, body mass index and sum of six skinfolds), physiological (VO2max, aerobic and anaerobic thresholds and running economy) and biomechanical variables (foot strike pattern). Higher level runners showed shorter contact time than lower level runners at the same running speed. However, this was due to the higher percentage of midfoot/forefoot runners in the best group of runners. Taking into account foot strike pattern and speed, these differences disappeared. Step rate and length were not different between groups at the same running speed. Therefore, running spatio-temporal variables (contact and flight time, step rate and length) were not sensitive to performance.
To sum up, from the adaptation and validation of the new method to measure running spatio-temporal parameters, the following conclusions were obtained: 1- rearfoot strikers are more economical than midfoot/forefoot strikers at submaximal running speeds, 2- midfoot/forefoot strikers have an approximately 10% shorter contact time than rearfoot strikers, which could be beneficial at high running speeds (> 20 km·h-1), 3- running spatio-temporal parameters (contact and flight time, step rate and length) seem not to be sensitive to performance level.
The aim of this study was to determine if selected kinematic measures (foot strike index [SI], knee contact angle and overstride angle) were different between aquatic treadmill (ATM) and land treadmill (LTM) running, and to determine if these measures were altered during LTM running as a result of 6 weeks of ATM training. Acute effects were tested using 15 competitive distance runners who completed 1 session of running on each treadmill type at 5 different running speeds. Subsequently, three recreational runners completed 6 weeks of ATM training following a single-subject baseline, intervention and withdrawal experiment. Kinematic measures were quantified from digitisation of video. Regardless of speed, SI values during ATM running (61.3 ± 17%) were significantly greater (P = 0.002) than LTM running (42.7 ± 23%). Training on the ATM did not change (pre/post) the SI (26 ± 3.2/27 ± 3.1), knee contact angle (165 ± 0.3/164 ± 0.8) or overstride angle (89 ± 0.4/89 ± 0.1) during LTM running. Although SI values were different between acute ATM and LTM running, 6 weeks of ATM training did not appear to alter LTM running kinematics as evidenced by no change in kinematic values from baseline to post intervention assessments.
Objective: The aim of the present study was to compare the effect of ratios of contraction- Relaxation on the muscle strength and range of motion of hip joint in PNF exercises.
Methods: Thirty nine nonathletic male students (Mean±SD; age, 13±1.2 years; body mass, 55±9.8 kg) were assigned .Three groups designated as I, II and III groups. The ratios of contraction to relaxation periods for groups were 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Training program included three sessions per week (CR-PNF) for 6 weeks. Measurements of hip extensors muscles stretch and strength were performed at the beginning and at the end of training using an inclinometer (during leg raise test) and dynamometer. Data were analyzed using dependent samples t-test and one-way ANOVA.
Results: The results of the present study showed significant increases in hip extensor muscles flexibility and strength for three groups. This increase the in the strength in group I equaled 6 kg, in group II 4 kg and in group III 7 kg. The amount of increase in the hip extensor muscles flexibility in group I, II and II were 15, 8 and 12 degrees, respectively. The increase in these two variables was significant and similar in all three groups.
Conclusion: Different contraction to relaxation ratio normally, 0.5, 1 and 2, did not show any meaningful differences on hip extensor muscular strength and hip range of motion.
Introdução: O alongamento é muito utilizado por atletas e praticantes de atividades físicas, mas seus reais benefícios são controversos. Objetivo: Realizar uma revisão de literatura sobre qual o efeito do alongamento para a saúde e desempenho, e quais seus mecanismos envolvidos. Métodos: Selecionou-se nas base de dados PUBMED, SCIELO e GOOGLE SCHOLAR, a partir de 1990, artigos que abordassem os seguintes temas: Protocolos de Alongamento; Fatores Determinantes da Flexibilidade; A Relação dentre Cocontração, Alongamento e Flexibilidade; e O Efeito do Alongamento para o Risco de Lesões. Resultados: Observou-se que a prática do alongamento pode melhorar a flexibilidade, mas as causas desta modificação podem envolver mecanismos psicológicos ou alterações da unidade-músculo-tendinosa. Não há evidências definitivas que suportem ou rejeitem o papel do alongamento para a prevenção de lesões. Contudo, criticou-se sobre a falta de estudos sobre alongamento em desportos potencialmente mais lesivos para esta capacidade. Muitos estudos com alongamento estático resultaram em efeitos deletérios ao desempenho, por outro lado, algumas pesquisas mostraram que o método neuro-propioceptivo ou balístico aumentou a performance. Para o efeito crônico do alongamento, encontrou-se melhoria no desempenho de tarefas de força-velocidade que envolvam o ciclo-muscular-alonga-encurta e o oposto ocorreu em atividades de endurance. Conclusão: O treino sistemático de alongamento pode melhorar a flexibilidade, mas os métodos passivos geralmente causam diminuição do desempenho em força-velocidade enquanto os métodos balísticos e neuroproprioceptivos tem mostrado o oposto
Runners are a very unique population to investigate. They are typically fi t and healthy and due to the nature of running could perform well in a wide range of other sporting activities. Due to high training volumes, however, runners are more predisposed to injury due to anatomic adaptations that occur. Many runners carry injuries which appear to be better tolerated by the same person taking part in other sports. These injuries are potentially caused by repeated loading of the lower limb joints seen during running. This paper presents an approach for the treatment of these issues seen in runners.
