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The importance of attributes related to physical activity for the tourism product's utility
Abstract
Recent worldwide tourism trends reveal increased public interest in travel centered on values connected to the human body, such as health and fitness. In commercial terms, this calls for the development of tourism packages whose structure would meet the tourists' needs and desires related to various forms of physical activity by providing them with opportunities to participate. However, few scholars have conducted empirical studies to identify factors determining the utility of such products from the perspective of consumers. This article is intended to fill this gap. It was assumed here that the inclusion of physical activity into tourism packages would generate for the tourists unique features including the opportunity to exhibit courage, testing one's psychological and physical abilities, rivalry, adventure, access to sports and leisure facilities, experiencing risk to one's health or life, and contact with nature. Subsequently, the actual importance of these attributes for the utility of tourism packages was measured using conjoint analysis for a population of Cracow students, who tend to be active tourists. It was found that respondents prefer tourism packages characterized by high levels of all of the above-mentioned attributes except for risk. At the same time, they pay more attention to components forming the actual level of the products than to the experiences arising from the consumption of those components.
... Tourists participating in physical activity-intensive travel report the level of physical activity to be the most important attribute of tourism packages, followed by the 'level of risk to one's health or life'. This sequence is reversed in the case of passive tourists, for whom safety is the foremost factor in assessing the value of a tourism package, with the level of physical activity ranking second (Szczechowicz, 2012). Canyoning involves a combination of hiking, abseiling, swimming and rock scrambling by which participants follow the course of streams, over waterfalls and other natural obstacles through deep, narrow, water-filled slots between sheer rock walls, canyons (Hardiman & Burgin, 2010a). ...
... The main findings of this study highlight the advantage of add a physical activity module to the current touristic product along with an efficient and adequate service management to match active tourists' expectations. For that reason, local operators aiming at increase the number of products available in this market niche must have access to in-depth knowledge of active visitors' needs and expectations in order to devise appropriate measures in terms of quality, motivations and operational feasibility (Szczechowicz, 2012). Both activities were deemed useful for the preservation of nature since they safeguard the natural characteristics and the context in which the activities were performed. ...
... Tourists participating in physical activity-intensive travel report the level of physical activity to be the most important attribute of tourism packages, followed by the 'level of risk to one's health or life'. This sequence is reversed in the case of passive tourists, for whom safety is the foremost factor in assessing the value of a tourism package, with the level of physical activity ranking second (Szczechowicz, 2012). Canyoning involves a combination of hiking, abseiling, swimming and rock scrambling by which participants follow the course of streams, over waterfalls and other natural obstacles through deep, narrow, water-filled slots between sheer rock walls, canyons (Hardiman & Burgin, 2010a). ...
... The main findings of this study highlight the advantage of add a physical activity module to the current touristic product along with an efficient and adequate service management to match active tourists' expectations. For that reason, local operators aiming at increase the number of products available in this market niche must have access to in-depth knowledge of active visitors' needs and expectations in order to devise appropriate measures in terms of quality, motivations and operational feasibility (Szczechowicz, 2012). Both activities were deemed useful for the preservation of nature since they safeguard the natural characteristics and the context in which the activities were performed. ...
... Nevertheless, it is recognised that undertaking physical activities (e.g., sports activities) during tourism trips, in a different place and, especially, in unpolluted environments, may help develop physical skills, reduce stress and increase physical health (Moscardo, 2009). Some visitors report that their participation in physical activities is largely due to health and fitness reasons and, sometimes, to test their physical abilities (Sibson et al., 2010;Szczechowicz, 2012). Undertaking leisure activities with other persons is also likely to boost life satisfaction (Trainor et al., 2010). ...
... Undertaking activities during tourism trips expands leisure opportunities, permitting access to other leisure resources and, sometimes, to spend time in healthier environments where it is possible to come into contact with nature (Szczechowicz, 2012). Moreover, engaging in certain activities such as cultural activities (e.g., visiting museums, visiting historic sites, participating in events), educational activities (e.g., studying languages) or even physical activities may induce some changes regarding one's environment. ...
The current study aims to develop a model in the scope of youth tourism that illustrates structural relationships among the following constructs: 1) frequency of participation in several tourism activities; 2) frequency of social interaction with residents; 3) perception of tourism impacts on several domains of quality of life (QOL); 4) perception of tourism impacts on overall QOL. To achieve this objective, a survey was carried out with university students and 412 completed questionnaires were obtained. The model was tested with partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). Results show a strong positive impact of tourism activities on social interaction and a positive impact of both tourism activities and social interaction on all domains of QOL - physical health, social relationships, psychological features and environmental conditions. The paper ends with recommendations for improving the impact of tourism on youth visitors' QOL.
... Nevertheless, it is recognised that undertaking physical activities (e.g., sports activities) during tourism trips, in a different place and, especially, in unpolluted environments, may help develop physical skills, reduce stress and increase physical health (Moscardo, 2009). Some visitors report that their participation in physical activities is largely due to health and fitness reasons and, sometimes, to test their physical abilities (Sibson et al., 2010;Szczechowicz, 2012). Undertaking leisure activities with other persons is also likely to boost life satisfaction (Trainor et al., 2010). ...
... Undertaking activities during tourism trips expands leisure opportunities, permitting access to other leisure resources and, sometimes, to spend time in healthier environments where it is possible to come into contact with nature (Szczechowicz, 2012). Moreover, engaging in certain activities such as cultural activities (e.g., visiting museums, visiting historic sites, participating in events), educational activities (e.g., studying languages) or even physical activities may induce some changes regarding one's environment. ...
This study aims at developing and testing a model integrating the associations among tourists' evaluation of destinations' attributes, overall satisfaction and behavioural intentions. The analysis is based on 923 observations collected in the Central Region of Portugal, where no investigation of this nature had been conducted before, and compares results regarding domestic versus international tourists. LISREL estimates provided strong support for the model. Some idiosyncrasies specific to each sample were found. This study represents an important contribution to the body of knowledge in the area of tourism destinations' management and marketing and suggests important implications to both practitioners and researchers. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... This might be related to their increased maturity and testify to the knowledge acquired by students of tourism and recreation during their studies. Most young people choosing to study tourism and recreation are characterized by a positive attitude toward PA (Szczechowicz, 2012). The curriculum, which promotes systemic PA, may be also an extrinsic motivation integrated by students into their sense of self. ...
