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Characterization of vitamin B12 compounds in the fruiting bodies of shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes) and bed logs after fruiting of the mushroom
Abstract
This study determined the vitamin B12 content in commercially available dried fruiting bodies of shiitake mushroom, Lentinula edodes. The vitamin B12 contents in dried donko-type fruiting bodies with closed caps (5.61 ± 3.90 μg/100 g dry weight), did not significantly differ from those of dried koushin-type fruiting bodies with open caps (4.23 ± 2.42 μg/100 g dry weight). The bed logs after fruiting of the mushroom also contained the vitamin B12 levels similar to that in the dried shiitake fruiting bodies. To determine whether the dried shiitake fruiting bodies and their bed logs contained vitamin B12 or other corrinoid compounds that are inactive in humans, we purified corrinoid compounds using an immunoaffinity column and identified vitamin B12 using vitamin B12-dependent Escherichia coli 215 bioautograms and liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-MS/MS) chromatograms. Dried shiitake fruiting bodies rarely contained an unnatural corrinoid vitamin B12[c-lactone] that is inactive in humans. Given that shiitake mushroom lacks the ability to synthesize vitamin B12de novo, the vitamin B12 found in dried shiitake fruiting bodies must have been derived from the bed logs.
... The total vitamin B 12 compounds were extracted by boiling at pH 4.8 in the presence of 4.0 Â 10 À4 % KCN ( Bito et al., 2014). Vitamin B 12 was analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) equipped with an octadecyl silica column (4 lm, 4.6 Â 150 mm, Inertsil Ò ODS-3, GL Sciences Inc., Tokyo, Japan). ...
... Moreover, the absence of air during VD and MVD might inhibit oxidation of uronic acid. Table 2 Table 2), which was similar to the results reported by Bito et al. (2014). Vitamin B 12 was relatively resistant to temperature. ...
... Lower temperature, high vacuum, and short drying time of MVD could protect vitamin B 12 from being destroyed. Consumption of approximately 50 g of dried shiitake mushrooms could provide the recommended vitamin B 12 dietary allowance for adults (2.4 lg/day) ( Bito et al., 2014). Vitamin D 2 is almost absent in cultivated mushrooms, while the content of vitamin D 2 can be increased after 1 h of irradiation with UV-B light ( Jasinghe & Perera, 2006). ...
Various drying methods play important roles in the preservation of foods. However, how the different drying methods affect the quality of some foods is not clear. This paper evaluates the effects of hot air, vacuum, microwave, and microwave vacuum drying techniques on important qualities and volatile compounds of whole shiitake (Lentinus edodes) mushrooms. These four drying methods resulted in a significantly (p < 0.05) increase in the content of total free amino acids and the relative content of sulfur compounds of dried products. Microwave vacuum drying helped to maintain larger amounts of taste-active amino acids, and improved nutrient retention and color attributes. Furthermore, the uniform honeycomb network created by microwave vacuum drying along with a less collapsed structure of dried samples can be used to explain the observed high rehydration ratio. Therefore, microwave vacuum drying should be a potential method for obtaining high-quality dried mushrooms.
... 36 Vitamin B 12 in mushrooms is probably acquired from surface microorganisms or extracted from the substrate. 35,37 Of the six wild edible mushrooms investigated, only two species, 34 Craterellus cornucopioides and Cantharellus cibarius, contained considerable levels (1.79-2.65 mg/100 g d.w. and 1.09-1.82 mg/100 g d.w., respectively) of vitamin B 12 , but still less than in cultivated shiitake mushrooms (1.70-12.71 ...
... mg/100 g d.w.). 35 However, mushrooms can be used as a plant-based source to prevent B 12 deficiency in vegans and vegetarians, but cannot be relied on as the only source of this vitamin since approximately 50 g of dried mushrooms are needed to provide the recommended dietary allowance for adults (2.4 mg per day) and consumption of such a large quantity of mushrooms on a daily basis is not generally feasible. It is noteworthy that mushrooms are the only food of non-animal origin that contains vitamin D. 10 When exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light under certain conditions, mushrooms produce vitamin D 2 in amounts much higher than that of the daily requirements for humans. ...
Thousands of organisms fall under the umbrella of fungal species, many with unique properties; some innocuous, some useful and some harmful.
This book covers the chemical composition and nutraceutical and pharmaceutical properties of edible fungi. It provides updates, future trends and perspectives on edible fungi, their nutritional properties, chemical features and different biological activities ascribed to them. Linking their functional use with different food products, it details the many health related properties of edible fungi. Phenolic acids, fatty acids, macromolecules, and different terpenes and steroids are presented as compounds with health improving properties. The book also discusses current technologies for mushroom cultivation and cultural use of mushrooms around the globe.
Intended for food scientists and technologists, this book offers insights into current research and developments on edible fungi and will stimulate additional research in this area. It could also be considered as a supplementary text for courses such as applied or medical mycology.
... Less common mushrooms such as Craterellus cornucopioides and Cantharellus cibarius may contain 1.09-2.65 µg/100 g [109]. Best known Asiatic Shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes) can contain up to 5.61 ± 3.9 µg of Cbl per 100 g of dry weight (mostly in active form), although with great variability [110]. For instance, a portion of 50 g of dried shiitake could be adequate to achieve the daily requirement, thought this scenario is an unlikely everyday scenario [107,110]. ...
... Best known Asiatic Shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes) can contain up to 5.61 ± 3.9 µg of Cbl per 100 g of dry weight (mostly in active form), although with great variability [110]. For instance, a portion of 50 g of dried shiitake could be adequate to achieve the daily requirement, thought this scenario is an unlikely everyday scenario [107,110]. ...
Vitamin B12 (also known as cobalamin) is an essential water-soluble vitamin that plays a pivotal role for several physiologic functions during one’s lifespan. Only certain microorganisms are able to synthetize B12, thus humans obtain cobalamin exclusively from their diet, specifically from animal-derived foods. Specific sub-group populations are at risk of vitamin B12 subclinical deficiency due to different factors including poor intake of animal source foods and age-dependent decrease in the capacity of intestinal B12 uptake. Consumption of animal products produces some negative health issues and negatively impacts sustainability while a plant-based diet increases the risk of B12 deficiency. Taking a cue from the aforementioned considerations, this narrative review aims to summarize facts about B12 deficiency and the burden of inadequate dietary intake in elderly population, as well as to discuss sustainable approaches to vitamin B12 deficiency in aging population.
