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The role of language and private speech in preschoolers’ self-regulation
Early Child Development and Care
Abstract
The present study explored relations among language skills, private speech, and self-regulation in three- to five-year-old children. Language skills were assessed with a standardised measure of language ability and by teacher reports of adaptive use of language in the classroom. Private speech was measured by observing children during a challenging task and by asking teachers to report on children's typical use of private speech. Teachers also reported on children's self-regulation. Results indicated that language skills were positively related to self-regulation. However, private speech, particularly private speech that was relevant to the task, was negatively related to language skills and to self-regulation. The frequency of relevant private speech mediated the association between language ability and self-regulation. Children who had higher language skills used less private speech and, in turn, had better self-regulation. The adaptive use of language for self-regulation is discussed in light of these findings.
... Although many studies have used Berk's (1986) coding scheme to distinguish between mature and immature forms of PS in preschoolers, the findings do not always support this hypothesis. For example, the number of mature and immature PS utterances young children produced during a challenging Lego construction task were negatively correlated with teacher-reported self-regulation abilities in the classroom (Bono & Bizri, 2014). Similarly, 5year-olds who produced a greater amount of overt, task-relevant PS during problem-solving performed more poorly on executive function tasks and had more teacher-reported behavior problems than children who produced less PS (Winsler et al., 2000). ...
... The first aim of the study was to assess whether characteristics of children's PS at age 3 were associated with their IC at age 4. Our hypothesis that the amount of PS would be negatively associated with IC was not supported. We expected this because in previous studies, young children who produce lots of PS during problem-solving are perceived by teachers as having disruptive behavior problems and poor self-regulation (Bono & Bizri, 2014;Winser et al., 2000). Importantly, however, very few children in those studies were younger than 3.5 and children may begin decreasing their reliance on overt PS across the fourth year (Winsler et al., 2003). ...
... First, few if any studies have observed children's PS at 3 years, a time when it may be critical to do so considering that normative declines in PS are observed across the fourth year (Winsler et al., 2003) alongside rapid advances in IC (Jones et al., 2003). Although some studies have observed PS in children as young as 3 (Bono & Bizri, 2014;Winsler et al., 2003), most children in the samples (or subgroups) were approaching 4 or 5. In this study, PS was observed from a large sample of children who were almost exactly 3 years old (90% within two months of their birthday). ...
Private (i.e., self-directed) speech (PS) is thought to support the development of self-regulation but few studies have been longitudinal or focused on the preschool period, when self-regulation skills are rapidly coming online. In this study (N = 160), we observed children's PS during a challenging puzzle task at age 3 and assessed whether the amount and maturity of their PS predicted their inhibitory control (IC) at age 4 and indirectly emotion regulation at age 9. Additionally, we examined whether the direct and indirect effects of PS were moderated by children's temperament. As expected, the maturity of children's PS was positively associated with IC and this association was stronger when children were reported as higher in anger reactivity by mothers (the interaction accounting for 11% of the explained variance). Children low in temperamental anger tend to have good IC and may not need to use PS. When children were at or above the mean on anger reactivity, PS maturity was indirectly associated with better emotion regulation at age 9 through an influence on IC at age 4 (index of moderated mediation =1.03 [.10, 3.60]). Findings suggest that PS is an important self-regulatory tool for 3-year-olds who typically experience and express anger.
... Self-regulation enables the individual to provide an adjustment in all areas of life, such as social interaction (Williford et al., 2013) or learning behavior (Denham et al., 2012). Self-regulation comes into play on different levels: thinking processes (cognitive self-regulation, e.g., Modrek et al., 2019), emotions (emotional self-regulation, e.g., Day & Smith, 2013), and actions (behavioral self-regulation, e.g., Bono & Bizri, 2014). ...
... The assumption that speech influences SRL activities in a positive manner is empirically supported by current findings in gSR research (Whitebread, 2015). Bono and Bizri (2014) demonstrated in their study with kindergartners (three to five years old) that the use of speech was positively related to gSR. Furthermore, their findings indicate that children with higher language skills tended to use more inner speech (than private speech) and showed higher levels of gSR according to an external rating. ...
... A direct intervention on the child level is combined with an indirect intervention on the kindergarten teacher level (Landmann et al., 2015). Since the use of self-talk may have a positive impact on SRL (Agina et al., 2011;Bono & Bizri, 2014;Bronson, 2000;Day & Smith, 2013), an SRL intervention in an autonomous learning environment is compared to an SRL intervention in a social-interactive learning environment in which the use of speech is additionally stimulated. The intervention benefit is measured by using an external SRL rating, an SRL measurement tool (see aim 1), as well as a gSR measurement tool, both applied directly on the child level. ...
... Private speech (speech directed to the self) is one method of be- havioral self-regulation that preschoolers can employ. Evidence for the regulatory function of private speech comes from studies sup- porting its association with superior cognitive performance (Bono & Bizri, 2014;Doebel, Andersen-Green, & Munakata, 2017;Winsler, Manfra, & Diaz, 2007). An increase in private speech usage occurs as task difficulty increases (Alarcón-Rubio, Sánchez-Medina, & Winsler, 2013;Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005), and particularly dysregulated children manifest a delay in the typical developmental course of pri- vate speech (Berk & Potts, 1991). ...
... We also found that children who displayed a discordant physiological- behavioral self-regulatory pattern exhibited lower observed IC than children with a concordant physiological-behavioral self-regulatory pattern. Finally, we found that children who displayed a discordant combined effect of physiological readiness and the cognitive bene- fits associated with private speech (Bono & Bizri, 2014;Doebel et al., 2017;Winsler et al., 2007) are reflected in children's effective IC. ...
Although inhibitory control (IC) is associated with children's positive adjustment, we know relatively little about factors underlying its development. We examined whether baseline and on‐task respiratory sinus arrhythmia [(RSA); a physiological measure of self‐regulation] and private speech (a behavioral measure of self‐regulation) interacted to confer differences on directly observed IC in 52 typically developing 4‐year olds. We found that baseline RSA moderated the association between private speech and IC, such that private speech positively predicted IC in children with relatively higher baseline RSA, but was unrelated to IC in children with relatively lower RSA. We also found that children with a concordant physiological‐behavioral pattern (i.e., high RSA and high private speech; low RSA and low private speech) had higher IC, higher effortful control, and lower negative emotionality than those with a discordant physiological‐behavioral pattern (i.e., high RSA and low private speech; low RSA and high private speech). Individual differences in physiological and behavioral self‐regulation indices may represent distinct regulation pathways that interact to confer differences in IC during the preschool years.
... Comparative studies carried out on the education systems of the countries' present different cultural perspectives, opinions, ways of thinking while enable us to observe our own country as if an external observer (Hantrais, 1995). When the literature is analyzed, there are studies (Garner, 1990;Pintrich & De Groot, 1990;Zimmerman & Martinez Pons, 1990;Miller, 2000;Wolters, Pintrich, & Karabenick, 2003;Beisthuizen, 2008;Arsal, 2009;Pasternak & Whitebread, 2010;Cheng, 2011;Bembenutty, 2011;Kingir, Taş, Gök & Vural, 2013;Bono & Bizri, 2014;Ebadi & Shakoorzadeh, 2015;Riva & Ryan, 2015) about teaching self-regulation strategies to students and improving them. Nevertheless, it is detected that there is not any study about comparison of two countries' curriculums based on self-regulation strategies. ...
... Recently, the studies indicate that self-regulation strategies underlie present curriculums, moreover curriculums and self-regulation strategies have positive correlations (Zimmerman & Martinez Pons, 1990;Wolters, Pintrich, & Karabenick, 2003;Pasternak & Whitebread, 2010;Cheng, 2011). The students who have better self-regulation strategies skills are more active and constructivist in the learning process; they can control their behaviors, cognitive processes and motivations while having intrinsic motivation (Bono & Bizri, 2014;Ebadi & Shakoorzadeh, 2015). Students learnt able to control their self-regulation skills, make self-assessment to be aware of whether they develop or not meanwhile proceeding their goals. ...