Stretching exercises to increase the range of motion (ROM) of joints have been used by sports coaches and medical professionals for improving performance and rehabilitation. The ability of connective and muscular tissues to change their architecture in response to stretching is important for their proper function, repair, and performance. Given the dearth of relevant data in the literature, this review examined two key elements of stretching: stretch intensity and stretch position; and their significance to ROM, delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and inflammation in different populations. A search of three databases, Pub-Med, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Reviews, identified 152 articles, which were subsequently categorized into four groups: athletes (24), clinical (29), elderly (12), and general population (87). The use of different populations facilitated a wider examination of the stretching components and their effects. All 152 articles incorporated information regarding duration, frequency and stretch position, whereas only 79 referred to the intensity of stretching and 22 of these 79 studies were deemed high quality. It appears that the intensity of stretching is relatively under-researched, and the importance of body position and its influence on stretch intensity, is largely unknown. In conclusion, this review has highlighted areas for future research, including stretch intensity and position and their effect on musculo-tendinous tissue, in relation to the sensation of pain, delayed onset muscle soreness, inflammation, as well as muscle health and performance.
A CRITICAL COMPONENT OF RUNNING PERFORMANCE IS RUNNING ECONOMY (RE). SOME FACTORS THAT DETERMINE RE ARE UNABLE TO BE CHANGED THROUGH TRAINING, WHEREAS OTHER COMPONENTS OF RE CAN BE ALTERED THROUGH EXERCISE, WITH OTHER RE FACTORS BEING LESS MODIFIABLE THROUGH TRAINING. THE EFFECT OF FLEXIBILITY (FLX) ON RE IS LESS RESEARCHED AND NOT WELL UNDERSTOOD. THE PURPOSE OF THIS ARTICLE IS TO EXPLAIN RE, DISCUSS IF A CORRELATION EXISTS BETWEEN FLX AND RE, EXAMINE IF ACUTE STRETCHING (STR) AFFECTS RE, REVIEW IF CHRONIC STR AFFECTS RE, AND PROVIDE CONCLUDING STATEMENTS ON THE EFFECTS OF FLX AND STR ON RE.
Abstract
Introduction: Aging is a phenomenon that produces functional changes in the cardiovascular system and autonomic
nervous system. The heart rate variability is a noninvasive and simple method of analysis of the Autonomic Nervous
System. Manual Therapy is the use of hands to heal, can be defi ned as the use of manipulation for therapeutic purposes.
Objective: To evaluate manual therapy techniques in the institutionalized elderly. Methodology: randomized controlled
clinical trial. Held in an Institution of Long Term Care. The study included 24 elderly, they were randomly divided
into four groups. The elderly were evaluated before and after manual therapy techniquesmaneuver performed by ocularmotor
and maneuvering of the fourth ventricle. To evaluate the autonomic nervous system, we used the Nerve-Express
software. For comparison between groups was used the T test paired samples. We considered the value of statistical
signifi cance p <0.05. Results: There was a reduction in mean values of the parasympathetic and sympathetic activities
after the completion of manual therapy. In the immediate effect is also reduced heart rate and blood pressure. Statistical
signifi cance was found in maneuver oculo-motor in reducing systolic blood pressure (p =0.03) and diastolic (p = 0.04) in
effect immediately. Conclusion: The ma neuver oculo-motor may act by reducing the heart rate, blood pressure, cardiac
chronotropic response and stimulate the parasympathetic activity. However, do more studies are needed on the subject.
KeyWords: Aging, Heart Rate Variability, ocular-motor maneuver, maneuver the IV ventricle.
Performance in sprint exercise is determined by the ability to accelerate, the magnitude of maximal velocity and the ability to maintain velocity against the onset of fatigue. These factors are strongly influenced by metabolic and anthropometric components. Improved temporal sequencing of muscle activation and/or improved fast twitch fibre recruitment may contribute to superior sprint performance. Speed of impulse transmission along the motor axon may also have implications on sprint performance. Nerve conduction velocity (NCV) has been shown to increase in response to a period of sprint training. However, it is difficult to determine if increased NCV is likely to contribute to improved sprint performance.
An increase in motoneuron excitability, as measured by the Hoffman reflex (H-reflex), has been reported to produce a more powerful muscular contraction, hence maximising motoneuron excitability would be expected to benefit sprint performance. Motoneuron excitability can be raised acutely by an appropriate stimulus with obvious implications for sprint performance. However, at rest H-reflex has been reported to be lower in athletes trained for explosive events compared with endurance-trained athletes. This may be caused by the relatively high, fast twitch fibre percentage and the consequent high activation thresholds of such motor units in power-trained populations. In contrast, stretch reflexes appear to be enhanced in sprint athletes possibly because of increased muscle spindle sensitivity as a result of sprint training. With muscle in a contracted state, however, there is evidence to suggest greater reflex potentiation among both sprint and resistance-trained populations compared with controls. Again this may be indicative of the predominant types of motor units in these populations, but may also mean an enhanced reflex contribution to force production during running in sprint-trained athletes.
Fatigue of neural origin both during and following sprint exercise has implications with respect to optimising training frequency and volume. Research suggests athletes are unable to maintain maximal firing frequencies for the full duration of, for example, a 100m sprint. Fatigue after a single training session may also have a neural manifestation with some athletes unable to voluntarily fully activate muscle or experiencing stretch reflex inhibition after heavy training. This may occur in conjunction with muscle damage.
Research investigating the neural influences on sprint performance is limited. Further longitudinal research is necessary to improve our understanding of neural factors that contribute to training-induced improvements in sprint performance.