... 85 B 12 found in shiitake mushroom fruiting bodies has not been attributed to the de novo biosynthesis of B 12 , but appears to be derived from B 12 sources outside the mushrooms, presumably concomitant B 12 -synthesizing bacteria or those existing in bed logs. 85 Similarly cultivated white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) fruiting bodies contain approximately 0.2 lg of B 12 per 100 g dry weight, 86 with the highest B 12 content found in the peel portion. B 12 was also detected at similar levels in their composts. ...
... Dried shiitake mushroom fruiting bodies rarely contain the inactive corrinoid, B 12 [c-lactone]. 85 Lion's mane mushroom (Hericium erinaceus) fruiting bodies contain considerable amounts of B 12 [c-lactone]. 87 B 12 [c-lactone] binds weakly to the intrinsic factor, which is involved in the gastrointestinal absorption of B 12 and inhibits the B 12 -dependent enzymes. ...
Vitamin B 12 is synthesized only by certain bacteria and archaeon, but not by plants. The synthesized vitamin B 12 is transferred and accumulates in animal tissues, which can occur in certain plant and mushroom species through microbial interaction. In particular, the meat and milk of herbivorous ruminant animals (e.g. cattle and sheep) are good sources of vitamin B 12 for humans. Ruminants acquire vitamin B 12 , which is considered an essential nutrient, through a symbiotic relationship with the bacteria present in their stomachs. In aquatic environments, most phytoplankton acquire vitamin B 12 through a symbiotic relationship with bacteria, and they become food for larval fish and bivalves. Edible plants and mushrooms rarely contain a considerable amount of vitamin B 12 , mainly due to concomitant bacteria in soil and/or their aerial surfaces. Thus, humans acquire vitamin B 12 formed by microbial interaction via mainly ruminants and fish (or shellfish) as food sources. In this review, up-to-date information on vitamin B 12 sources and bioavailability are also discussed.
Impact statement
To prevent vitamin B 12 (B 12 ) deficiency in high-risk populations such as vegetarians and elderly subjects, it is necessary to identify foods that contain high levels of B 12 . B 12 is synthesized by only certain bacteria and archaeon, but not by plants or animals. The synthesized B 12 is transferred and accumulated in animal tissues, even in certain plant tissues via microbial interaction. Meats and milks of herbivorous ruminant animals are good sources of B 12 for humans. Ruminants acquire the essential B 12 through a symbiotic relationship with bacteria inside the body. Thus, we also depend on B 12 -producing bacteria located in ruminant stomachs. While edible plants and mushrooms rarely contain a considerable amount of B 12 , mainly due to concomitant bacteria in soil and/or their aerial surfaces. In this mini-review, we described up-to-date information on B 12 sources and bioavailability with reference to the interaction of microbes as B 12 -producers.
... In addition, high levels of Vitamin B 12 were detected in the commercially available dried shiitake mushroom fruiting bodies (Lentinula edodes), which are used in various vegetarian dishes. The Vitamin B 12 contents of dried shiitake mushroom fruiting bodies (100 g dry weight) significantly varied and the average Vitamin B 12 value was approximately 5.61 μg [50]. Dried shiitake mushroom fruiting bodies rarely contained the inactive corrinoid, Vitamin B 12 [c-lactone] as well as Vitamin B 12 [50]. ...
... The Vitamin B 12 contents of dried shiitake mushroom fruiting bodies (100 g dry weight) significantly varied and the average Vitamin B 12 value was approximately 5.61 μg [50]. Dried shiitake mushroom fruiting bodies rarely contained the inactive corrinoid, Vitamin B 12 [c-lactone] as well as Vitamin B 12 [50]. Lion's mane mushroom (Hericium erinaceus) fruiting bodies also contain considerable amounts of Vitamin B 12 [c-lactone] [51]. ...
The usual dietary sources of Vitamin B12 are animal-derived foods, although a few plant-based foods contain substantial amounts of Vitamin B12. To prevent Vitamin B12 deficiency in high-risk populations such as vegetarians, it is necessary to identify plant-derived foods that contain high levels of Vitamin B12. A survey of naturally occurring plant-derived food sources with high Vitamin B12 contents suggested that dried purple laver (nori) is the most suitable Vitamin B12 source presently available for vegetarians. Furthermore, dried purple laver also contains high levels of other nutrients that are lacking in vegetarian diets, such as iron and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Dried purple laver is a natural plant product and it is suitable for most people in various vegetarian groups.
... Generally, these logs are usually 1-15 cm long and are cut to pieces of almost 1 m in length in winter and autumn, while inoculation of shiitake mushroom spawn is carried out during early spring. 48,49 After completion of inoculation, logs are stacked in a horizontal manner to facilitate the growth of mycelia over several months (known as spawn run). 50 Wild fungi also colonize the logs and affects shiitake mushroom production. ...
Fungal natural products are among some of the earliest described sources of bioactive compounds. Basidiomycetes have been a prolific source of compounds, particularly as a source of antibiotics and antifungals. Despite advances in target-based and synthetic methods for drug discovery, natural products continue to be an important source of novel compounds.
This book is a comprehensive guide to many important fungal species with a focus on their phytochemistry, potential sources of bioactive compounds, known chemistry and toxicology. This book is an ideal companion to researchers and postgraduates in phytochemistry and natural product pharmacology, and mycologists.
... They are reported to contain; ash − 3.12 to 10.66%, fiber − 6.1 to 17.4%, moisture − 73 to 87% per fresh weight of fruiting bodies (FWf), carbohydrate − 19.14 to 68.2 g, fat − 2.1 to 6.7 g, and protein − 18.77 to 62.27 g per 100 g DWf. Apart from that, they also have high vitamin B 12 (0.15 g per 100 g DWf) (Bito et al. 2014), vitamin D (0.1 g per 100 g DWf) (Jasinghe and Perera 2006), vitamin B 9 (25 g per 100 g DWf) and vitamin B 3 (2.6 g per 100 g DWf) content (Mattila et al. 2002;George et al. 2014). Besides that, presence of important amino acids like arginine and lysine also adds value to its nutritional profile (Liu and Biu 1980;Turlo et al. 2008). ...