This study aimed to compare the units related to democracy concept of Social Studies Curriculums applied in Federal Republic of Germany and Republic of Turkey. The goals of the study indicated in Democracy related unit in Social Studies Curriculum in Turkey is examined comparatively with North Rhine-Westphalia State of Germany based on the learning strategies depending on Zimmerman (1998) and Pintrich (2000)’s learning model built on self-regulation. Firstly, literature review of the descriptive research method was used and then, documents were categorized, classified and sorted out using document analysis technique. The derived data of the both countries were compared by the appropriateness to self-regulation strategies. As a result of the study, the democracy related units applied by the curriculums of both countries are found appropriate to students’ gaining self-regulation strategies and also at the end of the study; some suggestions are stated to be able to use the educational environment more effectively in terms of self-regulation strategies.
... The literature on the subject reports numerous studies that reveal the relationship between the concept of self-regulation and gender (Akkaya, 2012;Alçı & Altun, 2007;Cebesoy, 2013;Çelik Ercoşkun & Köse, 2014;Erdoğan & Şengül, 2014;Gömleksiz & Demiralp, 2012;Kadıoğlu, Uzuntiryaki, & Çapa Aydın, 2011;Özkal & Sucuoğlu, 2013;Sağırlı & Azapağası, 2009;Üredi & Üredi, 2005;Yüksel, 2013;Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Ponds, 1992;Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990), self-efficacy (İsrael, 2007;Ocak & Yamaç, 2013;Pintrich, 1999;Pintrich & De Groot, 1990;Virtanen, Nevgi, & Niemi, 2014;Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990), and academic success (Akkuş İspir, Ay, & Saygı, 2011;Altun, 2005;Altun & Erden, 2013;Arsal;Bembenutty, 2011;Bono & Bizri, 2014;Cheng, 2011;Duru, Duru, & Balkıs, 2014;Malpass, O'Neil, Harold, & Hocevar, 1999;Tekbıyık, Camadan, & Gulay, 2013;Turan & Demirel, 2010;İsrael, 2007;Üredi & Üredi, 2005Yüksel, 2013). ...
... In the experimental study by Arsal (2009), identifying the effect of self-regulation teaching on academic success and attitude, it was determined that self-regulation has a positive effect on academic success. There are numerous studies indicating that the self-regulation strategy is a factor affecting success (Akkuş İspir et al., 2011;Altun & Erden, 2013;Bembenutty, 2011;Bono & Bizri, 2014;Cheng, 2011;Üredi & Üredi, 2005. Yüksel (2013) revealed that there was a positive medium-level relationship between the self-regulation skill levels and success levels of teacher candidates. ...
The purpose of this study was to reveal whether the low, medium, and high level self-regulated learning strategies of third year students at the Education Faculty of Cumhuriyet University can be predicted by the variables of gender, academic self-efficacy, and general academic average. The study uses the Relational Screening Model. The dependent variable of the study was the “self-regulated learning strategies” of the students and the independent variables were gender, academic self-efficacy, and general academic average. The universe of the study consisted of 1398 third year students from 11 departments of the Education Faculty of Cumhuriyet University. The sample of the study consisted of 826 third year students from 11 departments of the Education Faculty of Cumhuriyet University, all chosen by simple random sampling. In the study, as a tool for data collection, the “Academic Self-Efficacy Scale” was used to identify the academic efficacies of the students, and the “Self-Regulated Learning Strategies Scale” was used to identify the self-regulated learning strategies of the students. In the analysis of the data, a clustering analysis of the dependent variable and the three-category ordinal logistic regression analysis was used since it was ordered. On examining the results of the logistic regression analysis, it could be seen that gender, general academic average, and academic self-efficacy of the students predicted the self-regulated learning strategies to a significant level.
... Children with well-developed language capabilities may be better equipped to recognize, understand, and make sense of social situations as well as others' emotions (Gallagher 1993). They may also use language-based strategies, such as inner speech, to regulate their emotions more effectively (Bono and Bizri 2014). Indeed, language has been linked to social competence via emotional regulation skills (Eisenberg and Spinrad 2004). ...
Research examining relations between language skills and social competence has yielded mixed findings. Three meta‐analyses investigated links between language skills (overall, receptive, and expressive) and social competence in 2‐ to 12‐year‐old children. Data from 130 studies representing 62,120 children (M age at language assessment = 4.70 years; 52% male), predominantly from North America and Europe, and identifying as White (33%), Black (17%), Hispanic (14%), Asian (2%), Mixed (4%), Indigenous (1%), and Other/Unspecified (29%) were analyzed. Analyses indicated significant medium‐sized associations between social competence and: overall language ( r = 0.27), receptive language ( r = 0.23), and expressive language ( r = 0.20). Exploratory analyses indicated significant moderating effects of study design, publication status, social type, and geographic region. Results and implications are discussed.
... This pattern of findings is partially consistent with prior work in autistic preschoolers (Campbell et al., 2019), indicating that verbal skills accounted for the challenges in delaying gratification observed in both the Autism and ADHD Concerns groups. Indeed, verbal abilities have been shown to impact self-regulation in various ways (Bono & Bizri, 2014;Petersen et al., 2015;Vallotton & Ayoub, 2011). First, verbal abilities may contribute to the comprehension and internalization of task rules, such as the instruction to wait for the examiner's cue before eating the snack, which provides individuals with a cognitive framework for regulating their behaviors and impulses. ...
Objective:
Self-regulation abilities in childhood are predictive of a range of challenges later in life, making it important to identify difficulties in this area as early as possible. Autistic children and those with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often have difficulties with self-regulation, but little is known about the similarities and differences in such abilities across neurodevelopmental conditions.
Method:
We examined self-regulation using a delay of gratification task in 36-month-old autistic children (n = 20), those showing clinically relevant concerns for ADHD (i.e. ADHD Concerns; n = 24), and Comparison children without these conditions (n = 130); early predictors of self-regulation were also assessed.
Results:
Both the Autism and ADHD Concerns groups had greater difficulty waiting for a desired snack than the Comparison group. At the longest delay trial (30 seconds), a substantial percentage of autistic children (50%) and those with ADHD Concerns (35%) consumed the snack prematurely, in contrast to only 16% of the Comparison group. Parent-reported temperament-based impulsivity at 18 months and examiner-observed ADHD-like traits at 24 months were associated with increased self-regulation challenges at 36 months, regardless of group. Adjusting for verbal abilities attenuated some of these differences and associations, suggesting that language may be an important mechanism undergirding early self-regulatory abilities.
Conclusion:
Given possible links between preschool self-regulation and a range of critical functional outcomes, future studies may explore the efficacy of early interventions targeting impulsivity and regulatory behaviors in infants and toddlers at elevated likelihood for developing self-regulation challenges to potentially reduce the impact of these difficulties later in life.
... There are many possibilities as to why language and social competence are linked in children with DLD. First, some authors have argued that language promotes the use of private speech (Bono & Bizri, 2014) and that private speech allows for self-regulation, particularly in challenging situations or conflicts with others. However, when it comes to conflict resolution in children with language difficulties, some research has shown that children with DLD are more likely to use strategies that do not rely on language use (e.g., physical aggression, submission to others; Bakopoulou & Dockrell, 2016). ...
Purpose
This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to examine the association between language skills and social competence in children with developmental language disorder (DLD) and to assess the potential moderators of these associations.