Sixteen experienced male powerlifters served as subjects in a training study designed to examine the effect of flexibility training on: (i) the stiffness of the series elastic components (SEC) of the upper body musculature and (ii) rebound and purely concentric bench press performance. Nine of the subjects participated in two sessions of flexibility training twice per week for 8 wk. Prior to and after the training period the subjects' static flexibility, SEC stiffness, rebound bench press (RBP), and purely concentric bench press (PCBP) performance were recorded. The flexibility training induced a significant reduction in the maximal stiffness of the SEC. Furthermore, the experimental subjects produced significantly more work during the initial concentric portion of the RBP lift, enabling a significantly greater load to be lifted in the post-training testing occasion. The benefits to performance achieved by the experimental group consequent to flexibility training were greater during the RBP lift as compared with the PCBP lift. The control subjects exhibited no change in any variable over the training period. These results implied that the RBP performance enhancement observed consequent to flexibility training was directly caused by a reduction in SEC stiffness, increasing the utilization of elastic strain energy during the RBP lift.
This study involved comparison of three techniques for increasing range of motion. Fast stretch (ballistic), slow stretch, and IA-CA, a modified version of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) were compared using 24 normal male Ss. Controlling for serial order effects, 6 groups of 4 Ss each were administered the treatments, and the differences between pre- and post-exercise measures were observed. Multiple regression analysis indicated the superiority of the IA-CA approach.
63 college women served as subjects in this 7-wk. study examining the effects of static, dynamic, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitating stretching techniques on the flexibility of the hamstring-gastrocnemius muscles. Subjects were assigned to one of the 3 treatment groups and received treatment 3 days a week. A pretest, a midtest (after 11 treatment days), and a posttest (after 21 treatment days) were administered. Analysis of group and test effects was accomplished by using a 3 × 3 factorial design with the group factor nested and the test factor crossed. Post hoc analysis indicated that all scores significantly improved from pretest to posttest. The findings indicated all 3 methods of flexibility training produced significant improvements when pretest and posttest mean scores were compared.
The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between running economy and distance running performance in highly trained and experienced distance runners of comparable ability. Oxygen uptake (Vo2) during steady-state and maximal aerobic power (Vo2max) were measured during treadmill running using the open-circuit method. Distance running performance was determined in a nationally prominent 10 km race; all subjects (12 males) placed among the top 19 finishers. The subjects averaged 32.1 min on the 10 km run, 71.7 ml.kg-1.min-1 for Vo2max, and 44.7, 50.3, and 55.9 ml.kg-1.min-1 for steady-state Vo2 at three running paces (241, 268, and 295 m.min-1). The relationship between Vo2max and distance running performance was r = -0.12 (p = 0.35). The relationship between steady-state Vo2 at 241, 268 and 295 m.min-1 and 10 km time were r = 0.83, 0.82, and 0.79 (p < 0.01), respectively. Within this elite cluster of finishers, 65.4% of the variation observed in race performance time on the 10 km run could be explained by variation in running economy. It was concluded that among highly trained and experienced runners of comparable ability and similar Vo2max, running economy accounts for a large and significant amount of the variation observed in performance on a 10 km race.
Muscular exercise requires transitions to and from metabolic rates often exceeding an order of magnitude above resting and places prodigious demands on the oxidative machinery and O 2-transport pathway. The science of kinetics seeks to characterize the dynamic profiles of the respiratory, cardiovascular, and muscular systems and their integration to resolve the essential control mechanisms of muscle energetics and oxidative function: a goal not feasible using the steady-state response. Essential features of the O 2 uptake (˙ V O 2) kinetics response are highly conserved across the animal kingdom. For a given metabolic demand, fast ˙ V O 2 kinetics mandates a smaller O 2 deficit, less substrate-level phosphorylation and high exercise tolerance. By the same token, slow ˙ V O 2 kinetics incurs a high O 2 deficit, presents a greater challenge to homeostasis and presages poor exercise tolerance. Compelling evidence supports that, in healthy individuals walking, running, or cycling upright, ˙ V O 2 kinetics control resides within the exercising muscle(s) and is therefore not dependent upon, or limited by, upstream O 2-transport systems. However, disease, aging, and other imposed constraints may redistribute ˙ V O 2 kinetics control more prox-imally within the O 2-transport system. Greater understanding of ˙ V O 2 kinetics control and, in particular, its relation to the plasticity of the O 2-transport/utilization system is considered important for improving the human condition, not just in athletic populations, but crucially for patients suffering from pathologically slowed ˙ V O 2 kinetics as well as the burgeoning elderly population. C 2012 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 2:933-996, 2012.
The effects of an 8-week unilateral contract-relax (CR) stretching training program (passive stretch after isometric contraction) on muscular performance were investigated in a group of 16 athletes. The flexibility, maximum torque and angular position as well as contraction work in movements of the knee joint were determined before training and after 4 and 8 weeks of training. The torque measurements were performed under isokinetic conditions, eccentrically at angular velocities of 60 degrees x s(-1) and 120 degrees x s(-1), isometrically at five different joint positions, and concentrically at angular velocities of 60, 120, 180 and 240 degrees x s(-1) using an isokinetic dynamometer. A surface electromyogram (EMG) of the thigh muscles (quadriceps and hamstrings) was recorded simultaneously. As compared to untrained control limbs, significant improvements in active and passive flexibility (up to 6.3 degrees in range of motion), maximum torque (up to 21.6%) and work (up to 12.9%) were observed, and these were especially pronounced under eccentric load conditions. A comparison between integrated EMG recordings during eccentric and concentric loads, as well as the interpretation of the training-induced changes in the EMG, suggest that muscular activity under eccentric loads may be impaired by mental processes.