Mushrooms are considered as future vegetables as they have remarkable nutritional and medicinal properties and thus, their demand has been increasing day by day. Nowadays, mushrooms are among popular foods because of their low calorie, carbohydrates, fat and sodium content. Additionally, they are known to enhance the immune system and act as cholesterol lowering agents. Besides that, among edible mushrooms, Agaricus bisporus, Auricularia spp., Flammulina velutipes, Pleurotus spp., Lentinula edodes and Volvariella volvacea are widely cultivated around the world. Amongst these, substrate preparation for Pleurotus spp. and Lentinus spp. is relatively less gruelling, as lignocellulosic raw materials on which they are grown are abundant in nature. Cultivating these edible mushrooms through solid-state fermentation is one such eco-friendly method, which adds value to the process by utilizing agro-wastes. Therefore, various agricultural by-products have been used, as substrates for the cultivation of Pleurotus and Lentinus mushrooms. Hence, utilization of different types of lignocellulosic biomass, which are not explored yet for instance, distillation wastes of aromatic plants left after extraction of essential oils, might be a new method of mushroom cultivation and may also increase their already established medicinal and nutritional properties. Therefore, the present review focuses on medicinal and nutritional profiles of Pleurotus and Lentinus mushrooms, and is the first one of its kind to summarise the advantages of distillation waste of aromatic plants as a source of raw material for the cultivation of edible mushrooms.
... Shiitake has high nutritional content as well as excellent flavor. This high-quality mushroom has important nutrients including dietary fiber (Mattila et al. 2002), minerals (George et al. 2014), vitamin B 12 (Bito et al. 2014) and vitamin D (Jasinghe and Perera 2006), while it does not have vitamins A and C. ...
Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) is the third most commonly cultivated edible mushroom species in the world. It has attracted people’s attention with its medical properties as well as taste and nutritional value. Shiitake which has been known and used in Chinese medicine for more than 2000 years is now considered a great resource for modern clinical and pharmacological research. This mushroom contains many biologically active compounds (polysaccharides, lentinan, LEM and KS–2, ergosterol, nucleic acid derivatives, water-soluble lignins, eritadenine, etc.) which possess different medicinal effects such as antitumor, immunomodulatory, hypocholesterolemic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti–inflammatory and antioxidant. The chapter presents an overview of the research on the shiitake mushroom including its taxonomy, cultivation techniques, biotechnological approach, functional compounds and medicinal properties.
... As demonstrated above, only a few previous studies focused on vitamin B 12 fortification in food crops (Sato et al., 2004;Bito et al., 2013;Keshavarz and Moghadam, 2017; Table 1). Various studies only focused on the quantification and determination of vitamin B 12 in food crops such as Hippophae rhamnoides berries (Nakos et al., 2017), edible algae (Kumudha, 2015), mushrooms (Watanabe et al., 2012(Watanabe et al., , 2014Bito et al., 2014Bito et al., , 2016, and fermented plant-based products (Watanabe et al., 2013). Titcomb and Tanumihardjo (2019) highlighted that high intake of vitamin B 12 did not show adverse effects on human bodies. ...
It is necessary to develop a resilient food supply that will withstand unexpected future shocks and deliver the required amounts of nutrients to consumers. By increasing the sustainability of food and agriculture, the food system will be able to handle challenges such as climate change, declining agricultural resources, growing population/urbanization, pandemics, and recessions/shortages. Micronutrient deficiency, otherwise called hidden hunger, is one of the major malnutrition consequences worldwide, particularly in middle- or low- income countries. Unlike essential mineral or nutrient compounds, micronutrients could be less of a priority due to their small levels of requirement. However, insufficient micronutrients caused critical adverse health symptoms and are excessively vital for young children’s development. Therefore, there have been numerous attempts to enhance minerals and nutrients in food crops, including biofortification, food fortification, and supplementation. Based on several interventions involving micronutrients, modern technology, such as nanotechnology, can be applied to enhance sustainability and to reduce the food system’s environmental impact. Previous studies have addressed various strategies or interventions to mitigate major micronutrient deficiency including iron, iodine, zinc, and vitamin A. Comparably small amounts of studies have addressed vitamin B12 deficiency and its fortification in food crops. Vitamin B12 deficiency causes serious adverse health effects, including in the nervous or blood systems, and occurs along with other micronutrient deficiencies, such as folate, iron, and zinc, worldwide, particularly in middle- and low-income countries. Mitigation for B12 deficiency has mainly focused on developing pharmacological and medical treatments such as vitamin B12 serum or supplements. Further studies are required to undertake a sustainable approach to fortify vitamin B12 in plant-based food sources for public health worldwide. This review paper highlights nanoparticle application as a promising technology for enhancing vitamin B12 without conventional genetic modification requirements. The nanoparticle can efficiently deliver the mineral/nutrient using coating techniques to targeted sites into the plant. This is mainly because nanoparticles have better solubility and permeability due to their nano size with high surface exposure. Vitamin B12-coated nanoparticles would be absorbed, translocated, and accumulated by the plant and eventually enhance the bioavailability in food crops. Furthermore, by reducing adverse environmental effects, such as leaching issues that mainly occur with conventional fertilizer usage, it would be possible to develop more sustainable food fortification.
... Indeed, it can be important for vegetarians to consume L. edodes, because vegetables do not contain vitamin B12 and its deciency can cause anaemia. 5 In addition, lentinan produced by L. edodes exhibits immunopotentiation effects and can exert anti-tumor activities by enhancing normal bodily immune functions, although it cannot directly kill tumor cells. 6 The highest plantation areas of maize exist in North America followed by Asia, Latin America, and Europe. ...
Using agro-residues in bioreactors to produce mushrooms is an important component of eco-agriculture. Here, we tested the cultivation of Lentinula edodes with corn cob (CC) and corn straw (CS), and then evaluated the resulting enzyme activities, agronomic traits, textures and nutrient compositions of mushrooms. Laccase (T1 formula, 3.26 g U⁻¹) and carboxymethyl cellulase (T3 formula, 1.01 g U⁻¹) activities were the highest at the time for a complete substrate colonization stage (TCSC), while acidic xylanase activity was the highest (CK formula, 4.05 g U⁻¹) in the mushroom block to color-turned (TMBCT) stage. The biological efficiency of growth on the T6 formula was 8.82% higher than growth on the CK formula, wherein the low C/N ratio of the substrate had an obvious negative effect on yield while the mass ratio of pileus (MRP) of fruiting bodies did not change with mixed substrates. No significant differences were observed in mineral composition for CK formulas, but corn crop waste (CCW) formulas exhibited more optimal nutritional contents. A formula containing more corn cob and sawdust (SD) (sum of at least 70%) as the substrate can produce fruiting bodies with good hardness. These results indicate that the use of corn cobs as the main ingredient, mixed with sawdust and corn straw to grow L. edodes provides a more efficient use of agro-residues for growth. Thus, mixed agro-residue formulas have exceptional advantages in texture, nutrition of fruiting bodies, and yields.