Method
The study was reported using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Studies were identified according to a search strategy carried out in PsycINFO, MEDLINE, Scopus, Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global databases. A total of 15,069 articles were independently double screened in the title and abstract phases, with 250 articles proceeding to a full-text review. Inclusion criteria comprised (a) a sample of children with DLD between the ages of 2 and 12 years, (b) a language measure, (c) a social competence measure, and (d) an appropriate statistic. Exclusion criteria were (a) intervention studies with no baseline data, (b) language measures based on preverbal abilities, (c) samples of children with DLD and other clinical conditions, and (d) studies without useable statistics. Data were extracted from 21 studies that met the eligibility criteria for the meta-analysis.
Results
Pooled estimates across 21 studies (Mage = 7.52 years; 64% male) and 6,830 children indicated a significant association between language skills and social competence in children with DLD (r = .18, 95% confidence interval [.12, .24], p < .001), which was small in magnitude. The effect sizes were stronger in studies that assessed overall language skills than in those that specifically measured receptive or expressive language skills.
Conclusions
Findings from this study support a subtle and reliable relationship between language and social competence in children with DLD. The implications and limitations of this study and its future directions are also discussed.
Supplemental Material
https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.24514564
... The findings of the present study confirm that majority of the secondary school learners make use of academic self regulated learning strategies in their academic activities in Faisalabad District of the Punjab province. This is in line with the findings of some previous studies like (Bono & Bizri, 2014;Duru, Duru & Balkis, 2014;Altun & Erden, 2013;Dent, 2013;Tekbiyik, Camadan & Gulay, 2013) who found that learners make use of ASRLS or suggested to use ASRLS in their studies. ...
... In our case, as it is for most EF tasks, there is an important verbal component to the tasks, such as understanding the instructions and the prompts. Another possibility regards the connection between the internalization of private speech, language skills, self-regulation, and cognitive abilities [29,30]. It is possible, for example, that in our sample of monolingual children language skills at Time 1 were instrumental in the development of self-regulation and EF through Time 2. Regarding the non-significant relation between Time 1 EF and later language skills, we posit that perhaps as the instructional environment becomes more rigorous, EF skills become more instrumental for other types of knowledge acquisition than during the preschool years. ...
Dual language management has been proposed as the reason for bilingual children’s sometimes enhanced executive functioning (EF). We sought to identify the directionality of the relation between language proficiency and EF, using measures of receptive vocabulary, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. Data were collected twice, a year apart, on 35- to 66.8-month-old bilingual (n = 41, M = 49.19 months) and monolingual preschool children (n = 37, M = 47.82 months). The longitudinal results revealed that while the monolingual children’s vocabulary at Time 1 predicted EF at Time 2, EF at Time 1 did not predict vocabulary at Time 2. In contrast, for bilingual children the relation was not present at all. The results were similar after the one-time analyses. The absence of relations between EF and language in bilinguals, while present in monolinguals, challenges the current conceptualization of the EF advantage in bilinguals, and emphasizes the need for more research on the development of bilingual children.
... Self-talk can appear a) as social speech in which children communicate their thinking processes to the environment or b) as private speech in which children communicate thinking processes to themselves. With the increasing internalisation of cognitive processes, private speech transforms to inner speech while preschool age (Bono & Bizri, 2014;Winsler, De León, Wallace, Carlton, & Willson-Quayle, 2003). As the development of selfregulation ability is not terminated in preschool age, it is reasonable to conclude that fostering gSR, or respectively SRL, in preschoolers is also possible by encouraging social-interactive practicing in which instruction for social and private speech is given. ...
Self-regulated learning (SRL) is important for a person's school career and their later academic success, and it should therefore be fostered as early as possible. Nevertheless, research focusing on the promotion of SRL in preschoolers is limited. The present study aims to examine the efficacy of an SRL intervention based on a longitudinal control-group-design for preschoolers (direct-level intervention) and their kindergarten teachers (indirect-level intervention). The SRL intervention took place in either a) an autonomous learning environment, where SRL learning strategies were practiced with no special focus on the stimulation of communicative abilities or b) in a social-interactive learning environment, where SRL learning strategies were practiced while communicative abilities were stimulated. The sample consisted of 189 preschoolers (49.5% ♀, 50.5% ♂, mean age: 5.6 years, SD = .47 years) and 30 kindergarten teachers. SRL and general self-regulation ability (gSR) served as performance measures. The results of the paired t-tests revealed an increase in SRL and gSR for preschoolers irrespective of the condition, while a group-differential intervention benefit for preschoolers (i.e. direct-autonomous or direct-interactive intervention) could not be confirmed by the applied repeated measures ANOVA and contrast analyses. Further, we did not find any substantial benefit from teacher intervention (i.e. indirect intervention) analysed by non-parametric Wilcoxon test. This unexpected result is discussed in light of methodical considerations. Nevertheless, the study provides important implications for future intervention studies.
... There has been some confirmation that private speech correlates with task difficulty (Berk and Garvin, 1984). But along with the work of others (Bono and Bizri, 2014;Tan-Niam, 1999), my observations at the Elfgarden preschool cast doubt on the view that private speech serves strictly a self-regulatory or guiding function. Children did not exclusively or even predominantly speak to themselves when working on hard problems. ...
Existing accounts of teaching and the teacher‐learner relationship stand in the tradition of epistemic individualism: The teacher produces signals or utterances that the learner uses as evidence to form beliefs. In this article, I argue for an alternative, second‐personal, account of teaching in which teacher and learner mutually recognise their participation in a joint enterprise to get the learner to acquire knowledge and capacities that she does not yet possess. A particular version of this account is defended which regards children as ‘self‐conscious learners’ who place their epistemic trust in teachers and recognise them as providing the standards of evaluation against which their behaviour is measured. Empirical work is cited to support these ideas.
... The relationship between self-regulation and academic achievement has well been documented in previous research across various grade levels and subject areas (e.g., Altun, 2005;Altun & Erden, 2013;Bembenutty, 2011;Blair, 2003;Bono & Bizri, 2014;Cheng, 2011;Dent, 2013;Duru, Duru & Balkis, 2014;Tekbiyik, Camadan & Gulay, 2013;Yuksel, 2013). The present study confirmed this line of research for the Omani educational context in learning mathematics. ...
This study aimed at examining the relationships of self-regulated learning strategies with students’ learning motivation and academic achievement in mathematics. The study employed a descriptive research design. The participants were 238 ninth grade students in the Sultanate of Oman. The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire was used to assess the participants’ use of self-regulated learning strategies and motivation. Academic achievement was reflected by the total score obtained in mathematics. Results revealed statistically positive relationships of self-regulated learning with intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, task value, control of learning beliefs, self-efficacy and academic achievement. Test anxiety was found to be negatively related to self-regulated learning. The study offers insights on how to develop effective instructional strategies to enhance students' self-regulated learning skills.
Keywords: Self-regulation, learning motivation, learning beliefs, academic achievement, learning.
... SRL skills and their correlations with variables such as academic achievement, epistemological belief, gender, problem solving and self-efficacy are still being investigated in educational studies (Al Mutawah, Thomas & Khine, 2017;Bono & Bizri, 2014;Bozpolat, 2016;Celik Ercoskun & Kose, 2014;Cheng, 2011;Kadioglu, Uzuntiryaki & Capa Aydin, 2011;Malpass, O'Neil, Harold & Hocevar, 1999;Metallidou, 2012;Pintrich, 1999;Pintrich & De Groot, 1990;Turan & Demirel, 2010), while studies analysing the correlations between learning styles and SRL are limited (Banarjee & Kumar, 2014;Cassidy, 2011;Colak & Altun, 2011;Goodarzi & Mirhashemi, 2013). Cassidy (2011) considers learning styles, academic control beliefs and student self-evaluation as key variables for SRL students, based on the research by Boekaerts (1999). ...