Performance in sprint exercise is determined by the ability to accelerate, the magnitude of maximal velocity and the ability to maintain velocity against the onset of fatigue. These factors are strongly influenced by metabolic and anthropometric components. Improved temporal sequencing of muscle activation and/or improved fast twitch fibre recruitment may contribute to superior sprint performance. Speed of impulse transmission along the motor axon may also have implications on sprint performance. Nerve conduction velocity (NCV) has been shown to increase in response to a period of sprint training. However, it is difficult to determine if increased NCV is likely to contribute to improved sprint performance. An increase in motoneuron excitability, as measured by the Hoffman reflex (H-reflex), has been reported to produce a more powerful muscular contraction, hence maximising motoneuron excitability would be expected to benefit sprint performance. Motoneuron excitability can be raised acutely by an appropriate stimulus with obvious implications for sprint performance. However, at rest H-reflex has been reported to be lower in athletes trained for explosive events compared with endurance-trained athletes. This may be caused by the relatively high, fast twitch fibre percentage and the consequent high activation thresholds of such motor units in power-trained populations. In contrast, stretch reflexes appear to be enhanced in sprint athletes possibly because of increased muscle spindle sensitivity as a result of sprint training. With muscle in a contracted state, however, there is evidence to suggest greater reflex potentiation among both sprint and resistance-trained populations compared with controls. Again this may be indicative of the predominant types of motor units in these populations, but may also mean an enhanced reflex contribution to force production during running in sprint-trained athletes. Fatigue of neural origin both during and following sprint exercise has implications with respect to optimising training frequency and volume. Research suggests athletes are unable to maintain maximal firing frequencies for the full duration of, for example, a 100m sprint. Fatigue after a single training session may also have a neural manifestation with some athletes unable to voluntarily fully activate muscle or experiencing stretch reflex inhibition after heavy training. This may occur in conjunction with muscle damage. Research investigating the neural influences on sprint performance is limited. Further longitudinal research is necessary to improve our understanding of neural factors that contribute to training-induced improvements in sprint performance.
The interaction between running, stretching and practice jumps during warm-up for jumping tests has not been investigated. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of running, static stretching of the leg extensors and practice jumps on explosive force production and jumping performance.
Sixteen volunteers (13 male and 3 female) participated in five different warm-ups in a randomised order prior to the performance of two jumping tests. The warm-ups were control, 4 min run, static stretch, run + stretch, and run + stretch + practice jumps. After a 2 min rest, a concentric jump and a drop jump were performed, which yielded 6 variables expressing fast force production and jumping performance of the leg extensor muscles (concentric jump height, peak force, rate of force developed, drop jump height, contact time and height/time).
Generally the stretching warm-up produced the lowest values and the run or run + stretch + jumps warm-ups produced the highest values of explosive force production. There were no significant differences (p<0.05) between the control and run + stretch warm-ups, whereas the run yielded significantly better scores than the run + stretch warm-up for drop jump height (3.2%), concentric jump height (3.4%) and peak concentric force (2.7%) and rate of force developed (15.4%).
The results indicated that submaximum running and practice jumps had a positive effect whereas static stretching had a negative influence on explosive force and jumping performance. It was suggested that an alternative for static stretching should be considered in warm-ups prior to power activities.
The purpose of this study was to compare the kinematic and kinetic parameters of treadmill running to those of overground running.
Twenty healthy young subjects ran overground at their self-selected moderate running speed. Motion capture and ground reaction force (GRF) data for three strides of each limb were recorded and the subjects' average running speed was evaluated. The subjects then ran on an instrumented treadmill set to their average overground running speed while motion capture and GRF data were recorded. The kinematics (body segment orientations and joint angles) and kinetics (net joint moments and joint powers) for treadmill (15 consecutive gait cycles) and overground running (three cycles each limb) were calculated and compared.
The features of the kinematic and kinetic trajectories of treadmill gait were similar to those of overground gait. Statistically significant differences in knee kinematics,the peak values of GRF, joint moment, and joint power trajectories were identified.
Parameters measured with an adequate instrumented treadmill are comparable to but not directly equivalent to those measured for overground running. With such an instrument, it is possible to study the mechanics of running under well-controlled and reproducible conditions.
Treadmill-based analysis of running mechanics can be generalized to overground running mechanics, provided the treadmill surface is sufficiently stiff and belt speed is adequately regulated.
Human running can be modelled as either a spring-mass model or multiple springs in series. A force is required to stretch or compress the spring, and thus stiffness, the variable of interest in this paper, can be calculated from the ratio of this force to the change in spring length. Given the link between force and length change, muscle stiffness and mechanical stiffness have been areas of interest to researchers, clinicians, and strength and conditioning practitioners for many years.
This review focuses on mechanical stiffness, and in particular, vertical, leg and joint stiffness, since these are the only stiffness types that have been directly calculated during human running. It has been established that as running velocity increases from slow-to-moderate values, leg stiffness remains constant while both vertical stiffness and joint stiffness increase. However, no studies have calculated vertical, leg or joint stiffness over a range of slow-to-moderate values to maximum values in an athletic population. Therefore, the effects of faster running velocities on stiffness are relatively unexplored. Furthermore, no experimental research has examined the effects of training on vertical, leg or joint stiffness and the subsequent effects on running performance.