... In general tourism, travelers often experience physical movement (e.g., walking) during visits, shopping, and entertainment. In physically active tourism, which refers to "tourism respecting the need for physical activity, recognizing the emotional, psychosocial, and physical compensating effects of physical activity" (Fromel et al., 2020, p. 2), tourists typically participate in specific physical activities, such as cycling, climbing, hiking, canoeing, skiing, or orienteering (Szczechowicz, 2012). Moderate physical activity during travel is not only safe for the aging population, but also can make them mobile, flexible, and independent (Daskalopoulou et al., 2017). ...
Rapid aging is already one of the most significant trends of the 21st century, and this demographic shift poses enormous challenges for society. There is a community-wide effort to promote healthy aging, but the role of tourism as an important service industry in this process has been underappreciated. Based on an interdisciplinary literature review, this paper presents a conceptual model suggesting that tourism, as part of a healthy lifestyle, could contribute to healthy aging. Tourism can help older adults to optimize their functional abilities to perform activities of daily living and maintain quality of life through physical, cultural, sporting, and recreational activities , social participation, nutrition, and positive emotions, thereby extending their healthspan. Critical reflections on future interdisciplinary research and implications for eight key stakeholders (i.e., academics, aging tourists, destination operators, tourism and hospitality practitioners, healthcare practitioners, host communities, government, society) are outlined to highlight the big impact and potential of this area.
... This might be related to their increased maturity and testify to the knowledge acquired by students of tourism and recreation during their studies. Most young people choosing to study tourism and recreation are characterized by a positive attitude toward PA (Szczechowicz, 2012). The curriculum, which promotes systemic PA, may be also an extrinsic motivation integrated by students into their sense of self. ...
... Engaging in indoor leisure sports is considered a major strategy for modern city-dwellers to promote their health and pleasure (Iwasaki et al., 2005), as such activities allow more flexibility in terms of venue, duration, and weather than outdoor activities. Therefore, for decades, hotel owners have invested in high-tech leisure-sports appliances at leisure sites to attract more travelers (Iryna & Yuriy, 2017;Van Bottenburg & Salome, 2010) who enjoy indoor leisure-sports activities during their travel (Szczechowicz, 2012). For example, hotels and resorts generally construct playgrounds, amusement spaces, or gymnasiums equipped with modern leisure-sports appliances (e.g., treadmills, weight training equipment, motion-sensing gaming consoles, or amusement equipment), which tourists can use for indoor exercises and entertainment. ...
The tourism and hospitality industries emphasize on indoor leisure-sport activities for tourists because these activities are less impacted by weather and provide enjoyment and relaxation to travelers, thereby enhancing their satisfaction. This study used the self-promotion perspective to establish a theoretical model to illustrate how the perceived usefulness of a product (in these cases, leisure-sports appliances) mediates the relationship between a tourist’s self-image and intention to use. Focusing on the users of treadmill, massage chair, Nintendo Wii, and hydrotherapy machine, a sample of 384 effective respondents was collected and analyzed with structural equation modelling by using AMOS 21.0. The study revealed several essential findings. First, product features like multifunctionality and reactivity significantly associate with a user’s self-image and perceived usefulness of a leisure-sports appliance. Product complexity positively relates to self-image but negatively relates to perceived usefulness, whereas automation positively relates to perceived usefulness but negatively relates to perceived self-image. Moreover, individual subjective norms significantly influence perceived usefulness and intention to use. Entertainment is not significant to an individual’s perceived usefulness but is significantly associated with a tourist’s intention to use. This study affirms the mediating role of perceived usefulness that connects self-image and intention to use.
... There is little evidence to identify the quality of tourist service from the perspective of the sports consumer. According to (Szczechowicz, 2012); students prefer tourist packages that include sport activities except risky sports. ...
... Tourism is one of the largest and fastest growing economic sectors in the world [34,35], and this growth should be reflected in PAT development [36]. PAT aims to achieve the optimal use of PA within the various types of tourism. ...
The theoretical foundation of tourism policy is based on an interdisciplinary approach, using evidence-based findings from related scientific fields. For this reason, trends in the health and physical activity of the population should be considered as part of the promotion of healthy lifestyles in the field of tourism. The aim of this study is to support the multidisciplinary development of evidence-based tourism by using the results of long-term monitoring of physical activity (PA) preferences among youth. Furthermore, this study aims to support the continuation of education regarding tourism, behavioral changes in lifestyle, health promotion (including physical activity promotion), physical conditioning, as well as related mental conditioning. An interdisciplinary approach should lead to the adoption of knowledge, habits, and interests that lead to a lifelong readiness to participate in active tourism. The research sample of this 10-year survey consisted of 17,032 Czech and Polish respondents, aged from 12 to 25 years. A questionnaire on physical activity preferences was employed to explore the current status and trends in physical activity preferences and realization. The results show the actual status and trends in preferred and realized types of physical activity and represent an important indicator of tourism service choices for these youths, as well as predict future interests for tourism clients in schools. The analysis of the results enabled the suggestion of a prognostic model of tourism strategy focused on the integration of physical activity with tourism activities.
... The main findings of this study highlight the advantage of adding a physical activity module to the current touristic product along with an efficient and adequate service management to match active tourists' expectations. For this reason, local operators aiming to increase the number of products available in this market niche must have access to in-depth knowledge of active visitors' needs and expectations in order to devise appropriate measures in terms of quality, motivations and operational feasibility (Szczechowicz, 2012). In addition, the activities in this natural environment are usually undertaken in small groups, and although safer and less risky, they require the presence of an expert, skilled guide to interpret, mediate and navigate people through unfamiliar wild spaces, negotiate harsh environments and make such experiences more accessible even for less-skilled participants (Farkic & Taypor, 2019;Varley, Farkic, & Carnicelli, 2018). ...
Physical activities organised in nature have earned more commitment from tourists who intend to actively visit natural and authentic environments. This paper analyses the profile and the perceptions of active tourists who experienced canyoning and levada walking in the mountains of Madeira Island.
The study uses a quantitative methodology analysis, based on an anonymous questionnaire designed for 160 levada walker tourists and 130 canyoning tourists. Differences were found between the two groups in terms of their profile and assessment of the two activities. The levada walking profile is the one of older, but more active tourists who stay on the island more than 6 days and intend to experience unique and memorable activities related to waterways, mountain trails and cultural landscapes in a sense of freedom and well-being that nature provides. The canyoning profile is the one of younger tourists, more male than female, who are less active, travelling by cruise, and is with an emphasis on the challenges and natural barriers afforded by the steep and unpredictable characteristics of canyons (hedonism). The findings recommend segmentation of the tourists and a strategy for tourism destinations that highlight culture, endemic forest, authentic landscapes and the hospitality of local people in active tourism services.