... In the specific case of L. edodes, studies focus on the mushrooms' own constituent substances. Some focus on their beneficial, nutritional or pharmacological effects for mankind (BITO et al., 2014;FINIMUNDY et al., 2014); others on their harmful effects for other biological targets, including their antimicrobial effect for E. coli (SÁNCHEZ-MINUTTI et al., 2016). Perhaps that is the reason why studies on edible mushrooms sanitary quality have been neglected. ...
Mushrooms are millennial foods that make up the diet of populations in various parts of the world, and in Brazil, although consumption is still modest, compared to other countries, there has been a significant increase in demand. Edible mushrooms have attractive nutritional and functional qualities, among them: proteins of good quality and low caloric value. Some mushroom species, such as Shiitake, when consumed fresh do not undergo sanitization processes in order not to modify their texture, taste and aroma. Thus, due to the variation of origin, management and production, it is not possible to know if this product is free of
contamination by pathogenic microorganisms. Thus, the objective of this work was to analyze the sanitary quality of Shiitake in natura, commercialized in the municipality of Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ. Samples from two different producers were analyzed for the detection of total and thermotolerant coliforms, Salmonela spp., Fungi and associated nematodes. The results were negative for total and thermotolerant coliforms, as well as for nematodes. However, it was detected the presence of Salmonela spp. in two samples of one of the producers, which make them unfit for human consumption because they represent a risk for the consumer. Fungi were also found contaminating the product.
... c ? g [31,33] Tempe (fermented soybean product) 0.7-8 ? g [34] Shiitake mushrooms 4.2-5.6 c ? g [35] RDI recommended dietary intake a The form in which the eggs are prepared influences the content and absorption of vitamin B 12 [30] b [46,47]. Factors that moderate the response to supplementation in subclinical deficiency may include differences by ethnicity, gender, increasing age, dosage, and cause of the deficiency state. ...
Purpose of Review
Health organizations throughout the world advocate diets that emphasize vegetables, fruits, pulses, grains, and minimally processed staple foods as beneficial throughout life and in old age. However, concern exists that the dietary exclusion or minimalization of flesh foods may compromise the nutritional status of some nutrients, including vitamin B12, iron, and zinc.
The purpose of this study is to discuss the metabolism and dietary sources of vitamin B12, iron, and zinc and review observational studies that investigate the status of these micronutrients in older vegetarians compared to their non-vegetarian counterparts.
Recent Findings
The few comparative studies that are available suggest that vitamin B12 status is lower in older vegetarian compared to omnivorous populations; however, subclinical vitamin B12 deficiency due to malabsorption is prevalent regardless of dietary pattern. Zinc status appears comparable but not optimal in either group. Whether iron status is compromised in older vegetarians compared to non-vegetarians is unclear.
Summary
Dietary practices that improve zinc and iron bioavailability are appropriate strategies in the management of suboptimal nutrient status in apparently healthy older vegetarian populations. Older populations may benefit from vitamin B12 and zinc supplementation, irrespective of dietary pattern.
... Less common mushrooms such as Craterellus cornucopioides or Cantharellus cibarius may contain 1.09-2.65 µg/100 g [177]. Shiitake mushrooms, popular among vegetarians, can contain up to 5.61 ± 3.9 µg of Cbl per 100 g of dry weight (mostly in active form), although with great variability [178]. Even in this case, although a portion of 50 g of dried shiitake could be adequate to achieve the daily requirement, it is unlikely that this will happen daily. ...
Cobalamin is an essential molecule for humans. It acts as a cofactor in one-carbon transfers through methylation and molecular rearrangement. These functions take place in fatty acid, amino acid and nucleic acid metabolic pathways. The deficiency of vitamin B12 is clinically manifested in the blood and nervous system where the cobalamin plays a key role in cell replication and in fatty acid metabolism. Hypovitaminosis arises from inadequate absorption, from genetic defects that alter transport through the body, or from inadequate intake as a result of diet. With the growing adoption of vegetarian eating styles in Western countries, there is growing focus on whether diets that exclude animal foods are adequate. Since food availability in these countries is not a problem, and therefore plant foods are sufficiently adequate, the most delicate issue remains the contribution of cobalamin, which is poorly represented in plants. In this review, we will discuss the status of vitamin B12 among vegetarians, the diagnostic markers for the detection of cobalamin deficiency and appropriate sources for sufficient intake, through the description of the features and functions of vitamin B12 and its absorption mechanism.
... As a popular nonstaple food, shiitake is rich in dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins and low in fat [8]. Several important components have been separated from its basidiocarp, mycelium, and culture medium [9,10], including biologically active polysaccharides, ergothioneine, phenolics, amino acids, dietary fiber, ergosterol, vitamins B1, B2, and C, and minerals. By experimental researches, shiitake mushroom has demonstrated many important therapeutic properties, including antitumoral, hipocolesterolemic, antifungic, and antimicrobial activities, along with a high antioxidant potential [11][12][13]. ...
Long-term storage can largely degrade the taste and quality of dried shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes). This paper aimed
at developing a rapid method for discrimination of the regular and aged shiitake by near infrared (NIR) spectroscopic analysis
and chemometrics. Regular (𝑛 = 197) and aged (𝑛 = 133) samples of shiitake were collected from six main producing areas
in two successive years (2013 and 2014). NIR reflectance spectra (4000–12000 cm−1) were measured with finely ground powders.
Different data preprocessing method including smoothing, taking second-order derivatives (D2), and standard normal variate
(SNV) were investigated to reduce the unwanted spectral variations. Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLSDA) and least
squares support vector machine (LS-SVM) were used to develop classification models. The results indicate that SNV and D2 can
largely enhance the classification accuracy.Thebest sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of classification were 0.967, 0.953, and 0.961
obtained by SNV-LS-SVM and 0.933, 0.930, and 0.932 obtained by SNV-PLSDA, respectively.Moreover, the low model complexity
and the high accuracy in predicting objects produced in different years demonstrate that the classification models had a good
generalization performance.