Various methods of training (Olympic style weightlifting, heavy resistance training, plyometrics, eccentric strength training) have shown to be effective at improving running performance. However, the effects of these training methods on vertical, leg and joint stiffness are unknown. As a result, the true importance of stiffness to running performance remains unexplored, and the best practice for changing stiffness to optimize running performance is speculative at best. It is our hope that a better understanding of stiffness, and the influence of running speed on stiffness, will lead to greater interest and an increase in experimental research in this area.
The contribution of muscle in-series compliance on maximum performance of the muscle tendon complex was investigated using a forward dynamic computer simulation. The model of the human body contains 8 Hill-type muscles of the lower extremities. Muscle activation is optimized as a function of time, so that maximum drop jump height is achieved by the model. It is shown that the muscle series elastic energy stored in the downward phase provides a considerable contribution (32%) to the total muscle energy in the push-off phase. Furthermore, by the return of stored elastic energy all muscle contractile elements can reduce their shortening velocity up to 63% during push-off to develop a higher force due to their force velocity properties. The additional stretch taken up by the muscle series elastic element allows only m. rectus femoris to work closer to its optimal length, due to its force length properties. Therefore the contribution of the series elastic element to muscle performance in maximum height drop jumping is to store and return energy, and at the same time to increase the force producing ability of the contractile elements during push-off.
Human locomotion evolves from a profusion of interrelated mechanical minutiae, and it attains its greatest perfection in the smooth, even, graceful running gait of the trained athlete. Each body segment contributes to this final pattern. Individually, each lower extremity may be considered as a system of articulated levers which are acted on by the dynamic force of muscles, the kinetic force of the forward moving body, and the static forces of gravity and ground reaction. Together, they present a complex series of interrelated physical phenomena undergoing a constant flux with each change of position. The synchronous motions of the trunk and upper extremities aid in the balance and rhythm of forward progression by constantly positioning the body's center of gravity where it can be used most effectively. Fortunately, human evolution has streamlined the mechanical structures of the body to attain running speed and still provide stability which is essential if
The simplest description of all previous findings is that none of the studies concluded that either static stretching or ballistic stretching was significantly better than the proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation techniques for increasing range of motion, nor was the contract relax method more effective than the contract-relax agonist-contract (CRAC) technique (in studies which included the CRAC technique). Further differentiation is not possible, primarily because of inconsistent methodological concern for treatment duration, experimental controls, and subject selection. The problem of which stretching method is most effective is still not clearly resolved. Also, the effectiveness of each method on muscle groups other than the hamstring and lower back muscles has not been adequately addressed.
This study tested the hypothesis that the “looseness” factor in sprint running would be enhanced through lessening the resistance of antagonistic muscles and/or their connective tissues by stretching. On the basis of this hypothesis, it was predicted that running times would be improved and metabolic cost reduced as the result of improving joint mobility through stretching. Static stretching was used as a warm-up procedure to allow evaluation of a relatively pure flexibility factor as a contributor to muscular efficiency or “looseness.” Four subjects each ran ten 100-yd. time trials anaerobically. Five trials followed no warm-up and five followed a period of static stretching. Respiratory gas samples were analyzed for gross and net O2, CO2, ventilation rate, and true O2. Differences in running time and all respiratory measures were small in magnitude and none achieved significance at the .05 level.
Two experiments are described which investigate whether results obtained in studies of static flexibility transfer to dynamic flexibility.In Experiment 1, 24 female subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups or a control group. The three treatment groups received seven daily training sessions using proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), or one of two ballistic stretching techniques, the first emphasizing speed and the second emphasizing range. All subjects were pretested for dynamic range of hip flexion on Day 1 and posttested on Day 7. A single factor ANOVA revealed a significant difference in improvements between the experimental groups (F(3.20) = 5.825, p < 0.005). Subsequent follow up tests indicated that this was because the PNF and ballistic group emphasizing range had improved significantly more than the control group. No other differences were significant.The design of Experiment 2 was similar to that of Experiment 1, but used only two different training regimes: PNF and the ballistic technique which emphasised range. Here the criterion task was a measure of the dynamic range of shoulder extension. A single factor ANOVA again indicated significant differences between the experimental groups (F(2,15) = 41.74, p < 0.001), which follow up tests revealed were due to both treatment groups improving significantly more than the control group.The results are interpreted as suggesting that, in terms of short term improvements of dynamic range of motion, appropriately chosen ballistic stretching techniques can be just as effective as PNF-based techniques. This finding contrasts markedly with previous results obtained in studies of static range of motion.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation between running speed and a number of common strength and power tests, in absolute terms and relative to body mass. Twenty professional rugby league players were assessed for 10- and 40-m running speed, maximum strength in a 3 repetition maximum (RM) squat and 3RM power clean from the hang, and leg power. Power was assessed by the Plyometric Power System (PPS) during barbell jump squats with loads of 40, 60, 80, and 100 kg. The results indicated that, while 10- and 40-m sprint performances are highly related (r = 0.72, p <= 0.05), there still remains considerable variation in the factors that contribute to performance over each sprint distance. Although no absolute strength or power score was significantly related to either sprint performance, almost all the scores relative to body mass were significantly related to sprint performance. For the 10-m sprint, the significant relations ranged from r = -0.52 to r = -0.61 (p <= 0.05). For the 40-m sprint, the significant relations ranged from r = -0.65 to r = -0.76 (p <= 0.05). On the basis of this research, professional rugby players may need to be trained differently to a certain extent for 10- and 40-m sprint capabilities, as the longer distances appear more reliant on stretch-shortening cycle performance.