... Most included instruments in this review do not ask about specific sectors. Interestingly, tourism is the least represented sector, addressed in only one instrument [33]; although some authors suggest that this sector may have great potential to contribute to PA promotion [61], this has clearly not yet been sufficiently recognised in instruments for PA policy research. ...
Background:
This systematic review aimed to identify and critically assess available instruments for the analysis of national-level physical activity (PA) and sedentary behaviour (SB) policies and provide recommendations for their future use.
Methods:
We conducted a systematic search of academic and grey literature through six bibliographic databases, Google and the websites of three international organisations for PA promotion to identify instruments that are used or that may be used for national-level PA/SB policy analysis. In order to describe and categorise the identified instruments, we used the Comprehensive Analysis of Policy on Physical Activity framework. This framework specifies the elements of a comprehensive analysis of PA/SB policies through the following categories: purpose, level, policy sector, type of policy, stages of policy cycle and scope of analysis.
Results:
Out of 22,071 screened items, 26 publications describing 16 instruments met the selection criteria. All the instruments can be used for analysing PA policy, whilst only two include questions about SB policy. None of the instruments allow for the analysis of all the relevant components of national PA/SB policy. Some important elements of PA policy analysis, such as the tourism and research sectors, the agenda-setting and endorsement/legitimisation stages, and the effects of policy, are addressed by only a few instruments. Moreover, none of the instruments address unwritten formal statements, informal policies, and the termination and succession stages of the policy cycle.
Conclusion:
Designing new instruments or adapting existing ones is needed to allow for a more thorough analysis of national PA and SB policies. Given that policy analysis covering all important components of PA/SB policy may be extremely time-consuming, a way forward might be to develop a set of complementary instruments, with each tool collecting detailed information about a specific component.
... A multi-dimensional approach in assessing consumer values is considered more explanative than single value assessments in the consumer behaviour literature (Holbrook, 1994;Kamakura & Novak, 1992;Ramkissoon, Nunkoo, & Gursoy, 2009;Robert, 1997;Sheth et al., 1991a;Sheth, Newman, & Gross, 1991b;Sweeney & Soutar, 2001;Zeithaml, 1988). Value based approaches have also been used to understand tourist consumer behaviour (Lin & Wang, 2012;Moliner, Sánchez, Rodríguez, & Callarisa, 2007;Peña, Jamilena, & Molina, 2012;Szczechowicz, 2012). This research investigation builds upon this tourism research by examining how values can explain the destination selection behaviour of travellers. ...
This paper examines the consumption behaviour values over the decision-making process of destination selection. Qualitative data was collected from 21 Indian people on their prospective travel decisions. This study integrates destination image, into the process of destination decision-making. Destination image, consumption values and destination decision-making were brought together to understand tourist choice behaviours. This model can be applied to market segments as a market analysis tool. The findings reveal that a final decision is a function of five value categories and functional value has the largest influence in each stage while the conditional value increases along the decision making process.
Globalisation and Development of Tourism: Some Implications for Planning and Tourism Policy The paper analyses both the current and future impact of globalisation on tourism. The study is carried out from the perspective of aims and methods of planning the development of tourism and various models of tourism policy, mostly (but not only) in an international and global context. The awareness of the impact exerted by the phenomenon of globalisation on the functioning of tourist market, as well as the new circumstances and problems generated both by the tourist system proper and in its closer or further environment (mostly by the so-called modern civilisation megatrends), creates brand new challenges for tourism policy. The paper argues that nowadays most key issues in tourism development should be solved in an international scale, and in some cases even from a global perspective, independently of the level of planning and tourism policy (local, regional, domestic, international). Also, the paper presents modern approaches to this very problem, inter alia the concept of the so-called Third Way in tourism planning, which seems to offer an interesting and useful platform for analysing the hitherto-existing tourism plans, as well as a potential model for creating the new ones for tourist destinations and regions in various parts of the world. Key words: globalisation, megatrends, challenges, tourism development, planning, tourism policy
Praca ma na celu analizę wpływu, jaki na turystykę wywiera zjawisko globalizacji, zarówno jeśli chodzi o jej obecne, jak i przyszłe oddziaływanie. Zaprezentowane analizy prowadzone są z perspektywy celów i metod planowania rozwoju turystyki oraz różnych modeli polityki turystycznej, przede wszystkim (chociaż nie tylko) w ujęciu międzynarodowym i globalnym. Świadomość wpływu, jaki na funkcjonowanie rynku turystycznego ma zjawisko globalizacji, oraz nowych uwarunkowań i problemów generowanych zarówno w ramach samego systemu turystycznego, jak i w jego bliższym i dalszym otoczeniu (głównie poprzez skutki tzw. megatrendów cywilizacyjnych), stawia przed polityką turystyczną nowe wyzwania. W artykule wysunięto tezę, że – niezależnie od poziomu planowania i polityki turystycznej (lokalnego, regionalnego, ogólnokrajowego, międzynarodowego) – wiele problemów kluczowych dla dalszego rozwoju turystyki powinno się rozwiązywać obecnie w skali międzynarodowej, a w niektórych przypadkach nawet globalnej. W pracy przedstawiono nowe podejścia w tym zakresie, w tym m.in. koncepcję tzw. trzeciej drogi w planowaniu turystycznym, która jawi się jako ciekawa i użyteczna płaszczyzna analizowania dotychczasowych oraz potencjalny model tworzenia nowych planów turystycznych dla wielu destynacji i regionów turystycznych w różnych częściach świata. Słowa kluczowe: globalizacja, megatrendy, wyzwania, rozwój turystyki, planowanie, polityka turystyczna
Purpose.
The aim of the article is to present selected conditions for the development of
public-private partnerships (PPP) in Poland and factors which constitute a contribution and a hindrance to the development of this concept. Moreover, the present author attempts to describe issues related to public-private partnerships as a factor influencing the development of tourism in specific tourist destinations.
Method.