Vitamin B 12 , cobalamin, is indispensable for humans owing to its participation in two biochemical reactions: the conversion of l -methylmalonyl coenzyme A to succinyl coenzyme A, and the formation of methionine by methylation of homocysteine. Eukaryotes, encompassing plants, fungi, animals and humans, do not synthesise vitamin B 12 , in contrast to prokaryotes. Humans must consume it in their diet. The most important sources include meat, milk and dairy products, fish, shellfish and eggs. Due to this, vegetarians are at risk to develop a vitamin B 12 deficiency and it is recommended that they consume fortified food. Vitamin B 12 behaves differently to most vitamins of the B complex in several aspects, e.g. it is more stable, has a very specific mechanism of absorption and is stored in large amounts in the organism. This review summarises all its biological aspects (including its structure and natural sources as well as its stability in food, pharmacokinetics and physiological function) as well as causes, symptoms, diagnosis (with a summary of analytical methods for its measurement), prevention and treatment of its deficiency, and its pharmacological use and potential toxicity.
Cobalamin (Vitamin B12) is a cofactor for many enzymes, including those in bacteria, archaea, algae, and mammals. In humans, cobalamin deficiency can lead to pernicious anaemia as well as gastrointestinal and neurological disorders. In contrast to marine ecosystems, there is a great paucity of information on the role of soils and terrestrial plants in the supply of cobalt and cobalamin to microorganisms and animals. The content of cobalt cations in most soils is usually sufficient to maintain growth, and the density of cobalamin-producing soil prokaryotes is high in comparison to water bodies. The cobalt content of most soils is usually sufficient in comparison with water, and the density of cobalamin-producing soil prokaryotes is high. Therefore, terrestrial plants are an important cobalt source for cobalamin-producing rumen and gut prokaryotes. The major source of cobalamin for most other animals is the meat of ruminants as well as other animal-derived products, bacteria in insects, and coprophagy, e.g., by rodents. In addition, faecal deposits, and fertilizers as well as soil bacteria add to the cobalamin supply. However, those archaea and bacteria that do not produce cobalamin obtain this coenzyme or its analogues from the environment. Therefore, presence or absence of cobalamin-producing species in soil affects the whole soil microbiome. However, our knowledge concerning microbial producers and consumers of cobalamin in soils is still limited, despite some recent advances. The main reasons are a low cobalamin content in soils and challenging methods of determination. In this regard, advanced analytical knowledge and technical equipment are required, which are usually unavailable in soil laboratories. This review provides relevant methodological information on sample homogenization, extraction, concentration, and purification as well as analysis of cobalamin.
On the occasion of the ICSSR sponsored National Seminar titled “Indian Dairy Sector @75: From
Self-reliance to the verge of becoming World Leader” on 5th March 2022, we feel privileged to publish
this edited book with ISBN which contains the Research and Technical articles submitted during
the seminar by worthy authors from various institutions. This book grew out of our aspiration
for systematic compilation and thereafter wide dissemination of thoughts expressed by various
authors on the theme of the seminar.
‘Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav’ is an initiative of the Government of India to celebrate and
commemorate 75 years of independence of progressive India and the glorious history of its
people, culture and achievements. The struggle of Indian Dairy Sector also started around our
Independence when the dairy cooperative movement was initiated with guidance and leadership
of leaders like Shri Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Shri Tribhuvandas Patel, Shri Morarji Desai, Dr.
Verghese Kurien and others. With the implementation of effective long-term development
schemes like – Operation Flood (1, 2, 3), National Dairy Plan (NDP), Animal Husbandry
Infrastructure Development Fund (AHIDF), the Indian dairy sector has become self-sustained
and is on the verge of becoming the World Leader.
Certainly, this edited book will be of great value and importance to all stakeholders of Indian
Dairy Sector including- Students, Faculty Members, Researchers, Academic institutes, Industry
and Policy makers and serve as a handy reference for them.
We thank all the authors who showed keen interest in the seminar and submitted valuable
articles to be included in this book.
Mushrooms have been used in traditional medicine for centuries, although only relatively recently they have become a subject of intensive studies as a source of potential drugs and products that could be used in the treatment of many disorders. Mushroom-forming fungi are shown to produce a vast number of unique metabolites that exhibit various biological effects; these include polysaccharides, terpenoids, polyketides, and amino compounds. The most studied use of mushrooms is for cancer treatment; mushrooms are a source of both compounds with direct antitumor effect, as well as immunomodulating polysaccharides (particularly β-glucans), which have been shown to stimulate the host's immune system and immunological response to cancer cells. Glucan-based mushroom products, such as lentinan from Lentinula edodes and PSK from Trametes versicolor, are clinically proven to be beneficial in the treatment of certain cancer types. Mushrooms are also known to be a source of potent cytotoxic compounds, such are illudins, clitocine, and ganoderic acids. As microbial resistance to antibiotics is becoming more and more prevalent, mushrooms are seen as a good source of new classes of compounds with antimicrobial activity, some of which, such as pleuromutilin, have led to the synthesis of new drugs that have been recently approved for use in humans. Psychedelic mushrooms and psilocybin have also been studied as breakthrough therapies for depression. Mushroom consumption has been associated with beneficial effects on sugar and lipid metabolism, which led to increased interest in research of mushroom product use in the treatment of metabolic disorders. Although mushrooms are often presumed to be a rich source of certain compounds with vitamin activity, this may not be the case. However, mushroom production can be manipulated to obtain higher yields of physiologically active compounds, such as vitamin D.
Information is protection, in times when Non-communicable Diseases (NCDs) are on an increase in the country, labelling on food products act as an instrument of information for customers related to product nutritional contents. Non-communicable Diseases (NCDs) are increasing rapidly in India. NCDs continue to be major public health problem in our country. As per report of WHO, back-of-pack labels usually given in numerical information table format with details on nutritional composition of the food – is a mandatory requirement in most countries. However, studies have shown that back-of-pack nutrient declarations are rarely used in purchasing situations, and consumers report that they are difficult to understand, in particular by those with lower levels of education or nutrition knowledge. Increase in NCDs and Obesity cases due to consumption of pre-packaged and processed foods has become a concern for governments of many countries. In order to prevent or control further widespread of such diseases, various public health policies have proposed a way out through Front of Pack Labels (FoPL). FOPL can make consumers aware about the nutritional contents in the pack in an easier and precise way, as labelling on package is source of information for the consumer to understand the contents of the packaged food products and FoP labelling will also help the consumer in taking buying decisions based on nutritional contents of the product. The Front of Pack Labels will create NCDs related health awareness among packaged food consumers.