(C) 1999 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Among modern stretching techniques none has clearly been shown to be the most effective for increasing range of motion. The most common stretching method comparisons are between static stretching (SS) and one or more Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) technique(s). The two most frequently implemented PNF techniques are: contract-relax (CR); and contract-relax-antagonist-contract (CRAC). Previous comparative investigations among stretching methods have primarily observed changes in straight-leg hip flexion as a result of lengthening the hamstrings, a two-joint muscle. The present study observed gains in range of motion among three stretching methods (SS, CR, CRAC) of a joint limited by a single joint muscle, the soleus. Twelve subjects performed each of the three methods on separate days. Significant differences were observed among all methods (p = .001). Further analysis revealed the CRAC method was superior to the CR method (p less than .01), and the CR method was superior to the SS method (p less than .01). Significant pre-post-treatment gains in range of motion were observed as a result of the CR and CRAC methods, but not the SS method. The results of this study support the findings of those previous investigations for two-joint muscles in which PNF techniques were more effective than static stretching for increasing range of motion. Also, a reciprocal activation (CRAC in the present study) was the most effective for increasing range of motion.
The effects of stretching techniques on the flexibility of the shoulder, trunk, and hamstring muscles were compared in college men. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of 4 groups: control (n=10), ballistic (n=11), static (n=10), or proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) (n=12). Baseline measurements (Leighton flexometer) were obtained on 2 separate days prior to and following a 3-day per week, 6-week flexibility training program. A 4x3 (subject group x muscle group) unweighted mean factorial analysis of variance for the difference scores (post minue pre) revealed significant (p less than 0.05) main effects for the 4 subjects groups and the 3 muscle groups. Post hoc analysis showed that only the PNF group had flexibility increases (10.6 degrees) greater than the control (3.4 degrees), and that the hamstrings (9.4 degrees increase) improved more than the trunk (5.2 degree increase). Furthermore, reliability was generally higher for the post-training scores, and the variability between days was lower for the post-training scores of the shoulder and hamstrings (p less than 0.05). The significant (p less than 0.05) between-day changes in flexibility pre-training confirm the importance of establishing baseline data prior to any training study. The findings indicate that PNF may be the preferred technique for improving flexibility, and that flexibility training results in an increased consistency of flexibility scores.
The relationship between hamstring flexibility and hamstring muscle performance has not been reported. The purposes of this study were 1) to determine the most effective stretching method for increasing hamstring flexibility and 2) to determine the effects of increasing hamstring flexibility on isokinetic peak torque. Nineteen subjects participated in this study. A two-way analysis of variance was used to compare two stretching techniques: proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretch and static stretch. A one-way repeated measures analysis of variance was used to compare hamstring isokinetic values pre- and poststretching. No significant increase occurred (p < .05) in hamstring flexibility even though increases occurred with each technique: static stretch (+21.3%) and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (+25.7%). Significant increases occurred in peak torque eccentrically at 60 degrees/sec (p < .05, +8.5%) and 120 degrees/sec (p < .05, +13.5%) and concentrically at 120 degrees/sec (p < .05, +11.2%). No significant increase occurred at 60 degrees/sec (p > .05, +2.5%). We concluded that increasing hamstring flexibility was an effective method for increasing hamstring muscle performance at selective isokinetic conditions. Further study is needed to determine if increasing hamstring flexibility will increase performance in closed kinetic chain activities.
When humans and other mammals run, the body's complex system of muscle, tendon and ligament springs behaves like a single linear spring ('leg spring'). A simple spring-mass model, consisting of a single linear leg spring and a mass equivalent to the animal's mass, has been shown to describe the mechanics of running remarkably well. Force platform measurements from running animals, including humans, have shown that the stiffness of the leg spring remains nearly the same at all speeds and that the spring-mass system is adjusted for higher speeds by increasing the angle swept by the leg spring. The goal of the present study is to determine the relative importance of changes to the leg spring stiffness and the angle swept by the leg spring when humans alter their stride frequency at a given running speed. Human subjects ran on treadmill-mounted force platform at 2.5ms-1 while using a range of stride frequencies from 26% below to 36% above the preferred stride frequency. Force platform measurements revealed that the stiffness of the leg spring increased by 2.3-fold from 7.0 to 16.3 kNm-1 between the lowest and highest stride frequencies. The angle swept by the leg spring decreased at higher stride frequencies, partially offsetting the effect of the increased leg spring stiffness on the mechanical behavior of the spring-mass system. We conclude that the most important adjustment to the body's spring system to accommodate higher stride frequencies is that leg spring becomes stiffer.
This review article summarizes the current literature regarding the analysis of running gait. It is compared to walking and sprinting. The current state of knowledge is presented as it fits in the context of the history of analysis of movement. The characteristics of the gait cycle and its relationship to potential and kinetic energy interactions are reviewed. The timing of electromyographic activity is provided. Kinematic and kinetic data (including center of pressure measurements, raw force plate data, joint moments, and joint powers) and the impact of changes in velocity on these findings is presented. The status of shoewear literature, alterations in movement strategies, the role of biarticular muscles, and the springlike function of tendons are addressed. This type of information can provide insight into injury mechanisms and training strategies. Copyright 1998 Elsevier Science B.V.