The research methodology is based on the application of the Desk Research
method, including the verification of data obtained from generally available secondary
sources (specialist literature, the Internet – Web Research). The desktop research data were of qualitative and quantitative nature and were created as primary or secondary sources. Modern methods of data collection were utilised: CATI (phone interviews), CAPI (computer-assisted interviews) and questionnaire forms.
Findings.
In general, the results of the research concern the possibility of applying the
formula of public-private partnership in the development of local tourism economy.
The study focuses on the examination of selected conditions which are favourable to
this concept and those which act in an obstructive way.
Research and conclusion limitations.
The research was of diagnostic nature. The applied methods and research techniques allow to present selected conditions for the implementation of public-private partnerships in Poland, i.e. in the tourist industry, which is a frequently underappreciated branch of economy, much like the case of public--private partnerships but for other reasons.
Practical implications.
Starting cooperation and establishing relationships between entities from the public and private sectors should contribute to the propagation of the concept of public-private partnership and economic development of tourist regions by creating and expanding tourist infrastructure, and infrastructure in general. Furthermore, the tourist industry is one of the branches of economy which requires
fast development. The growing demand and qualitative requirements of contemporary
tourists create a necessity for modern solutions, the creation of tourist infrastructure
and cooperation with organisations and entities from various sectors, the answer to
which can be the concept of public-private partnerships.
Originality.
One important and original issue seems to be the need to determine the relation between the representatives of the private and public sectors, especially to answer the question: what type of atmosphere prevails in their relations, that of competition or cooperation, and what is their attitude towards joint cooperation?
Type of paper:
Article presenting the results of empirical research.
Key words:
public-private partnership, tourism, economic development
OPEN ACCESS ARTICLE - - - - - - Folia Turistica - - - - :
Purpose. To reach a greater conceptual understanding of tourist experiences.
Method. Via formalistic reflection attention focuses on the binary treatment of fundamental
choices between saving or sharing so that, through typical instances, the
theoretical base is prepared for the utilisation of a subsequent indicator approach.
Findings. Eight cases of various combinations of attitude and behaviour are examined:
Schadenfreude, crabs-in-a-barrel, ego-tourism, role negotiation, dog-in-a-manger,
anti-tourists, one-up-man-ship and secrecy. Subtle differences emerge.
Research and conclusions limitations. The research emphasises the need for
theoretical awareness in obtaining a nuanced appreciation of a number of continua
models underpinning tourism. However, no claim is made for mutual exclusivity or
exhaustiveness.
Practical implications. By utilising the foregoing insights the ground is prepared
for making informed appeals to corresponding differences in motivation and the
ways that they can be tapped and targeted in promotion.
Originality. A Simmelian perspective is rare in tourism research. By adopting such
an approach, the analysis is able to concentrate of the essences constituting the
phenomenon of tourism.
Type of paper. Theoretical.
Purpose. Discussion on the current situation regarding the presence and formal preparation of strategic documents concerning the development of tourism in Polish cities. Method. An Internet query was performed, along with an analysis of strategic documents; the number of the documents was determined and compared in formal respects. Results. The query performed, which refers to the strategies written down and published, has shown that only a few Polish cities possess such documents. They are not created according to a single model and in certain aspects, they diverge from the academic recommendations for this type of documents. Research limitations and conclusions. The analysed strategic documents only referred to the development of tourism in cities and the analysis only encompassed formal evaluation. Practical implications. Current and existing strategic documents were identified and analysed. Originality of study. Issues related to strategic planning and its practical implications in the context of tourism development are rarely discussed in academic theses, in particular with reference to Polish local government units. Type of work. The article presents the results of strategic document analyses.
Purpose. Critical analysis of the “science tourism” concept described in Polish and foreign scientific literature on tourism, a overview and description of its phenomenon and to point out the place of science tourism within the general typology of tourism. Method. Analysis of scientific works and likewise information and data from institutions offering science tourism tourist attractions. Synthesis and systematization of final findings/results. Findings. Science tourism (knowledge and science tourism) means travels to get to know, to experience and practise as well as and encounter its results. In contrast to the prevalent economical approach, the proposed definition represents a functional approach and negates consideration of professional and business travels as tourism. Origins of science tourism reach the 19th century world exhibitions. Nowadays, knowledge and science tourism are used for the popularization of knowledge and scientific inventions and not only in the high-tech industry. They provide the opportunity to get to know the history of science, significant researchers and investigators and also places where “science” is created and inventions take place. Research and conclusion limitations. In our opinion, science tourism (knowledge and science tourism) significantly differs from the common definition/understanding of this term in the analysed scientific literature. Practical implications. Understanding and organizing issues related to science tourism in discussion about the ambiguous and questionable phenomenon. An introduction to further quantitative and qualitative analysis. Originality. The paper is an attempt to order knowledge of science tourism in foreign and Polish scientific literature, to propose other definitions anchored in the functional approach, which eliminates most doubts appearing within the economical and statistical approaches. Type of paper. Theoretical, critical, review.
This paper discusses narratives of polar adventure tourism from a multidisciplinary perspective of play. Reviewing discussions on the motivation behind this subject, it examines two concurrent approaches in particular: risk and insight theories. Based on empirical evidence obtained from a winter trekking trip to an Artic tourism destination, the paper argues that these theories may be particular components of adult play. The interplay among risk, insight seeking, and play is explored in this paper with a particular emphasis being placed on the competence, materiality, and bodily techniques demonstrated by Arctic adventure tourists.RésuméCet article discute des narrations du tourisme d’aventure polaire dans la perspective multidisciplinaire du jeu. En passant en revue des discussions sur la motivation qui est à la base du sujet, on examine en particulier deux approches concurrentes: la théorie du risque et celle de la connaissance. Basé sur du matériel empirique traitant d’un voyage de trekking à une destination de tourisme arctique, l’article soutient que ces théories pourraient être liées à des composants caractéristiques du jeu des adultes. Les interactions entre le risque, la connaissance et le jeu sont explorées, l’accent étant mis en particulier sur la compétence, la matérialité et les techniques corporelles mises en œuvre par les touristes d’aventure arctique.
Sport tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors in the tourism industry. This paper reviews the status of active sport tourism in the US. Taking a lead from sport sociologists who have repeatedly shown that sport in the US is still stratified on the basis of gender, class, and race among others, this paper examines the notion that by its evasiveness active sport tourism has gained mass appeal. Who is the active sport tourist? Are men more likely to be active sport tourists than women? Has active sport tourism become democratized? Male, affluent, and college educated are characteristics that describe the typical active sport tourist. A discussion focusing on gender, race, and social class is used to examine the participation patterns in active sport tourism and to suggest future avenues for research.