The COVID 19 pandemic and its associated long-term blockade have had a significant
negative impact on various sectors, including agriculture and other related sub-sectors in
India and several other countries. This review aims to show the impact of this pandemic and
lockdown on the dairy sector of one of the fastest growing sectors in recent years. The
pandemic and its associated lockdown not only brought millions of poor and marginalized
farmers great difficulty in saving crops and livestock to support their livelihoods, as well as
poultry and dairy products. It affected the entire other agricultural industry. Value has
influenced chains, nutrition and health care, and workforce availability. The paper highlights
various dimensions of the impacts, namely, reduction in demand of different commodities,
wastage of the produce due to the closure of transport and market chains, distress sale of the
produce, and labor shortage and revival strategies taken by the government and associated
enterprises. The situation of is caused by COVID19 pollutants in the country, and the views
expressed by various workers on the impact of on the dairy sector are reviewed here to
develop future strategies. Problems faced by the dairy sector include reduced demand for
milk and dairy products, transport restrictions leading to livestock feed shortages,
simultaneous rises in feed and feed prices, and no room for dairy farmers to escape. This
situation. As workers and others moved from towns / workplaces to their hometowns,
activities such as coffee shops, hotels, restaurants and candy shops were shut down. Livestock
farmers are unable to sell milk or unproductive / surplus animals on the market, adding to
the additional burden of raising these animals during this difficult blockade, complicating the
situation. To Therefore, efforts have been made to know the situation of dairy farmers
nationwide
India is the dominant producer of milk and milk products in the world. The aim of the paper is
to study and CSR activities of different dairy sectors in India. The information was collected
from different secondary sources such websites, magazines, etc. The study revealed that CSR
activities which led the weaker section of the society in forward direction. This study will help
to the new entrants to frame their CSR activities and make the strategies which will create a
brand among consumers.
India is the dominant producer of milk and milk products in the world. The paper aims to study
and compare the business models of dairy sector, especially to the case companies Amul, Maahi
milk, and Heritage Foods. These three companies have shown growth over the last many years.
The comparative study revealed that both Amul and Maahi milk was favorable to farmers, which
gives an immense amount to their products based on quality. This study will help the new
entrants to formulate the strategies for the growth of the company.
Interest in plant-based diets and vegetarianism is increasing worldwide, however, a concern for total vegetarians is vitamin B12 (B12) deficiency. We conducted a systematic review to investigate non-animal food sources of B12. Databases were PubMed, LILACS, Cochrane, Embase and Google Scholar, up to September 9, 2020. Quality of the eligible studies were assessed. We identified 25 studies which assessed B12 content in seaweeds, mushrooms, plants and fermented foods. Initial studies were microbiological bioassay, ELISA and HPLC. In the last decade, more sensitive method for real B12 determination was used, the liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry chromatograms. Real B12 content varied from mean (SD) mcg/portion size of seaweed hijiki 3 × 10-3/7 g to nori 1.03 - 2.68/sheet; mushroom white button cap 2 × 10-3(7 × 10-4)/20 g dry weight (dw) to shiitake 0.79(0.67)-1.12 (0.78)/20 g dw; and fermented foods from soy yogurt 20/cup. It is possible that daily recommendations for B12 can be met by a varied diet containing non-animal B12 food sources. Future research should consider different methods of storage, preparation, fermented foods and standardization of the production of certain foods.
The microbiological assay of total cobalamin (vitamin B12) by Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis ATCC7830 is now used worldwide in food analysis because of its high sensitivity, low running cost, and no expensive instruments. It has been recently reported that some foods contain a substantial number of inactive corrinoid compounds, some of which are active in this bacterium. These results indicate that the microbiological method must be replaced with high-performance liquid chromatography or liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry as there can specifically determine biologically active cobalamin. Nowadays, powerful tools, such as immunoaffinity columns, purify cobalamin simply and specifically. In this chapter, we summarized the determination methods of cobalamin and related compounds in foods. Various inactive corrinoids found in foods were also characterized.
Mushrooms can meet the major food challenges of today. Edible mushrooms of the Caribbean.
Nutritional characteristics of mushrooms. Organoleptic and gastronomic characteristics. Culinary methods to enhance these characteristics and a good balance between gastronomy and nutrition.
Background
mushrooms are traditionally used as a food ingredient and in folk medicine. Many in vitro and animal studies have reported their potential health effects, but without any clear application in human health. Although they have a worldwide history of use in dishes and folk medicine, mushroom extracts are commonly taken as supplements but need to be evaluated regarding clinical effects and safety, in particular among patients searching for further efficacy for their disease beside pharmacological treatments already prescribed.
Scope and approach
this review summarizes available data from the scientific literature about the nutritional and effects of mushrooms on human health by selecting clinical studies on humans in English. At the same time, the safety profile and unwanted effects were highlighted.
Key findings and conclusions
in spite of their wide use among populations, data on humans were scant and did not justify extensive use without more well-designed trials on mushroom efficacy. Overall, their use seems to be safe, but with some side effects, easily reversible after intake interruption. Nutritional use seems promising for coping with the energy surplus of the Western countries and could be useful for some nutritional aspects.
Mushrooms have been attracting attention as a source of bioactive compounds for the development of dietary supplements and medicines. Many researchers have reported pharmacological effects of edible mushrooms, and have isolated and identified bioactive substances. Lentinula edodes (shiitake) and Flammulina velutipes (enokitake) are the cultivated edible mushrooms that are popular throughout the world. In L. edodes, polyacetylenes and sulfur compounds have been shown to display antimicrobial activity. In F. velutipes, many types of bioactive terpenes have been reported from mycelium culture filtrate or solid culture substrate. This article reviews the bioactive metabolites of low-molecular weight from L. edodes and F. velutipes.
Food additives, such as hypochlorous acid water, sodium metabisulfite, and sodium sulfite, strongly affect the chemical and biological properties of vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) in aqueous solution. When cyanocobalamin (10 μmol/L) was treated with these compounds, hypochlorous acid water (an effective chlorine concentration of 30 ppm) rapidly reacted with cyanocobalamin. The maximum absorptions at 361 and 550 nm completely disappeared by 1 h, and vitamin B12 activity was lost. There were no significant changes observed in the absorption spectra of cyanocobalamin for 0.01% (w/v) sodium metabisulfite; however, a small amount of the reaction product was formed within 48 h, which was subsequently identified as sulfitocobalamin through high-performance liquid chromatography. Similar results were shown for sodium sulfite. The effects of these food additives on the vitamin B12 content of red shrimp and beef meats were determined, revealing no significant difference in vitamin B12 content of shrimp and beef meats with or without the treatment even in hypochlorous acid water. The results suggest that these food additives could not react with food vitamin B12 in food, as most of this vitamin present in food is its protein-bound form rather than the free form.