The purpose of this study was to quantify the elastic properties of tendon structures in vivo and to investigate the influence of the tendon properties on jump performance with and without countermovement. Elongation of the tendon and aponeurosis of vastus lateralis muscle (dL) was directly measured by ultrasonography while subjects (n = 31) performed ramp isometric knee extension up to the voluntary maximum (MVC). The relationship between muscle force and dL was fitted to a linear regression above 50% MVC, the slope of which was defined as stiffness of the tendon structures. Statistical analysis revealed no significant difference between duplicated measurements of stiffness, with an interday reliability of r = 0.88 and a coefficient of variance of 6.1%. Although the stiffness was not significantly related to absolute jump height in either vertical jump, it was inversely correlated with the difference in jump height between the vertical jumps performed with and without countermovement. The results suggested that the stiffness of tendon structures has a favorable effect on stretch-shortening cycle exercise, possibly due to adequate storage and recoil of elastic energy.
We twice tested the hypothesis that top running speeds are determined by the amount of force applied to the ground rather than how rapidly limbs are repositioned in the air. First, we compared the mechanics of 33 subjects of different sprinting abilities running at their top speeds on a level treadmill. Second, we compared the mechanics of declined (-6 degrees ) and inclined (+9 degrees ) top-speed treadmill running in five subjects. For both tests, we used a treadmill-mounted force plate to measure the time between stance periods of the same foot (swing time, t(sw)) and the force applied to the running surface at top speed. To obtain the force relevant for speed, the force applied normal to the ground was divided by the weight of the body (W(b)) and averaged over the period of foot-ground contact (F(avge)/W(b)). The top speeds of the 33 subjects who completed the level treadmill protocol spanned a 1.8-fold range from 6.2 to 11.1 m/s. Among these subjects, the regression of F(avge)/W(b) on top speed indicated that this force was 1.26 times greater for a runner with a top speed of 11.1 vs. 6.2 m/s. In contrast, the time taken to swing the limb into position for the next step (t(sw)) did not vary (P = 0.18). Declined and inclined top speeds differed by 1.4-fold (9.96+/-0.3 vs. 7.10+/-0.3 m/s, respectively), with the faster declined top speeds being achieved with mass-specific support forces that were 1.3 times greater (2.30+/- 0.06 vs. 1.76+/-0.04 F(avge)/ W(b)) and minimum t(sw) that were similar (+8%). We conclude that human runners reach faster top speeds not by repositioning their limbs more rapidly in the air, but by applying greater support forces to the ground.
The purpose of this study was to assess the reliability of 24 kinetic and kinematic variables from three synchronized systems used to represent normal running gait. Five male runners (mean 23.4 years, mass 80.2 kg) ran down a runway at a constant velocity (3.5-4.0 m/s). This was repeated until 10 acceptable trials had been performed which was then repeated 7 days later. The mean of the 10 trials was used for kinetic analysis and the mean of 5 trials for the kinematics. All of the kinematic variables achieved a reliability greater than 0.93. The 6 variables that were able to demonstrate a high reliability (>0.94) from a single trial came from all systems. This suggests that variables and systems used to collect and analyse gait should be assessed for their reliability using the population to be studied before actual data collection.
Research demonstrates an inverse relationship between the range of motion of selected joint movements (flexibility) and running economy. Since stretching exercises have been shown to increase joint range of motion, stretching exercises may be contraindicated for endurance running performance. Hence, this study investigated the influence of a 10-week program of stretching exercises on the oxygen costs of a 10 min sub-maximal (approx. 70% peak VO(2)) treadmill run. Thirty-two (16 female, 16 male) physically active, treadmill accommodated, college students participated in the study. All participants maintained their current activity level, with half the participants (8 female, 8 male) adding a 40 min, 3 days per week session of thigh and calf muscle stretching exercises. After 10 weeks, the stretching group (STR) exhibited a significant (P<0.05) increase (3.1+/-2.2 cm) in the sit-and-reach, while the non-stretching group (CON) experienced no significant (P>0.05) change (0.0+/-0.4 cm). However, neither the STR nor the CON exhibited a significant (P>0.05) change in the O(2) cost for the submaximal run. It is concluded, therefore, that a chronic stretching program does not necessarily negatively influence running economy.
The purpose of this study was to measure changes in stride characteristics and lower-extremity kinematics of the hip and knee as a function of increasing treadmill velocity, at velocities ranging from submaximal to near maximal.
Six power/speed athletes experienced at sprinting on a treadmill performed trials at 70%, 80%, 90%, and 95% of their previous individual maximum velocity, with video data collected in the sagittal view at 60 Hz.
Significant differences were seen in stride frequency (70%, 80%, P < 0.01; 90%, P < 0.05), stance time (70%, 80%, P < 0.01; 90%, P < 0.05) flight time (70%, P < 0.01; 80%, P < 0.05), hip flexion angle (70%, P < 0.01), hip flexion angular velocity (70%, P < 0.01), hip extension angular velocity (70%, 80%, P < 0.01), knee flexion angular velocity (70%, 80%, P < 0.01), and knee extension angular velocity (70%, P < 0.01), as compared with the near maximum (95%) velocity. Coefficient of variation (CV) values showed that the positional variables at the hip and knee were more variable at faster test conditions, indicating that kinematic changes occur as a function of increased treadmill velocity.
The results indicated that at slower velocities, there were differences in the stride characteristics and lower-extremity kinematics while sprinting on a treadmill. As the velocity approached near maximum mechanical breakdown was seen, suggesting that velocities greater than 90% should be used selectively during treadmill training.