The aim of this study was to determine the learning styles of prospective chemistry and science teachers, and to examine the effects of different learning styles on their self-regulated learning skills. The survey method which is one of the quantitative research methods was used in this study. A total of 251 prospective chemistry and science teachers from the Departments of Chemistry and Science Education of three different public universities participated in the study. The Self-Regulated Learning Skills Scale was used to determine the self-regulated learning skills of the prospective teachers, and the ‘Maggie McVay Lynch Learning Style Inventory’ was used to determine the prospective teachers’ learning styles. The results showed that 61.8% of prospective chemistry and science teachers had a visual learning style, followed by a moving or kinaesthetic learning style (19.9%) and an auditory learning style (18.3%). Furthermore, a statistically significant difference was determined in the prospective chemistry and science teachers’ lack of self-directedness scores.
Keywords: Learning style, prospective chemistry and science teachers, self-regulated learning.
... Neither set of skills is a strong correlate of reading, and this is borne out by the finding that there is no difference between the children with dyslexia + DLD and those with DLD-only on tasks tapping motor skills or executive function. Within the framework proposed by Barkley (1997), "inner speech" is important for the development of behavioral regulation (see also Bono & Bizri, 2014). It follows that children with language difficulties will experience problems with a range of executive skills. ...
We followed children at family risk of dyslexia and children with preschool language difficulties from age 3½, comparing them with controls (N = 234). At age 8, children were classified as having dyslexia or Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) and compared at earlier time points with controls. Children with dyslexia have specific difficulties with phonology and emergent reading skills in the preschool period, whereas children with DLD, with or without dyslexia, show a wider range of impairments including significant problems with executive and motor tasks. For children with both dyslexia and DLD, difficulties with phonology are generally more severe than those observed in children with dyslexia or DLD alone. Findings confirm that poor phonology is the major cognitive risk factor for dyslexia.
... Teachers can set a warm, positive and attentive environment for understanding, expressing and regulating the feelings in order to contribute to development of emotional skills and help children express their feelings in appropriate means in preschool institutions. Children with high self-motivation can obey the class rules, work on a problem without anxiety or anger; in addition, they can be successful at working with their teacher and peers (Bono & Bizri, 2014). It is concluded in this study that being anxious/fearful among internal behavioural problems of children influence attention-impulse control levels adversely and attention-impulse control levels affect school readiness positively. ...
This study aims to examine direct and indirect relationships between parenting styles, children's behavioural problems, their self- regulation skills and school readiness. In scope of the research, the mediating role of children's self-regulation skills was evaluated on parenting styles and school readiness and behavioural problems observed in children and school readiness. The data was obtained from 140, 66-72-month-children, enrolled at preschools affiliated to Ministry of Education in Central District of Burdur province in 2015-2016 education year, their parents and 8 teachers working at preschools. The obtained data were analysed with PROCESS macro, the direct and indirect path coefficients of the regression models were subjected to bootstrap analysis. It was determined that parental attitudes did not significantly predict school readiness of the children. On the other hand, attention/impulse control as a sub-dimension of children's self-regulation skills proved complementary mediation role between children's anxious/fearful behaviour and school readiness. The study also revealed the indirect-only mediation role of attention-impulse control between hostile/aggressive and hyperactive/distractible behavioural problems and school readiness. The results of the study indicate that children's anxious/fearful behaviour affect their attention-impulse control skills in a negative way and children's attention-impulse control skills affect their school readiness in a positive way. Findings of the study have been discussed in the scope of school readiness and suggestions are put forward in accordance with the results.
... Öğretmenler okul öncesi eğitim ortamlarında duygusal yeteneğin gelişmesi için duyguları anlama, ifade etme ve düzenleme için sıcak, olumlu ve özenli çevre düzenleyebilir ve uygun yollarla duygularını ifade etmeleri için çocuklara yardımcı olabilirler. Çocuklardan öz-motivasyonu yüksek olanlar, sınıf kurallarına uyabilir, bir problem üzerinde endişeli ya da kızgınlık duymadan çalışabilir ayrıca öğretmen ve akranlarıyla birlikte çalışabilme konusunda çok başarılı olabilirler (Bono ve Bizri, 2014). Bu araştırma ile çocuklardaki içe dönük davranış problemlerinden endişeli/ağlamaklı olma davranışının çocukların dikkat-dürtü kontrol düzeylerini olumsuz yönde etkilediği ve dikkat-dürtü kontrol düzeylerinin okula hazır bulunuşluklarını olumlu yönde etkilediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. ...
... Il legame tra linguaggio e pensiero è presente durante tutto l'arco di vita ed è determinante rispetto alla capacità di analisi, sintesi e adattamento nei diversi contesti. Studi più recenti hanno evidenziato che l'autoregolazione e il linguaggio interno sono correlati nei bambini (Bono e Bizri, 2014). Inoltre, alcuni compiti di categorizzazione e flessibilità risultano mediati dall'uso del linguaggio internalizzato (Alarcón-Rubio, Sánchez-Medina e Prieto-García, 2014). ...
... Although the Wedgits puzzle task was well suited to measure PS-it captured problem solving in each child's zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is most facilitative of PS (Bono & Bizri, 2014)-it was not specifically designed to elicit or measure HS behaviors in young children. In future studies, the Wedgits problem-solving task-originally designed to measure verbal and nonverbal metacognitive behavior-needs to be altered to allow for (and encourage) children to use HS as a SRL strategy during problem solving (Coughlin et al., 2015;Karebenick & Gonida, in press;Vredenburgh & Kushnir, 2015). ...
Private speech and help-seeking behaviors found new traction through Zimmerman’s
(1990) conceptualization of self-regulated learning as inclusive of not only metacognition and
self-regulation but also motivation, which—importantly—includes being an active and engaged
participant in one’s own learning; to be a self-regulated learner, one must be knowledgeable
about, regulate, and take charge of oneself and one’s learning.
The current study focused on examining academic help seeking and private speech as
critical self-regulated learning skills in early childhood. It is part of a broader longitudinal
research project in a College lab school (2-5 year olds) focused on the examination of
associations between metacognition, executive function, and motivation (MinD; Marulis &
Nelson, in preparation). Within the longitudinal study, many of the children used expressive
language (help seeking and private speech) during the puzzle task, particularly when it became
challenging, to self soothe, problem-solve, and speak about prior experiences/ knowledge.
To explore this further, we conducted the present study in which we investigated
relations—and predictive ability—between academic help-seeking and private speech behaviors
and metacognitive, executive functioning, and motivation processes in 2-to-5-year-olds. Results
indicated that private speech, but not help seeking, was significantly correlated with
metacognitive and executive functioning processes (controlling for age and oral language);
additionally, private speech (both task-relevant and irrelevant) was predicted by—and was a
predictor for—metacognitive skills. Essentially, results from this study indicate that private
speech is a useful strategy in problem-solving situations, and is a critical mechanism for
enhancing self-regulated learning in early childhood.
... Many researchers have reported evidence for associations between selfregulation and language in typically developing children (e.g. Vallotton & Ayoub 2011;Bono & Bizri 2014). In a study with adolescents with Down syndrome, Cuskelly & Stubbins (2006) found that those who waited longer had more advanced language skills than those who were less able to wait, although there was no difference on MA. ...
Background:
Self-regulation has been found to be an important contributor to a range of outcomes, with delay of gratification (a self-regulatory skill) predicting better academic, social and personal functioning. There is some evidence that individuals with Down syndrome have difficulty with delay of gratification. We investigated the question of whether this difficulty is common to intellectual disability irrespective of aetiology, or whether it presents a particular problem for those with Down syndrome. The latter was considered a possibility because of language difficulties in this group.
Method:
Three groups of children with a mean MA between 36 and 60 months participated in the study: children with Down syndrome (n = 32), children with a moderate intellectual disability from a cause other than Down syndrome (n = 26) and typically developing children (n = 50). Children completed a series of measures of language and cognitive functioning and participated in a delay of gratification task.