The motivation(s) of the sport tourist has been a regular source of discussion within much of the sport tourism literature (Gammon and Robinson, 19977.
Gammon , S and Robinson , T . 1997 . Sport Tourism: A Conceptual Framework . Journal of Sport Tourism , 4 ( No. 3 ) [Taylor & Francis Online]View all references; Gibson, 1998a8.
Gibson , H . 1998a . Sport Tourism: A critical analysis of research . Sport Management Review , 1 : pp. 45–76 [CrossRef]View all references; Hinch and Higham, 200413.
Hinch T Higham J 2004 Sport Tourism Development Clevedon: Channel View Publications View all references; Kurtzman and Zauhar, 1995a17.
Kurtzman , J and Zauhar , J . 1995a . Sports Tourism International Council (STIC) Research Unit. Sports Tourism Categories Revisited . Journal of Sports Tourism , 2 ( No. 3 ) View all references; Standeven and De Knop, 199928.
Standeven J De Knop P 1999 Sport Tourism Leeds: Human Kinetics View all references). Much consideration has been paid to the interaction and influence each sport or tourism motive has upon the other. This paper discusses the complexity of combining these motives; concluding that it is unrealistic to list all the possible motivational variations, but more enlightening to suggest that a relationship exists based upon primary and secondary considerations. Using this premise, a sport tourism framework is detailed (originally outlined in 1997) which not only illustrates a tentative sport tourist typology (based upon competitiveness, recreation, activity and passivity) but also a method which organisations can utilise, in order to identify current and future sport tourism developments. Four applications of the framework are included which demonstrate its utility with regards to general, domestic, local and sport specific profiling. Lastly, it is suggested that a sport tourism index be created where countries, regions and cities can compare their current sport tourism offerings with either competitors or national/international averages.
To advance understanding of Special Interest Tourism (SIT), this paper will explore the complexities of this phenomenon in the early 21st century. First, a look at what is “out there”, both from a supply and demand perspective, will serve to paint a broad picture at macro-level. The paper will present a discussion of the SIT phenomenon at the macro-level within a triangular relationship of supply, demand and media. Then, a more specific look at SIT attempts to clarify the ambiguity of the term. Finally, a look at micro-level from the consumer's perspective will introduce the concepts of enduring and situational involvement, and the nature of the product. Proposed frameworks are presented to provide structure and possible directions for future research and as a means of progressing conceptual development.
How semiotic theory can illuminate highly complex social and cultural practices.
Conjoint analysis has been applied in a large number of commercial projects as well as in many noncommercial studies. Often MONANOVA, a nonmetric technique, is applied to a preference rank order obtained for a set of hypothetical objects. The authors report simulation results obtained for four alternative estimation procedures, ANOVA, LINMAP, LOGIT, and MONANOVA. The results suggest, within the limitations of the simulation study, that ANOVA may be the preferred procedure for compensatory models, whereas LINMAP is most likely to provide the best predictive validity for models with a dominant attribute.
The book covers all recent developments in Conjoint Analysis. Leading scientists present theory and applications of this technique. In short, the following models, techniques, and applications are discussed: normative models that maximize return, extension of choice-based conjoint simulations, latent class, hierarchical Bayes modelling, new choice simulators, normative models for representing competitive actions and reactions (based on game theory), applications in diverse areas, computation of monetary equivalents of part worth, share/return optimisation (including Pareto frontier analysis), coupling of conjoint analysis with the perceptual and preference mapping of choice simulator results.
This paper develops a conjoint measure approach to evaluate unpriced attributes of recreational hunting trips. Respondents' ratings of alternative hunting trip descriptions are used to impute values for various trip characteristics, including recreational travel time. The derived valuation of travel time significantly exceeds the hourly wage equivalent, and apparently reflects the implicit cost of displaced time on site more than the opportunity cost of displaced labor.
This study analyzed the preferences of international urban travelers by focusing on European, North American, and Japanese travelers to Seoul, Korea, and attempted to identify the relationship between preferences and expenditures for the attributes or activities. The results indicated that, for both pleasure and business trips, the travelers from the near origin (Japan) tended to give most consideration to the 'tangible' attribute (shopping), while the travelers from the distant origin (Europe and North America) evaluated the 'intangible' attribute (local culture) as most valuable. Regardless of the origins, business travelers spent significantly more than pleasure travelers in the total trip expenditure. Preference for a specific activity seems to not directly correlate with the expenditure on the activity. The results provided useful implications for cities to develop a marketing plan for international travelers. Recommendations for future research were also suggested. (c) 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Conjoint analysis has been applied in a large number of commercial projects as well as in many noncommercial studies. Often MONANOVA, a nonmetric technique, is applied to a preference rank order obtained for a set of hypothetical objects. The authors report simulation results obtained for four alternative estimation procedures, ANOVA, LINMAP, LOGIT, and MONANOVA. The results suggest, within the limitations of the simulation study, that ANOVA may be the preferred procedure for compensatory models, whereas LINMAP is most likely to provide the best predictive validity for models with a dominant attribute.
Most existing mathematical models of tourist choice behavior assume that individuals' preferences for choice alternatives remain invariant over time. Although the assumption of invariant preference functions may be reasonable in some choice contexts, this study examines the hypothesis that theme-park choice is partly influenced by variety-seeking and seasonality effects. A conjoint choice model is developed to estimate these effects. The proposed seasonality and variety-seeking choice model differs from traditional conjoint choice models in that it allows individuals' preferences to vary over time. The model is tested using experimental design data about the choice of theme parks, collected in The Netherlands. The findings of this study support the hypothesis of variety seeking behavior and seasonality.
The motives of tourists are deeply rooted in their pattern of expectations, goals and values. The laddering technique is used in order to investigate this pattern. It provides a basis for positioning strategies. The promised experience has to be realized by means of concrete activities on the shop floor. Existing goals and values serve to motivate employees to adopt activities required for meeting the tourists' expectations. If, after the purchase of a package, the members in the production chain with which the tourist is confronted, differ in mentality, each individual orgainization appropriate goals must be introduced. Then successful product differentiation will be possible.