This study compares the effects of 3 common stretching techniques on the length of the hamstring muscle group during a 4-week training program. Subjects were 19 young adults between the ages of 21 and 35. The criterion for subject inclusion was tight hamstrings as defined by a knee extension angle greater than 20 degrees while supine with the hip flexed 90 degrees . The participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups. Group 1 (n = 5) was self-stretching, group 2 (n = 5) was static stretching, group 3 (n = 5) was proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation incorporating the theory of reciprocal inhibition (PNF-R), and group 4 (n = 4) was control. Each group received the same stretching dose of a single 30-second stretch 3 days per week for 4 weeks. Knee extension angle was measured before the start of the stretching program, at 2 weeks, and at 4 weeks. Statistical analysis (p < or = 0.05) revealed a significant interaction of stretching technique and duration of stretch. Post hoc analysis showed that all 3 stretching techniques increase hamstring length from the baseline value during a 4-week training program; however, only group 2 (static stretching) was found to be significantly greater than the control at 4 weeks. These data indicate that static stretching 1 repetition for 30 seconds 3 days per week increased hamstring length in young healthy subjects. These data also suggest that active self-stretching and PNF-R stretching 1 repetition for 30 seconds 3 days per week is not sufficient to significantly increase hamstring length in this population.
Limited information exists regarding the association between flexibility and running economy in female athletes. This study examined relationships between lower limb and trunk flexibility and running economy in 17 female collegiate track athletes (20.12+/-1.80 y).
Correlational design, subjects completed 4 testing sessions over a 2-week period. The 1st session assessed maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max=55.39+/-6.96 ml.kg-1.min-1). The 2nd session assessed trunk and lower limb flexibility. Two sets of 6 trunk and lower limb flexibility measures were performed after a 10-min treadmill warm-up at 2.68 m.s-1. The 3rd session consisted of 3 10-min accommodation runs at a speed of 2.68 m.s-1 which was approximately 60% VO2max. Each accommodation bout was separated by a 10-min rest. The 4th session assessed running economy. Subjects completed a 5-min warm-up at 2.68 m.s-1 followed by 10-min economy run at 2.68 m.s-1.
Pearson product moment correlations revealed no significant correlations between running economy and flexibility measures.
Results are in contrast to studies demonstrating an inverse relationship between trunk and/or lower limb flexibility and running economy in males. Furthermore, results are in contrast to studies reporting positive relationships between flexibility and running economy.
The present study aimed to investigate the effect of isometric squat training on human tendon stiffness and jump performances. Eight subjects completed 12 weeks (4 days/week) of isometric squat training, which consisted of bilateral leg extension at 70% of maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) for 15 s per set (10 sets/day). Before and after training, the elongations of the tendon-aponeurosis complex in the vastus lateralis muscle and patella tendon were directly measured using ultrasonography while the subjects performed ramp isometric knee extension up to MVC. The relationship between the estimated muscle force and tendon elongation was fitted to a linear regression, the slope of which was defined as stiffness. In addition, performances in two kinds of maximal vertical jumps, i.e. squatting (SJ) and counter-movement jumps (CMJ), were measured. The training significantly increased the volume (P < 0.01) and MVC torque (P < 0.01) of the quadriceps femoris muscle. The stiffness of the tendon-aponeurosis complex increased significantly from 51 +/- 22 (mean +/- SD) to 59 +/- 24 N/mm (P = 0.04), although that of the patella tendon did not change (P = 0.48). The SJ height increased significantly after training (P = 0.03), although the CMJ height did not (P = 0.45). In addition, the relative difference in jump height between SJ and CMJ decreased significantly after training (P = 0.02). These results suggest that isometric squat training changes the stiffness of human tendon-aponeurosis complex in knee extensors to act negatively on the effects of pre-stretch during stretch-shortening cycle exercises.
In earlier studies, we found more economical runners having a more compliant quadriceps femoris (QF) tendon at low force levels, and a higher contractile strength and stiffness at the triceps surae (TS). To better understand how these differences influence force generation economy and energy recovery, we simulated contractions using a Hill-type muscle model and the previously determined muscle properties as input parameters. For eight different activation levels, we simulated isovelocity concentric contractions preceded by an isovelocity stretch. The length changes and contraction velocities imposed to the muscle-tendon units (MTU) corresponded to those happening whilst running. The main results of the simulations were: (a) a more compliant tendon at low force levels (QF) led to an advantage in force-generation due to a decrease in shortening velocity of the CE, (b) a higher contractile strength and higher stiffness at the TS led to a disadvantage in force-generation at high activation levels and to an advantage at low activation levels. In addition at the high economy runners both MTUs showed an advantageous energy release during shortening, which at the QF was mainly due to a higher elongation of the SEE and at the TS mainly to the higher contractile strength. Especially at low activation levels both MTUs showed an advantageous force generation per activation and a higher energy release as compared to the low economy runners.
The contribution of muscle in-series compliance on maximum performance of the muscle tendon complex was investigated using a forward dynamic computer simulation. The model of the human body contains 8 Hill-type muscles of the lower extremities. Muscle activation is optimized as a function of time, so that maximum drop jump height is achieved by the model. It is shown that the muscle series elastic energy stored in the downward phase provides a considerable contribution (32%) to the total muscle energy in the push-off phase. Furthermore, by the return of stored elastic energy all muscle contractile elements can reduce their shortening velocity up to 63% during push-off to develop a higher force due to their force velocity properties. The additional stretch taken up by the muscle series elastic element allows only m. rectus femoris to work closer to its optimal length, due to its force length properties. Therefore the contribution of the series elastic element to muscle performance in maximum height drop jumping is to store and return energy, and at the same time to increase the force producing ability of the contractile elements during push-off.
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