Results:
The group of children with Down syndrome delayed for a significantly shorter time than either of the other two groups that did not differ from each other. Receptive language was associated with delay time for the children with Down syndrome but not for the typically developing group, nor for the group with moderate intellectual disability.
Conclusions:
Children with Down syndrome appear to have a particular difficulty with delay of gratification. Language abilities would seem to be implicated in this difficulty, although further examination of this hypothesis is required.
Self-regulation and expressive language are theorized to develop in tandem, shaped by children's social interactions in context, including interactions with teachers and peers in the preschool classroom. In the present study, we examined reciprocal associations between two components of self-regulation (behavior regulation and emotion regulation) and two components of expressive language skills (expressive vocabulary and narrative language) across two time points during the preschool year. We also explored whether individual children's interactions with teachers and peers moderate these associations. Participants were 767 preschool children (49 % female; M = 53 months old; 49 % Black, 22 % White, 13 % Hispanic, 14 % multiracial/other) from low-income households. A multivariate latent change score model provided evidence that early self-regulation predicts increases in expressive language; fall emotion regulation predicted increases in narrative language and fall behavior regulation predicted increases in expressive vocabulary. Empirical support was also found for early expressive language predicting increases in self-regulation; fall expressive vocabulary predicted increases in behavior regulation. Moderation analysis indicated that some of these associations depended on individual children's interactions with peers, but not with teachers. Results provide preliminary evidence for the joint development of expressive language and self-regulation in early childhood classrooms.
Free will typically refers to any form of significant control over one's actions. This definition is remarkably similar to that of self-regulation-the control of one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts in pursuit of long-term goals. Indeed, several scholars have proposed that the latter constitutes the psychological equivalent of the former. A large body of empirical work demonstrates that both covert (inner) and overt (private) forms of self-directed speech are causally associated with self-regulatory outcomes such as action planning, problem solving , emotion regulation, attention, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and self-reflection. It thus seems logical to propose that free will too recruits self-directed speech. This argument is explored by reviewing the relevant literature pertaining to free will, self-regulation, and inner/private speech. More specifically, free will is defined and contrasted with self-regulation, whose definition ends up being remarkably similar. Examples of typical research on private and inner speech are presented and show a key involvement of self-directed speech in self-regulation. The notion that free will depends on inner speech is further explored based on Wiley's work (2009). One outstanding implication is that individual differences in self-directed speech use could be linked to different levels of free will. That is, people using in-ner/private speech more efficiently could exhibit freer will, and vice-versa.
Using spatial cues, such as shape, orientation, and pattern, aids visuospatial working memory, as it allows strategies that reduce the load on this cognitive resource. One such strategy, namely taking advantage of patterned spatial distributions, remains understudied to date. This strategy demands keeping track of already-searched locations and excluding them from further search, and so correlates with visuospatial working memory. The use of such strategies should, in principle, develop in early childhood, but, as most studies focus on chunking, the development of other strategies reducing the load on working memory is understudied in young children. Therefore, in this study, we tested whether children between 2 and 4.5 years (N = 97) could take advantage of spatial cues in their search, and whether this ability correlated with their age, verbal ability, and visuospatial working memory. The results showed that the ability to use a patterned spatial distribution (searching a row of locations from one side to the other instead of a random search) significantly improved with visuospatial working memory but not age or verbal ability. These results suggest that visuospatial abilities may rapidly develop between 2 and 4.5 years, and given their impact on later mathematic achievement, demand increased attention in cognitive developmental research and early childhood education.
Bu araştırmanın amacı Öz-düzenlemeli Öğrenmenin Uygulanmasına İlişkin Öğretmen Öz-yeterlik Ölçeği’nin Türkçe’ye uyarlanarak geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmalarının yapılmasıdır. Bu amaçla nicel araştırma yöntemine dayalı olarak yürütülen araştırma İç Anadolu Bölgesi’nde bulunan üç devlet üniversitesinin 3. ve 4. sınıflarında öğrenimine devam etmekte olan 449 öğretmen adayı ile yürütülmüştür. Araştırmada geçerliğin belirlenmesi için yapı ve ölçüt geçerliğine ilişkin çalışmalar gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu kapsamda yapı geçerliğini belirlemek için 315 öğretmen adayının katıldığı ilk veri toplama sürecinde veriler Açımlayıcı Faktör Analizi’ne (AFA) tabi tutulmuş ve ölçeğin üç faktörlü bir yapı gösterdiği bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. Bunu takiben 134 öğretmen adayından toplanan yeni verilerle Doğrulayıcı Faktör Analizi (DFA) gerçekleştirilmiş ve AFA’da tespit edilen üç faktörlü yapı doğrulanmıştır. Bu faktörler; “Öz-düzenleyici öğrenme stratejilerini tanıtma öz-yeterliği”, “İşbirlikli öğrenme ortamı oluşturma öz yeterliği” ve “Zenginleştirilmiş öğrenme ortamları oluşturma öz yeterliliği” şeklinde isimlendirilmiştir. Ölçüt geçerliği de sağlanan uyarlama formunun Cronbach alfa güvenirlik katsayısı ise .917 olarak hesaplanmıştır. Buna göre uyarlanan ölçeğin geçerli ve oldukça güvenilir olduğu ifade edilebilir. Araştırma sonucunda, ilerleyen araştırmalarda ölçeğin orijinal formu ile uyarlanan bu formun birlikte kullanıldığı uluslararası karşılaştırmalı çalışmaların yapılması, gerek öğretmen adaylarının gerekse öğretmenlerin öz-düzenlemeli öğrenmenin uygulamasına ilişkin öz-yeterliklerini incelemek amaçlı mevcut ölçek kullanılarak ulusal çalışmalar gerçekleştirilmesi ve uyarlanan bu ölçeğin ölçme değişmezliğinin incelenmesi gibi öneriler getirilebilir
The current study examined children’s spontaneous private speech during the vertical and the horizontal Tube Task to shed light on the cognitive, motivational, and emotional processes underlying tool innovation. Tool innovation is defined as solving a novel problem by using or modifying objects in a new and useful way without prior instructions. Relations between private speech of 3- to 4-year-old children (N = 89) and their task performance (i.e., success and latency to success) were analyzed using Bayesian statistics. Children who were successful at the task produced more metacognitive and cognitive speech compared to children who were unsuccessful at the task. Latency to success did not relate to (meta)cognitive speech, but it was associated to negative speech: Children who expressed negative emotions more often and who evaluated the task as being difficult needed more time to find a solution than children who used less negative speech. These findings indicate that cognitive skills and emotion regulation are closely related in preschoolers’ tool innovation.
Classroom organization is an important facet of prekindergarten quality but is typically measured at a global level and as a single construct. Little is known about how experiences of different facets of classroom organization—namely, exposure to teacher organizational strategies—vary across individual children in the same classroom and predict gains in children's academic and executive functioning (EF) skills. We coded the total number of minutes 263 prekindergartners were exposed to teacher strategies for classroom organization (e.g., verbal directions, behavior management, rituals and routine cues, and modeling of materials and transitions). Time spent exposed to a global construct of teacher organizational strategies—as well as the CLASS classroom organization score—did not predict children's gains, but time exposed to specific types of organization did. Findings illustrate the utility in separating a global construct into specific types, and offer a first look at child-level measurement of teacher organization.