The paper distinguishes between two kinds of products, `symbolic' and `substantive'. While substantive products confer welfare utility in the sense of pecuniary benefits, symbolic products accord self-regarding utility. Symbolic products enter the utility function in a way which differs from substantive ones. The paper distinguishes among three kinds of symbolic products and proposes that each has a distorted form. If symbolic products result from forward-looking evaluation, they act as `prestige goods' which please admiration or, when distorted, as `vanity goods' which satiate pretentiousness. When symbolic products originate from forward-looking action, they act as `pride goods' which satisfy respect or, when distorted, as `deference goods' which indulge pomposity. When symbolic products arise from backward-looking evaluation, they act as `identity goods' which enhance dignity or, when distorted, as `reification goods' which gratify reverence.
The purpose of this study was to provide additional information about the complex relation of social cognitive constructs, gender, and active leisure among university students. Structural equation modeling techniques were used to test the hypothesized relations in a sample of 874 undergraduate students. Peer and family support had a moderate direct effect on self-efficacy while self-efficacy had a large direct effect on active leisure. A moderation effect was demonstrated. Peer support was more influential on male respondents' beliefs that they could be active and males reported higher active leisure participation when compared to females. The results of this study provide valuable insight into the mechanisms of influence on active leisure among this university population.
A review of the existing literature on adventure tourism reveals that research on this subject has so far focused mainly on preconceived notions of scholars and practitioners. This paper argues that individuals' subjective experience of adventure and their perceptions of what constitutes it have to be also researched and considered in the study of adventure tourism. Qualitative research methods should be afforded greater prominence in its investigation. The proposed shift in focus to individuals' perceptions of adventure also challenges the exclusivity of only certain market segments and independent travelers being associated with this form of tourism. Further research, marketing, and management implications are discussed.
In this work, we compare two product design approaches, quality function deployment (QFD) and conjoint analysis, by applying each to the design of a new all-purpose climbing harness for the beginning/intermediate ability climber that would complement a leading manufacturer's existing product line. While many of the optimal design features were the same under both approaches, the differences allow us to highlight the strengths of each approach. With conjoint analysis, it was easier to compare the most preferred features (i.e., ones that maximized sales) to profit maximizing features and also to develop designs that optimize product line sales or profits. On the other hand, QFD was able to highlight the fact that certain engineering characteristics or design features had both positive and negative aspects. This tradeoff could point the way to “out of the box” solutions. QFD also highlighted the importance of starting explicitly with customer needs, regardless of which method is used.
Rather than competing, we view them as complementary approaches that should be conducted simultaneously; each providing feedback to the other. When the two approaches differed on the optimal level or importance of a feature, it appeared that conjoint analysis better captured customers' current preferences for product features while QFD captured what product developers thought would best satisfy customer needs. Looking at the problem through these different lenses provides a useful dialogue that should not be missed. QFD's ability to generate creative or novel solutions should be combined with conjoint analysis' ability to forecast market reaction to design changes. © 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
The New Zealand adventure tourism industry was surveyed to determine the incidence of client accidents and injuries and to investigate operators’ accident investigation and reporting behaviour. The 142 adventure tourism operators who responded to the survey represented a wide and diverse range of adventure activities, including kayaking, white water rafting, mountain recreation, horse riding and guided walks. Businesses surveyed were concentrated in locations acknowledged as main centres of adventure tourism activity. Operators were asked a number of questions regarding their accident notification, investigation and reporting behaviour. Poorest accident reporting performance was found for smaller operators, and among operators from the least regulated sectors of the adventure tourism industry. A very low incidence of client injuries was reported by operators, suggesting accidents and injuries are being seriously under-reported in some sectors. Highest client injury-incidence rates were found for activities that involved the risk of falling from a moving vehicle or animal (cycle tours, quad biking, horse riding and white water rafting). Operators from these sectors frequently reported ‘falls from a height’ as accidents involving clients. Slips, trips and falls on the level were common across most sectors of the industry. A conceptual model of operators’ perceptions of common risk factors for accidents/incidents involving clients is presented. Recommendations for intervention and further research are discussed.
This paper introduces and tests a conjoint choice experiment approach to modeling urban tourists' choice of activity packages. The joint logit model is introduced as a tool to model choices between combinations of activities and an experimental design approach is proposed that includes attributes from multiple alternatives as well as interactions between attributes of different alternatives. Tests for possible differences in parameter values for attributes when introduced in different parts of the day are also supported. The proposed approach was implemented and tested in a case study on Dutch urban tourists' choices of activity packages for a weekend in Paris. Shopping and sightseeing were the activities evaluated most positively. A number of significant interactions between choices of activities for different parts of the weekend was observed, with a general preference for variation in activities, and no significant interactions between choices of evening and daytime activities. It was found that respondents in the case study did not evaluate activities differently depending on the period of the weekend in which they were introduced.
The authors report results of a survey conducted to update a previous one on the commercial use of conjoint analysis. They document an extensive number of applications and show systematic changes in their characteristics consistent with research results reported in the literature. Issues relevant to the options available to analysts involved in the conduct of conjoint analysis are identified and discussed.
This research employs a conjoint analysis approach to determine the preferences for a new interpretive centre. One hundred and ten respondents completed a questionnaire that included 32 hypothetical facility scenarios with the data being analysed using ordinary least square regression. The analysis resulted in the importance of attributes influencing preferences. The results revealed that the most important attribute was price, followed by length of stay, exhibits and educational opportunities. The least important attributes were on-site information sources, recreational opportunities, and payment type. The interpretive centre that was most preferred in regards to specific attribute levels was one with live animal touch tanks, educational boat trips, an information desk and a fishing pier. Respondents would intend to stay about 2 hours and prefer to pay $1.00 per car. Analyses of various demographic segments also provided details regarding the importance of identifying key groups of potential visitors. The information provided can increase the ability of planners to make critical decisions regarding new product development in the interpretive discipline and recreational based programmes.
'Conspicuous consumption of valuable goods is a means of reputability to the gentleman of leisure.' In The Theory of the Leisure Class Thorstein Veblen sets out 'to discuss the place and value of the leisure class as an economic factor in modern life'. In so doing he produced a landmark study of affluent American society that exposes, with brilliant ruthlessness, the habits of production and waste that link invidious business tactics and barbaric social behaviour. Veblen's analysis of the evolutionary process sees greed as the overriding motive in the modern economy; with an impartial gaze he examines the human cost paid when social institutions exploit the consumption of unessential goods for the sake of personal profit. Fashion, beauty, animals, sports, the home, the clergy, scholars - all are assessed for their true usefulness and found wanting. The targets of Veblen's coruscating satire are as evident today as they were a century ago, and his book still has the power to shock and enlighten. Veblen's uncompromising arguments and the influential literary force of his writing are assessed in Martha Banta's Introduction.