Vitamin B12 is synthesized by only certain bacteria and archaea but not by animals or plants. In marine environments, bacterial vitamin B12 is transferred and concentrated into fish and shellfish bodies by plankton in the marine food chain. Moreover, marine macrophytic red algae, Porphyra spp. specifically contain substantial amounts of vitamin B12, due to microbial interaction. Although some meats or viscera of edible fish and shellfish are excellent sources of biologically active vitamin B12, an inactive corrinoid, pseudovitamin B12, was found in some edible shellfish using liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry. To prevent elderly people from developing vitamin B12 deficiency due to food protein-bound vitamin B12 malabsorption, we present a survey of marine foods containing free vitamin B12. The results of our study suggest that bonito and clam extracts (or soup stocks), which contain considerable amounts of free vitamin B12 are useful not only as seasonings and flavorings but also as excellent sources of free vitamin B12.
Over the past two decades, biotechnologies have provided a motor for innovation and sustainability in many economies all around the world by developing new processes and products in a bio-economy approach. Besides food and feed, increasing interest on biomass derived fuels, chemicals and materials, sustainably sourced and produced, has raised, providing an alternative to heavy reliance on finite fossil fuel resources. One of the most innovative and promising sectors of the bio-economy is related to bio-based products, obtained in part or entirely from organic biomass, which account for about 16% of world production of bio-economy’s products. Plant biomass is rich in high added value compounds; mainly antioxidants and fibres, which once extracted can serve as green fine chemicals or can be used in food supplements and/or nutraceutical sector.
A great deal of evidence has established that the secondary compounds of higher plants (i.e. polyphenols) inhibit and/or quench free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) thus protecting against oxidative damage. These compounds can therefore be exploited as additives in a large number of different commodities, such as plastics and nanomaterials.
This chapter gives an insight into the relevant research results regarding the valorization of polyphenol fractions extracted from agricultural wastes, focusing on those derived from fruit production and transformation. Structure-activity relationships will be discussed in view of their use in the field of innovative materials.
Cobalamin (vitamin B12) belongs to group B vitamins soluble in water; it is an essential human nutrient - acts as a cofactor of two colalamin-dependent enzymes. A deficiency of cobalamin leads to anemia and neuropathy. Its recommended daily requirement for adults is 2-4 μg. Biosynthesis of cobalamin is nowadays restricted to certain bacteria and archaea; industrially is produced by selected and genetically optimized microorganisms, mainly by Propionibacterium shermanii and Pseudomonas denitrificans strains. Some plants and many animals including humans require cobalamin but do not synthetize it. Naturally rich source of cobalamin is food of animal origin: meat, fish, shellfish, milk and dairy products, eggs. In plant foods, substantial amounts of active form of cobalamin were found in certain species of edible algae-Enteromorpha sp. and Porphyra sp. (known as nori), in some eukaryotic microalgae (Chlorella sp.), edible mushrooms (e.g. Shiitake) and tempeh-fermented soya product. However, reliability of this plant sources remains uncertain.
This study determined the vitamin B(12) content of six wild edible mushrooms which are consumed by European vegetarians. Zero or trace levels (0.01-0.09 µg/100 g dry weight) of vitamin B(12) were determined in porcini mushrooms (Boletus spp.), parasol mushrooms (Macrolepiota procera), oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), and black morels (Morchella conica). By contrast, black trumpet (Craterellus cornucopioides) and golden chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius) mushrooms contained considerable levels (1.09-2.65 µg/100 g dry weight) of vitamin B(12). To determine whether C. cornucopioides or C. cibarius contained vitamin B(12) or other corrinoid compounds that are inactive in humans, we purified a corrinoid compound using an immunoaffinity column and identified it as vitamin B(12) based on LC/ESI-MS/MS chromatograms.
A potential approach for determining the estimated average requirement (EAR) is based on the observation that a water-soluble vitamin or its catabolite(s) can be detected in urine. In this approach, the urinary excretion of a water-soluble vitamin or its catabolite(s) increase when the intake exceeds the requirement. This approach is applied to vitamin B1, vitamin B2 and niacin. A second approach is to determine the blood concentration. In this case, the requirement is indicated by a value rather than a threshold level. The second approach is applied to vitamin B6, vitamin B12, foliate, and vitamin C. The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) was calculated by multiplying the EAR by 1.2. For pantothenic acid and biotin, there were insufficient data for determining the EAR. Thus, adequate intakes were set based on food surveillance data.
The usual dietary sources of vitamin B12 are animal-source based foods, including meat, milk, eggs, fish, and shellfish, although a few plant-based foods such as certain types of dried lavers (nori) and mushrooms contain substantial and considerable amounts of vitamin B12, respectively. Unexpectedly, detailed characterization of vitamin B12 compounds in foods reveals the presence of various corrinoids that are inactive in humans. The majority of edible blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and certain edible shellfish predominately contain an inactive corrinoid known as pseudovitamin B12. Various factors affect the bioactivity of vitamin B12 in foods. For example, vitamin B12 is partially degraded and loses its biological activity during cooking and storage of foods. The intrinsic factor-mediated gastrointestinal absorption system in humans has evolved to selectively absorb active vitamin B12 from naturally occurring vitamin B12 compounds including its degradation products and inactive corrinoids that are present in daily meal foods. The objective of this review is to present up-to-date information on various factors that can affect the bioactivity of vitamin B12 in foods. To prevent vitamin B12 deficiency in high risk populations such as vegetarians and elderly subjects, it is necessary to identify plant-source foods that contain high levels of bioactive vitamin B12 and in conjunction to prepare the use of crystalline vitamin B12-fortified foods.
To evaluate whether certain foods contain vitamin B12 or inactive corrinoids, a simple technique, bioautography with vitamin B12-dependent Escherichia coli mutant after separation of the sample by silica gel 60 thin-layer chromatography, is available. By using the method, vitamin B12-compounds found in some edible cyanobacteria are readily identified. This bioautography has great advantages (simplicity, speed, and inexpensiveness) for the analysis of vitamin B12-compounds in food.