ZET Öğrencilerin öğrenme sürecinde, dikkatini toplama, zamanı etkili ve verimli kullanma, kendine güven duyma, bilgi birimleri arasında ilişki kurma, kendi öğrenme hedefleri ile stratejilerini belirleme, kendi öğrenme hedeflerine ulaşma ve öğrenmelerini organize etme yeteneği kazanma becerileri öz-düzenleme ile yakından ilgilidir. Başarının ve akademik performansın en önemli belirleyici olduğu düşünülen kavramlardan biri olan öz-düzenleme kavramı, pek çok kuramsal bakış açısıyla tanımlanmış ve modellendirilmiştir. Bu çalışma ile bireylerin yaşam boyu öğrenmeleri açısından son derece önemli olan öz-düzenleme kavramının tanımları, modellerin özellikleri, modellerin temel aldığı teoriler karşılaştırmalı bir bakış açısı ile ele alınarak, benzerlik ve farklılıklarının belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Literatürde farklı öz-düzenleme modelleri geliştirilmiştir. Geliştirilen Bu modellerden, Zimmerman'ın öz-düzenlemeye dayalı öğrenme modeli, Pintrich'in öz-düzenlemeye dayalı öğrenme modeli, Winne' nın öz-düzenleme modeli, Borkowski'nin süreç odaklı bilişsel modeli, Boekearts'in uyarlanabilir öğrenme modeli ve Kanfer'ın üç aşamalı öz-düzenleme modeli, temel alınarak incelenmiş, benzerlik ve farklılıkları belirlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak, Zimmerman, Pintrich, Kanfer ve Boekaerts modelleri öz-düzenlemeyi amaç odaklı döngüsel bir süreç olarak tanımlarken, Borkowski ve Winne'nin modellerinde ise öz-düzenleme, öğrenme için gerekli olan bilişsel taktikler ve stratejilerin seçimini ve kullanımını ifade eden üstbilişsel süreç olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Ayrıca modellerin, öz-düzenlemeli öğrenme aşamalarında farklılıkların olduğu, ancak bireyin aktif katılımı, kendi öğrenmelerini gözleme ve değerlendirme aşamalarının benzer olduğu görülmüştür. Anahtar Kelimeler: Öz-düzenleme, öz-düzenleme modelleri, öz-düzenleme modellerinin karşılaştırılması * Bu makale Crosscheck sistemi tarafından taranmış ve bu sistem sonuçlarına göre orijinal bir makale olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
Öz düzenleme stratejileri, Bandura’nın sosyal öğrenme kuramına dayalı olarak oluşturulan ve öğrencilerin öğrenmeleri için hedefler belirledikleri, kendi biliş yapısını ve davranışını biçimlendirdikleri, kontrol ettikleri yapılandırmacı bir süreç olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Öğrencilerin kendi öğrenme etkinliklerini düzenleme gereksinimleri ve öğretmenlerin öğrenme için gerekli becerileri kazandırma düşüncesi öz düzenleme kavramının önem kazanmasını sağlamıştır. Öz düzenleme becerisi, öğrencinin bir hedefe ulaşmak için, kendi duygu, düşünce ve davranışlarını yönlendirmesi süreci olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bu çalışma ile Hayat Bilgisi Öğretim Programı kazanımlarının öz düzenleme becerileri açısından incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmada Hayat Bilgisi Öğretim Programı kazanımları, Zimmerman ve Pintrich’in öz düzenlemeye dayalı öğrenme modeli kapsamında ortaya koydukları öz düzenlemeye dayalı öğrenme stratejileri birleştirilerek incelenmiştir. Çalışma doküman incelemesine dayalı olarak yapılmıştır. Araştırmada incelenen doküman, Hayat Bilgisi 1.,2., ve 3. sınıf Hayat Bilgisi Öğretim Programıdır. Araştırmadan elde edilen bulgulara göre kazanımların kaynakları yönetme stratejileri, zaman ve çalışma ortamının düzenlenmesi stratejileri, yardım arama stratejilerinde yoğunlaştığı bulunmuştur. Üst biliş stratejilerini kazandırmaya yönelik kazanımların sayısının az olduğu bulunmuştur. Araştırmanın bulguları doğrultusunda üst bilişsel ve bilişsel stratejilerin kazandırılmasına yönelik kazanımların programlarda daha fazla yer almasına yönelik öneriler getirilmiştir.
The present study explored: (a) preschool children’s awareness of their own talking and private
speech (speech directed to the self ); (b) differences in age, speech use, language ability, and mentalizing
abilities between children with awareness and those without; and (c) children’s beliefs and attitudes
about private speech. Fifty-one children between the ages of 3 and 5 completed a selective
attention task from which a sample of private speech was video-recorded for use during a subsequent
experimenter–child interview. Children also completed a standardized language assessment and a
battery of mentalizing tasks. Roughly half of the children (54%) showed awareness of talking during
the task, and 52% of the children who talked during the task stated that their speech was self-directed.
Children who were aware of their private speech were significantly older, had greater expressive
language skills, used more private speech, and had higher deceptive-box scores than children who
were not aware of their private speech. Participants believed that private speech was positive and
helpful. Implications of this work for researchers and early childhood educators are discussed.
Tested assumptions drawn from Vygotsky's (1934 [1962]) theory about the development of private speech (PS) and its relationship to task performance, attention, and motor behaviors accompanying task orientation. 75 1st and 3rd graders were observed in their classrooms while engaged in math seatwork. Results show a developmental trend toward increasingly task-relevant and less audible PS and a shifting relationship of intelligence to PS with grade, which was consistent with Vygotsky's assumption that PS undergoes a curvilinear course of development that is governed by cognitive maturity. The relationship of PS to task success, as measured by classroom assignment performance and scores on the mathematics portion of the Stanford Achievement Test, varied with grade and mental ability (Cognitive Abilities Test—Primary Battery). Findings suggest that using the type of PS that is in natural developmental ascendence, given the child's level of intellectual maturity, is positively related to performance, but reverting to less mature forms is negatively predictive. Use of task-relevant PS predicted greater task attentional focus and reduction of extraneous, tension-reducing motor behaviors. Findings support Vygotsky's theory of the functional significance of PS in children's cognitive development and the validity of the theory for children's task-related behaviors in natural classroom learning contexts. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors examined a new assessment of behavioral regulation and contributions to achievement and teacher-rated classroom functioning in a sample (N = 343) of kindergarteners from 2 geographical sites in the United States. Behavioral regulation was measured with the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS) task, a structured observation requiring children to perform the opposite of a dominant response to 4 different oral commands. Results revealed considerable variability in HTKS scores. Evidence for construct validity was found in positive correlations with parent ratings of attentional focusing and inhibitory control and teacher ratings of classroom behavioral regulation. Hierarchical linear modeling indicated that higher levels of behavioral regulation in the fall predicted stronger levels of achievement in the spring and better teacher-rated classroom self-regulation (all ps < .01) but not interpersonal skills. Evidence for domain specificity emerged, in which gains in behavioral regulation predicted gains in mathematics but not in language and literacy over the kindergarten year (p < .01) after site, child gender, and other background variables were controlled. Discussion focuses on the importance of behavioral regulation for successful adjustment to the demands of kindergarten.
This report presents national estimates of the prevalence of diagnosed attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disability (LD) in U.S. children 6-17 years of age and describes the prevalence of these conditions for children with selected characteristics. The use of educational and health care services and the prevalence of other health conditions are contrasted for children with ADHD without LD, LD without ADHD, both conditions, and neither condition.
Estimates are based on data from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), an ongoing national household survey of the civilian noninstitutionalized population of the United States. The analysis focuses on 23,051 children 6-17 years of age in the child sample of the 2004, 2005, and 2006 NHIS.
About 5% of children had ADHD without LD, 5% had LD without ADHD, and 4% had both conditions. Boys were more likely than girls to have each of the diagnoses (ADHD without LD, LD without ADHD, and both conditions). Children 12-17 years of age were more likely than children 6-11 years of age to have each of the diagnoses. Hispanic children were less likely than non-Hispanic white and non-Hispanic black children to have ADHD (with and without LD). Children with Medicaid coverage were more likely than uninsured children and privately insured children to have each of the diagnoses. Children with each of the diagnoses were more likely than children with neither ADHD nor LD to have other health conditions. Children with ADHD were more likely than children without ADHD to have contact with a mental health professional, use prescription medication, and have frequent health care visits. Children with LD were more likely than children without LD to use special education services.