As recognized since long, consumption serving to signal social status, group membership, or self-esteem is a socially contingent activity. The corresponding expenditures are motivated mainly by the symbolic value they have for transmitting the signal. However, this presupposes some form of social coordination on what are valid, approved symbols. Unlike consumption not serving signaling purposes, the technological characteristics of the goods and services consumed may be secondary--what counts is their socially agreed capacity to function as a symbol. The paper discusses in detail the cognitive underpinnings of social agreement on consumption symbols and a model of their spontaneous emergence.
A review of the existing literature on adventure tourism reveals that research on this subject has so far focused mainly on preconceived notions of scholars and practitioners. This paper argues that individuals' subjective experience of adventure and their perceptions of what constitutes it have to be also researched and considered in the study of adventure tourism. Qualitative research methods should be afforded greater prominence in its investigation. The proposed shift in focus to individuals' perceptions of adventure also challenges the exclusivity of only certain market segments and independent travelers being associated with this form of tourism. Further research, marketing, and management implications are discussed.RésuméTourisme d'aventure au grand air: un bilan des approches de recherche. Dans cet article, on passe en revue la littérature du tourisme d'aventure. Le bilan révèle que la recherche sur le tourisme d'aventure s'est concentrée jusqu'à présent sur les idées préconçues des savants et des practiciens. Cet article soutient qu'il faut examiner également les expériences subjectives des individus au sujet de l'aventure et leurs perceptions de ce qui constitue une aventure. Par conséquent, il faudrait accorder plus d'importance aux méthodes de recherches qualitatives dans l'investigation de ce genre de tourisme. Un tel changement d'objectif sur les perceptions des individus met en question l'exclusivité de certains segments du marché et l'association entre voyageurs indépendants et tourisme d'aventure. On discute des implications pour les recherches futures, le marketing et la gestion.
This paper introduces and tests a conjoint choice experiment approach to modeling urban tourists' choice of activity packages. The joint logit model is introduced as a tool to model choices between combinations of activities and an experimental design approach is proposed that includes attributes from multiple alternatives as well as interactions between attributes of different alternatives. Tests for possible differences in parameter values for attributes when introduced in different parts of the day are also supported. The proposed approach was implemented and tested in a case study on Dutch urban tourists' choices of activity packages for a weekend in Paris. Shopping and sightseeing were the activities evaluated most positively. A number of significant interactions between choices of activities for different parts of the weekend was observed, with a general preference for variation in activities, and no significant interactions between choices of evening and daytime activities. It was found that respondents in the case study did not evaluate activities differently depending on the period of the weekend in which they were introduced.
Visitor experiences in natural landscapes are considered integral components of visitor satisfaction research. Many studies have considered satisfaction as a cognitive process leading to an emotional state (J. Travel Res. 34(1) (1995) 11; Outdoor Recreation Benchmark 1988. Proceedings of the National Outdoor Recreation Forum, January, Tampa FL, pp. 422–438). Such emotional states are multidimensional and multisensory manifestations that are exhibited in numerous forms. At the same time they are influenced by preferences, values, beliefs and attitudes or in other words, social cognition of a visitor. Numerous techniques have been used to collect data showing the state of emotions/experiences. Techniques range from simple questionnaires administered in situ, to maintaining diaries of individual activities and experiences, to experiential sampling methods such as those adopted by Hull and Stewart (Environ. Behav. 27 (1995) 404). Recently, more expensive but effective instruments have been used such as video (Monitoring and Management of Visitor Flows in Recreational and Protected Areas. Conference Proceedings, pp. 296–301) and sensors using counters (Monitoring and Management of Visitor Flows in Recreational and Protected Areas. Conference Proceedings, pp. 258–263).
Adventure tourism is a rapidly expanding tourism market segment. It is suggested that adventure travel and its related expenditure contribute $220 billion annually to the US economy alone (http://www.adventuretravel.com/seminar_home.htm). However, recent high-profile tragedies in adventure tourism might suggest that participation does not come without its risks. Existing literature would suggest that the pursuit of these risks is a central attraction of these activities. However, drawing on research conducted in the self-styled ‘Adventure Capital of the World’, Queenstown in New Zealand, the author suggests that this is a simplistic view of adventurous motivation. The research shows that rather than demanding actual risks, participants engaging in commercial adventurous activity primarily seek fear and thrills. The most successful adventure tourism operators are those that have reduced their actual risk levels whilst effectively commodifying the thrills within. Thus the responsibility of the commercial operator to minimise the opportunity for loss to as low a level as possible is not only an ethical one, but also ensures long-term business sustainability.
Perceived value is a subjective construct that varies between customers, between cultures and at different times. This appreciation conceives perceived value as a dynamic variable, experienced before purchase, at the moment of purchase, at the time of use, and after use. Although post-purchase perceived value has been studied, little research has been done into the measurement of the overall perceived value of a purchase, where the tourist evaluates not only the consumption experience but also the purchase experience. By means of a multi-dimensional procedure, we have developed a scale of measurement of the perceived overall value of a purchase through 24 items grouped into six dimensions: (1) functional value of the travel agency (installations); (2) functional value of the contact personnel of the travel agency (professionalism); (3) functional value of the tourism package purchased (quality); (4) functional value price; (5) emotional value; and (6) social value.
This study analyzed the preferences of international urban travelers by focusing on European, North American, and Japanese travelers to Seoul, Korea, and attempted to identify the relationship between preferences and expenditures for the attributes or activities. The results indicated that, for both pleasure and business trips, the travelers from the near origin (Japan) tended to give most consideration to the ‘tangible’ attribute (shopping), while the travelers from the distant origins (Europe and North America) evaluated the ‘intangible’ attribute (local culture) as most valuable. Regardless of origin, business travelers spent significantly more than pleasure travelers in total trip expenditure. Preference for a specific activity does not seem to directly correlate with expenditure on the activity. The results provide useful implications for cities in developing a marketing plan for international travelers. Recommendations for future research are also suggested.