Glial cells, myelin and the interstitium are the structures of the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) mainly affected by vitamin B(12) (cobalamin, Cbl) deficiency. Most of the response to the damage caused by Cbl deficiency seems to come from astrocytes and microglia, and is manifested as an increase in the number of cells positive for glial fibrillary acidic protein, the presence of ultrastructural signs of activation, and changes in cytokine and growth factor production and secretion. Myelin damage particularly affects the lamellae, which are disorganized by edema, as is the interstitium. Surprisingly, rat Schwann cells (myelin-forming cells of the peripheral nervous system) are fully activated but the few oligodendrocytes (myelin-forming cells of the CNS) are scarcely activated. The presence of intramyelin and interstitial edema raises questions about the integrity of the blood-brain barrier and blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barrier. The results obtained in the CNS of Cbl-deficient rats indicate that cytokine and growth factor imbalance is a key point in the pathogenesis of Cbl-deficient neuropathy. In the rat, Cbl deficiency increases the spinal cord (SC) synthesis and CSF levels of myelinotoxic cytokines (tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and soluble (s) CD40:sCD40 ligand dyad) and a myelinotoxic growth factor (nerve growth factor), but decreases SC synthesis and CSF levels of a myelinotrophic cytokine (interleukin-6) and a myelinotrophic growth factor (epidermal growth factor, EGF). The in vivo administration of IL-6 or EGF, or agents antagonizing the excess myelinotoxic agent, is as effective as Cbl in repairing or preventing Cbl-deficiency-induced CNS lesions. An imbalance in TNF-alpha and EGF levels has also been found in the CSF and serum of patients with severe Cbl deficiency.
A gas chromatographic method for the quantitative determination of chloramine-T (C-T) in milk, ice cream, whole egg, mechanically deboned poultry meat, and croquettes has been developed. After hydrolysis of the C-T and precipitation and filtration of proteins and lipids, the hydrolysis products, p-toluenesulfonamide (p-TS), is extracted with ethyl acetate. Dried and concentrated extract is subjected to gas-liquid chromatography (column: 10% OV-7 on 100-120 mesh Gas-Chrom Q), using a flame ionization detector. This method is capable of detecting 1 ppm of C-T and the average recovery is 80%.
The status of thiamin, riboflavin, folate, and vitamins B-6, B-12, C, A, D, and E was investigated in 37 middle-aged and healthy French vegetarians by means of a dietary survey and biochemical studies. Values were compared with those of a group of nonvegetarians. Unsatisfactory intakes of vitamin B-6 were observed: vitamin B-6 intake as a percentage of the French Recommended Dietary Allowances was approximately 66% for vegetarians and approximately 58% for nonvegetarians. Vegetarians had a higher mean intake of thiamin, riboflavin, and vitamins C, A, D, and E than did nonvegetarians. Vegetarians did not have a higher risk rate for a biochemical vitamin deficiency of thiamin, riboflavin, folates, and vitamins B-6, C, A, and E than the nonvegetarians. The percentage of subjects assessed as abnormal by blood vitamin concentrations was higher in vegetarians for vitamin B-12 (serum vitamin B-12) and vitamin D, which indicated a higher risk for a deficiency of vitamins B-12 and D in this group.
Six cobalamin-biotin conjugates have been prepared. The cobalamin-biotin conjugates were prepared to evaluate the effect that the location of attachment had on the binding with transcobalamin II (TCII), the cobalamin binding protein in plasma, and to evaluate their potential use for in vitro and in vivo applications. This study focused only on the effect of binding with TCII. To decrease the possibility of steric problems in binding of the cobalamin conjugates with TCII, and biotin's binding with streptavidin or avidin, moieties of 11-18 atoms in length were used as linkers. Four biotin conjugates were prepared which were attached to the corrin ring of the cobalamin molecule (on b-, c-, d-, and e-side chains). One conjugate was attached to the 5'-OH of the ribose moiety, and another conjugate was attached at the cobalt metal (in place of the cyanide moiety of cyanocobalamin). Competitive binding studies were conducted where various amounts of the cobalamin-biotin conjugates and their precursor cobalamin derivatives competed with [57Co]cyanocobalamin for binding of recombinant human TCII (rhTCII). Evaluation of cobalamin derivatives which were conjugated at the 5'-OH of ribose or the cobalt metal center indicated that conjugation at either of these positions had little effect on binding with rhTCII. However, conjugates where the attachment was made on the corrin ring substituents had a large variation in binding with rhTCII. Conjugates on the e-propionamide side chain had little effect (relative affinity was equal to or decreased less than a factor of 3) on binding with rhTCII, conjugates of the b-isomer had decreased binding (relative affinity decreased less than a factor of 10), conjugates of the d-propionamide had further decreased binding (relative affinity decreased between 44 and 69 times), and conjugates on the c-acetamide group had poor binding to rhTCII (relative affinity decreased between 295 and 1160 times). The significance of the side chains on the corrin ring in providing specificity and high-affinity binding with rhTCII is discussed.
The usual dietary sources of vitamin B(12) are animal foods, meat, milk, egg, fish, and shellfish. As the intrinsic factor-mediated intestinal absorption system is estimated to be saturated at about 1.5-2.0 microg per meal under physiologic conditions, vitamin B(12) bioavailability significantly decreases with increasing intake of vitamin B(12) per meal. The bioavailability of vitamin B(12) in healthy humans from fish meat, sheep meat, and chicken meat averaged 42%, 56%-89%, and 61%-66%, respectively. Vitamin B(12) in eggs seems to be poorly absorbed (< 9%) relative to other animal food products. In the Dietary Reference Intakes in the United States and Japan, it is assumed that 50% of dietary vitamin B(12) is absorbed by healthy adults with normal gastro-intestinal function. Some plant foods, dried green and purple lavers (nori) contain substantial amounts of vitamin B(12), although other edible algae contained none or only traces of vitamin B(12). Most of the edible blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) used for human supplements predominantly contain pseudovitamin B(12), which is inactive in humans. The edible cyanobacteria are not suitable for use as vitamin B(12) sources, especially in vegans. Fortified breakfast cereals are a particularly valuable source of vitamin B(12) for vegans and elderly people. Production of some vitamin B(12)-enriched vegetables is also being devised.
Standard tables of food composition in Japan – vitamin K, B6, and B12
- Science and Technology Agency Resources Council
- Science and Technology Agency Resources Council
Biologically active vitamin B12 compounds in foods for preventing deficiency among vegetarians and elderly subjects
- Watanabe