Conducted 2 studies to develop a Self-Control Rating Scale (SCRS) for children. The 33-item SCRS showed high internal consistency (0.98) and test–retest reliability (0.84). In a validational study of 110 normal 3rd–6th graders, the SCRS correlated significantly with latency and error scores from the Matching Familiar Figures Test, the Q score from the Porteus mazes, and behavioral observations. These correlations remained significant when both MA and CA were partialed out. Discriminant validity was demonstrated by a very low and nonsignificant correlation with IQ and MA. An orthogonal factor analysis resulted in 1 major factor, which was labeled Cognitive-Behavioral Self-Control. The relationship of SCRS scores to age, the differences across grade levels, and the differences between boys and girls were also examined. The 2nd study compared 32 children referred for self-control training with 32 nonreferred children matched on age (127.13 and 126.73 mo, respectively), sex, and IQ. Significant differences were found on the SCRS, Matching Familiar Figures Test latencies, and behavioral observations. (26 ref)
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.
Abstraction and cognitive flexibility were assessed in 197 preschool children at 2, 3, 4, and 5 years of age using the Flexible Item Selection Task, a task adapted from the Visual-Verbal Test (Feldman & Drasgow, 1951). On this new inductive task, children were shown a set of 3 cards and required to select 2 cards that matched each other on 1 dimension (Selection 1) and then to select a different pair of cards that matched each other on another dimension (Selection 2). Thus, 1 of the 3 cards always had to be selected twice according to different dimensions. Two-year-olds failed to understand basic task requirements as assessed by a criterial measure. Three-year-olds did more poorly on Selection 1 than 4- and 5-year-olds (who performed near ceiling), suggesting that 3-year-olds had difficulty with the abstraction component of the task. Four-year-olds did worse than 5-year-olds on Selection 2, suggesting that they had difficulty with the cognitive flexibility component (i.e., difficulty selecting the same card on more than 1 dimension). Results are discussed in terms of the development of executive function.
This study examined (a) developmental stability and change in children's private speech during the preschool years, (b) across-task consistency in children's self-speech, and (c) across-setting relations between children's private speech in the laboratory and their behaviour at home and in the preschool classroom. A group of 32 normally developing three- and four-year-old children was observed twice (six month interobservation interval) while engaging in the same individual problem-solving tasks. Measures of private speech were collected from transcribed videotapes. Naturalistic observations of children's behaviour in the preschool classroom were conducted, and teachers and parents reported on children's behaviour at home and school. Individual differences in preschool children's private speech use were generally stable across tasks and time and related to children's observed and reported behaviour at school and home. Children whose private speech was more partially internalized had fewer externalizing behaviour problems and better social skills as reported by parents and teachers. Children whose private speech was largely task-irrelevant engaged in less goal-directed behaviour in the classroom, expressed more negative affect in the classroom, and rated as having poorer social skills and more behaviour problems. Developmental change occurred during the preschool years in children's use and internalization of private speech during problem-solving in the form of a reduction over time in the total number of social speech utterances, a decrease in the average number of words per utterance, and an increase in the proportion of private speech that was partially internalized.
Although executive function (EF) is often considered a domain-general cognitive function, a distinction has been made between the "cool" cognitive aspects of EF more associated with dorsolateral regions of prefrontal cortex and the "hot" affective aspects more associated with ventral and medial regions (Zelazo and Mller, 2002). Assessments of EF in children have focused almost exclusively on cool EF. In this study, EF was assessed in 3- to 5-year-old children using 2 putative measures of cool EF (Self-Ordered Pointing and Dimensional Change Card Sort) and 2 putative measures of hot EF (Children's Gambling Task and Delay of Gratification). Findings confirmed that performance on both types of task develops during the preschool period. However, the measures of hot and cool EF showed different patterns of relations with each other and with measures of general intellectual function and temperament. These differences provide preliminary evidence that hot and cool EF are indeed distinct, and they encourage further research on the development of hot EF.
In this study we explored the relation between private speech and task mastery by using the microgenetic method to examine the language and performance of 13 children aged 4 and 5 as they gained expertise with a spatial, multi-step planning task across 6 sessions. Seven of the 13 children’s performances across these sessions were characterized by a sharp change in performance between two consecutive sessions. Detailed microgenetic examinations of individual children suggested that abrupt improvements in performance were associated with a higher use of on-task private speech. More variability was noted in the problem-solving and private speech patterns of children who did not experience abrupt shifts in performance. Implications regarding the role of individual differences in the use of private speech during problem-solving are discussed.
Children often talk themselves through their activities. They produce private speech (PS), which is internalized to form inner speech (silent verbal thought). Twenty-five 8–10-year-olds completed four tasks in a laboratory context (Tower of London, digit span, and two measures of spatial IQ). PS production was recorded. Eleven months later, the same participants completed the Tower of London and academic numeracy tasks, again in a laboratory context, as well as numeracy tasks in a classroom context. Rates of PS production and its level of internalization showed large positive correlations across time, tasks, and contexts. The results are interpreted in terms of the psychometric properties of PS production and are taken as evidence for the development of a domain-general system for verbal self-regulation in childhood.
The aim of this study was to assess whether a day care intervention programme for children from impoverished backgrounds could affect teacher's ratings GI their language use in the classroom in early elementary school. 'Ihwr cere 32k experimental children (who had received a day care intervention programme) and 36 control children in the initial study. At school entry, a comparison child from the same classroom was selected for each of the experimental and control children. The children were followed for three years in school. Besides collecting IQ and achievement data, teachers were asked to fill out the Adaptive Language Inventory (ALI) which measured children's use of language in narrative and discourse situations in the classroom. The results indicated that although the comparison group was rated more highly than the experimental and control group, the experimental group was rated more favourably than the control group over all three years on three of the four major scales of the ALI. There was no indication of a decrease in the size of effects by year 3. Regression analyses generally indicated that the ALI was moderately related to verbal IQ and highly related to reading recognition and comprehension concurrently and over three years. The results suggest that an early intervention programme can be effective in changing and maintaining teachers' perceptions of the narrative and discourse skills of children through early elementary school. In addition, the study suggests that these narrative and discourse skills may be important for reading and other verbal abilities.
This study examined a measure of sustained attention, the Continuous Performance Task (CPT), as an early predictor of low academic readiness. One hundred and sixty kindergarteners were given the CPT, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-R), and the Metropolitan Readiness Test (MRT) in the first weeks of school. The readiness criterion was the Emory Teachers Ratings of Academic Development (TRAD), completed at mid-year. All three predictors were correlated significantly with each other and with the TRAD. High, average, and low readiness scores on the predictors significantly predicted TRAD ratings, while combining the data significantly increased forecasting efficiency. In predicting low readiness, only the CPT and MRT proved significant. The MRT was the best predictor, but the CPT was hindered by a ceiling effect and tapped a variable, sustained attention, that the MRT and TRAD do not. It was concluded that the CPT has promise as a useful, objective, and efficient preschool screener.
Preschool and kindergarten teachers must make decisions everyday about how much to allow their children to talk out loud to themselves during various classroom activities. The present study examines the effects of children's private speech use on task performance for a group of behaviorally at-risk children and a group of control children during a speech–action coordination task. Twenty-nine behaviorally at-risk preschool children and 43 control children completed two versions of a speech–action coordination task (motor sequencing version and numeric tapping) two times, once with and once without speech instructions. Results indicated that the behaviorally at-risk children used more speech spontaneously compared to control children and performed just as well, and that both groups of children performed better when given instructions to use speech. Implications of these findings for early childhood educators' decisions about children's private speech use in the classroom are discussed.