Mountaineering has emerged as a popular form of adventure tourism, yet there is scant research that develops an understanding of its participants. This paper contributes to a theoretical understanding of mountaineer adventure tourists by evaluating previous work on mountaineering, mountaineers, adventure, recreation and tourism. It uses this to develop a conceptual framework to examine mountaineer adventure tourists, the key influences on their participation in mountaineering and their actual experiences during involvement. In this framework a number of influences encourage participation. Push elements (Ann. Tourism Res. 4(4) (1977) 184), including risk (J. Leisure Res. 17(3) (1985) 241; Leisure Today 49(4) (1978) 7; J. Phys. Educ. Recreation 19(4) (1978) 27) and mastery (KYKLOS 52(3) (1999) 315), are influential. Pull elements (Ann. Tourism Res. 4(4) (1977) 184), including the natural mountain environment and mountain conditions are also significant. Other influences are personality attributes such as sensation seeking (Sensational Seeking: Beyond the Optimal Level of Arousal, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1979) and lifestyle factors, including previous mountaineering experience (J. Leisure Res. 17(3) (1985) 241). These components combine to influence people's perception of adventure. During participation, mountaineer adventure tourists experience contrasting emotions, a core element of adventure (Adventure Tourism: The New Frontier, Butterworth-Heinemann, London, 2003). They can also experience flow (The Psychology of Happiness, Rider, 1992) and peak experience (The Farther Reaches of Human Nature, Penguin, Baltimore, MD, 1976). How tourists experience mountaineering, and the emotional states encountered throughout this activity, result from the combined influences that originally encouraged them to participate. The framework differs from previous studies on mountaineering (e.g. Int. J. Sports Psychol. 27 (1996) 308; J. Leisure Res. 17(3) (1985) 241; Pers. Indiv. Differ. 25(6) (1998) 1063; KYKLOS 52(3) (1999) 315) in that it recognises the inter-relatedness of the influences on mountaineering participation, acknowledges the convergence of tourism and recreation in an adventure setting, and emphasises the importance of investigating mountaineers during their actual participation. Discussion of the framework's value to mountaineering tourism providers is presented, and suggestions are made for further study in this under-researched field.
This paper reports the findings of the first interdisciplinary study of Scotland's adventure tourism sector which is now promoted as one of the new drawcards for domestic and overseas visitors by the National Tourism Organisation—VisitScotland. An analysis of a national survey of adventure activity operators highlights the development of this sector, the characteristics of operators, the way their businesses have been developed and the significance of independently owned and managed small firms in this sector. The survey also examined the characteristics of visitors and markets using adventure tourism products provided by these businesses and the safety issues which these operators faced in managing these types of activities. Based on data collected and application of research techniques from safety management, the injury rates among participants in these activities are reviewed. The growth potential and possible obstacles to this nascent industry sector in Scotland are also examined.
Mountains are attractive as tourism destinations. Mountaineering is a long established adventure sport predicated on physical activity, challenge, and risk-taking. It has been, hitherto, the preserve of an experienced elite whose approach is epitomized by self-reliance and independent operation in such destinations. Social boundaries separating mountaineers from tourists are becoming blurred. Existing tourist theory fails to capture the subtleties of emergent mountain-based tourism. Adventure tourism has accelerated a discernible move towards the commodification of mountains. Evidence suggests a dilution of the essential ingredients of “being a mountaineer” as a result of a democratization process facilitated by the arrival of some urban characteristics in wild mountain regions.RésuméLa naissance du tourisme d’aventure basé sur la montagne. La montagne est une destination touristique attrayante. L’alpinisme est un sport d’aventure qui est établi depuis longtemps et qui est fondé sur l’activité physique, le défi et le risque. Jusqu’ici, ce sport a été le domaine d’une élite expérimentée dont l’approche est la parfaite illustration de l’autonomie et de l’activité indépendante à la montagne. Les limites sociales qui séparent les alpinistes des touristes deviennent floues. Les théories existantes du tourisme ne parviennent pas à capter les subtilités de la naissance du tourisme basé sur la montagne. Le tourisme d’aventure a accéléré un mouvement perceptible vers la commodification de la montagne. L’évidence suggère une dilution des éléments essentiels « d’être alpiniste » comme résultat d’un processus de démocratisation qui est facilité par l’arrivée de quelques caractéristiques urbaines dans des régions montagneuses sauvages
To test whether commercial tourism products in different adventure activity sectors have different functional characteristics, I took part in tours offered by 75 operators worldwide and analysed price per person per day, duration, prior skill requirements, remoteness, group size and client-to-guide ratios. There is an enormous range of variation. Some activities overlap but some are clearly distinguishable, on commercial as well as operational criteria. Products can be arranged on a scale from low volume, high difficulty, high price to high volume, low difficulty and low price. There are recognisable signatures for some subsectors, but not all.
The growth in demand for adventure tourism has been significant in recent years. This study applied an existing marketing framework and empirically examined the relationships between value, satisfaction, and behavioural intentions in an adventure tourism context. Four hundred and two respondents provided their perceptions of the value for an adventure tour in Australia. Customer value was conceptualised as a multidimensional construct and indeed three value dimensions had strong, positive influences on customer satisfaction and behavioural intentions in an adventure tourism setting. Value-for-money was prominent, but also emotional value and novelty value were also significant predictors of satisfaction and future intentions. The present study suggests that researchers should take a broader, holistic view of value in a tourism context.
The essential character of what is classically considered, e.g., by N. R. Campbell, the fundamental measurement of extensive quantities is described by an axiomatization for the comparision of effects of (or responses to) arbitrary combinations of “quantities” of a single specified kind. For example, the effect of placing one arbitrary combination of masses on a pan of a beam balance is compared with another arbitrary combination on the other pan. Measurement on a ratio scale follows from such axioms. In this paper, the essential character of simultaneous conjoint measurement is described by an axiomatization for the comparision of effects of (or responses to) pairs formed from two specified kinds of “quantities”. The axioms apply when, for example, the effect of a pair consisting of one mass and one difference in gravitational potential on a device that responds to momentum is compared with the effect of another such pair. Measurement on interval scales which have a common unit follows from these axioms; usually these scales can be converted in a natural way into ratio scales.A close relation exists between conjoint measurement and the establishment of response measures in a two-way table, or other analysis-of-variance situations, for which the “effects of columns” and the “effects of rows” are additive. Indeed, the discovery of such measures, which are well known to have important practical advantages, may be viewed as the discovery, via conjoint measurement, of fundamental measures of the row and column variables. From this point of view it is natural to regard conjoint measurement as factorial measurement.