The goal of this study was to understand maternal reports, beliefs, and attitudes about their young children's use of private speech. Mothers of 48 children between the ages of 3 and 5 participated in a semi-structured interview in which they reported on the frequency and context of their child's use of private speech, maternal responses toward such speech use in children, and beliefs about the utility of such speech for children. Interviews were transcribed and responses coded. Mothers also completed surveys on children's self control and parenting style. Results indicated that practically all parents reported that their child engaged in private speech and that such speech was more likely to appear during fantasy play than during problem-solving activities. Parents varied in their personal responses to children's self talk and, as a group, do not appear to actively discourage or encourage its use. Ignoring/allowing child private speech use was common and this response was positively associated with authoritative parenting. Parental reports of the frequency with which their child talks to himself were negatively associated with parental reports of children's self-control. Crib speech, or bedtime monologue, was reported to be very common and was negatively associated with children's self-control and positively associated with children's private speech use. Parents were uniformly positive in their belief that private speech serves important functions and that it helps young children during task activities. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This study compared private speech of children with ADHD and normal controls during problem solving and inhibition tasks. Thirty-two children (16 children with ADHD and 16 matched controls) aged 6–11 years participated. Consistent with previous studies, children with ADHD produced more task-irrelevant and task-relevant external private speech than control children during problem-solving tasks, but did not differ in their use of task-relevant internal private speech. During the inhibition/attention task (Continuous Performance Test-II), children with ADHD produced more task-relevant external and more task-relevant internal private speech, suggesting that they may have employed a less mature strategy to aid in self-regulation. The educational implications of the current study are that there should be an increased awareness of the developmental nature and functional significance of private speech and how private speech usage may differ in children with ADHD.
Previous research suggests that experimenter-induced labeling of test cards improves preschoolers’ performance on the Dimensional Change Card Sort Task (DCCS), a measure of flexible rule use. Three experiments attempted to further clarify how labeling aids performance on the DCCS. Experiment 1 examined the nature of the labeling effect but failed to show any benefit of labeling on children's performance. Experiment 2 failed to replicate the labeling effect reported by [Kirkham, N. Z., Cruess, L. M., & Diamond, A. (2003). Helping children apply their knowledge to their behavior on a dimension-switching task. Developmental Science, 6, 449–467] despite closely matching their procedures. Experiment 3 demonstrated that labeling procedures designed to counteract the suppression of the post-switch sorting dimension also failed to improve performance on the DCCS. We discuss the implications of these findings for identifying factors that positively affect preschoolers’ cognitive flexibility.
Measures of private speech and task performance were obtained for a sample of 46 5- and 6-year-olds engaged on a mechanical version of the Tower of London (ToL) task. Two different sets of four puzzles of increasing difficulty were attempted on two occasions. In line with Vygotskian predictions, there was a quadratic relation between private speech and task difficulty, but no evidence of a shift towards self-regulatory sub-types of private speech with increasing task difficulty. Levels of self-regulatory private speech were significantly related to concurrent, but not subsequent, task performance. We discuss the significance of these findings for the Vygotskian view that private speech has an adaptive function in the self-regulation of behaviour.
Although emerging evidence suggests that parental behavior is related to the development of child executive functioning (EF), the mechanisms through which parenting affects child EF have yet to be investigated. The goal of this study was to examine the potential mediating role of child language in the prospective relation between maternal autonomy support and child EF. A total of 53 mother-infant dyads took part in three home visits at 15months, 2years, and 3years, allowing for the assessment of maternal autonomy support (T1), child expressive vocabulary (T2), and child EF (T3). The results suggested that child language played a mediating role in the relation between maternal autonomy support and child performance on EF tasks entailing a strong impulse control component above and beyond child previous EF and family socioeconomic status (SES). In contrast, no such mediating role of language was found with EF tasks tapping mostly into working memory and set shifting. Thus, this study highlights one pathway through which parenting can affect child executive control.
This study is a descriptive report of the capability to exercise self-control in very young children. 2 aspects of self-control were assessed (delay/response inhibition in the presence of an attractive stimulus and compliance with maternal directives in a cleanup task) for 72 children between the ages of 18 and 30 months. The results indicated that both aspects of self-control show age-related increases. However, a factor analysis of the behaviors observed in the cleanup task suggested that compliance could not be adequately described with a unitary, bipolar dimension (noncompliance vs. compliance). 2 patterns of non-compliance were observed, and 1 of these also increased with age. Cross-task consistency for the delay measures) and coherence across the 2 aspects of self-control showed a positive relationship with increasing age. Finally, correlational analyses of the self-control measures and developmental test data showed that individual differences in self-control were associated with differences in cognitive-developmental status (DA). The results are interpreted as evidence that the achievement of self-control can be considered as a major developmental accomplishment and as evidence that individual differences in self-control emerge and are consolidated during the second and third years of life.
This study is a prospective, longitudinal attempt to explore behavioral self-regulation, private speech, and speech-action coordination in a sample of behaviorally at-risk preschool children. Preschoolers (N = 72) were classified at age 3 years into a behaviorally at-risk group or a comparison group on the basis of preschool teacher behavioral ratings. Children were videotaped on four different occasions across the span of almost 2 years as they completed problem-solving tasks, and private speech, task performance, executive functioning, and speech-action coordination were analyzed. Children identified 2 years earlier as being hard to manage were at risk for continued behavior problems at elementary school entry. Behaviorally at-risk children consistently used more spontaneous private speech than comparison children across all observations. Both groups of children demonstrated a pattern of increasing silence with task success over time. No group differences were observed in children's speech-action coordination at age 5 years. Intraindividual developmental changes in private speech for both groups were associated with task performance, speech-action coordination, and executive functioning at age 5, but not with teacher- and parent-reported problem behavior.
Three experiments examined 3- to 6-year-olds' interference control using a task in which children saw 2 corresponding sets of colored cards, a large set in front of them and a small set behind them. A colored candy (Smartie) was placed on a large card with mismatching color, and children could win the Smartie by selecting the small card that matched the color of the large card. Three-year-olds performed poorly whereas older children performed well. Having children label the correct color before responding improved 3-year-olds' performance (Experiment 2), as did pointing to the large card (Experiment 3); decreasing the affective salience of the stimuli (colored beads vs. Smarties) did not (Experiment 3). Results reveal the role of selective attention in action control.
Self-regulation and school readiness: Influences of parenting, self-regu-lation, and temperament (Unpublished doctoral dissertation)
- K E Bono
Bono, K. E. (2002). Self-regulation and school readiness: Influences of parenting, self-regu-lation, and temperament (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA.
Ready to enter: What research tells policymakers about strat-egies to promote social and emotional school readiness among three-and four-year-old children The emergence and consolidation of self-control from eighteen to thirty months of age: Normative trends and individual differences
- C C Raver
- J Knitzer
- Care
- B E Vaughn
- C B Kopp
- J B Krakow
Raver, C. C., & Knitzer, J. (2002). Ready to enter: What research tells policymakers about strat-egies to promote social and emotional school readiness among three-and four-year-old children. New York: National Center for Children in Poverty. Early Child Development and Care Vaughn, B. E., Kopp, C. B., & Krakow, J. B. (1984). The emergence and consolidation of self-control from eighteen to thirty months of age: Normative trends and individual differences. Child Development, 55, 990–1004.
Thought and language (A. Kozulin, Trans.)
- L Vygotsky
Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language (A. Kozulin, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (Original work published 1934).
Pond preschool language scale TX: The Psychological Corporation
- I L Zimmerman
- V G Steiner
- R E Pond
Zimmerman, I. L., Steiner, V. G., & Pond, R. E. (1979). Pond preschool language scale. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation. 670 K.E. Bono and R. Bizri Downloaded by [University of Colorado -Health Science Library] at 15:01 26 September 2014