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Chemical Composition of Garcinia xanthochymus Seeds, Seed Oil, and Evaluation of its Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity

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Seeds of Garcinia xanthochymus contain (in g.100−1) 2.35 ash, 6.93 protein, 45.22 carbohydrate, 12.3 crude fiber, and saturated and unsaturated fatty acids at 34.17% and 65.79%, respectively. Seed oil was composed of nine major fatty acids including myristic acid (0.11%), palmitic acid (32.96%), stearic acid (0.96%), palmitoleic acid (17.65%), oleic acid (45.87%), linoleic acid (1.93%), linolenic acid (0.34%), arachidic acid (0.07%), and behenic acid (0.07%). The oil demonstrated antimicrobial activity against gram-positive bacteria. Antioxidant activities of oil were evaluated using α,α-diphenyl-β-picrylhdrazyl reduction activities, and it was higher than that of ascorbic acid and butylated hydroxyanisole (IC50 = 120 μg.mL−1).
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Chemical Composition of Garcinia
xanthochymus Seeds, Seed Oil, and
Evaluation of its Antimicrobial and
Antioxidant Activity
S. H. Manohar a b , P. M. Naik a c , L. M. Patil a , S. I. Karikatti a & H.
N. Murthy a
a Department of Botany, Plant Biotechnology Laboratory , Karnatak
University , Dharwad , India
b Department of Biotechnology , Jain University , Bangalore , India
c Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding , University of
Agricultural Sciences , Dharwad , India
Published online: 14 Feb 2014.
To cite this article: S. H. Manohar , P. M. Naik , L. M. Patil , S. I. Karikatti & H. N. Murthy (2014)
Chemical Composition of Garcinia xanthochymus Seeds, Seed Oil, and Evaluation of its Antimicrobial
and Antioxidant Activity, Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants, 20:2, 148-155, DOI:
10.1080/10496475.2013.847886
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10496475.2013.847886
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Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants, 20:148–155, 2014
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1049-6475 print/1540-3580 online
DOI: 10.1080/10496475.2013.847886
Chemical Composition of Garcinia
xanthochymus Seeds, Seed Oil, and Evaluation
of its Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity
S. H. MANOHAR,1,2 P. M. NAIK,1,3 L. M. PATIL,1S. I. KARIKATTI,1
andH.N.MURTHY
1
1Department of Botany, Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Karnatak University,
Dharwad, India
2Department of Biotechnology, Jain University, Bangalore, India
3Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Dharwad, India
Seeds of Garcinia xanthochymus contain (in g.100−1)2.35ash,
6.93 protein, 45.22 carbohydrate, 12.3 crude fiber, and saturated
and unsaturated fatty acids at 34.17% and 65.79%, respec-
tively. Seed oil was composed of nine major fatty acids includ-
ing myristic acid (0.11%), palmitic acid (32.96%), stearic acid
(0.96%), palmitoleic acid (17.65%), oleic acid (45.87%), linoleic
acid (1.93%), linolenic acid (0.34%), arachidic acid (0.07%), and
behenic acid (0.07%). The oil demonstrated antimicrobial activity
against gram-positive bacteria. Antioxidant activities of oil were
evaluated using α,α-diphenyl-β-picrylhdrazyl reduction activities,
and it was higher than that of ascorbic acid and butylated
hydroxyanisole (IC50 =120 μg.mL−1).
KEYWORDS Unsaturated fatty acid, saturated fatty acid
INTRODUCTION
The continued increase in world population and the ever-increasing demand
for edible oil have resulted in increase in the prices of oils. In the search for
new sources of novel oils, a large number of plants have been surveyed, and
Received February 6, 2013.
Address correspondence to H. N. Murthy, Department of Botany, Plant Biotechnology
Laboratory, Karnatak University, Pavate Nagar, Dharwad 580 003, India. E-mail: nmurthy60@
yahoo.co.in
148
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Chemical Composition of Garcinia xanthochymus Seeds 149
some of the most promising species have been cultivated as new oil crops
(12). The study of nutritive value, methods of production, preservation, and
utilization is important for their effective uses.
There are hundreds of species that have received much less atten-
tion from the scientific community than the annual crops (9). Garcinia
xanthochymus is popularly known as Yellow mangosteen and is native
to India and Myanmar. The plant is known to posses several important
phytochemicals that have been demonstrated to possess antibacterial (6),
anti-inflammatory (18), and antioxidant (22) activities. The bark is used as
astringent (14). Traditionally, the fruits are used as antiscorbutic, cooling,
digestive, emollient, demulcent, cholagogue, and sherbet made from dried
fruit is used in biliousness. Garcinia mangostana and G. indica yield edible
and industrial oil (1,13). The aims of the study are to analyze the chem-
ical composition of G. xanthyochums seeds and seed oil and evaluate its
antimicrobial and antioxidant activities.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant Material and Sample Preparation
G. xanthochymus fruits were collected from Bakkala garden in Sirsi,
Karnataka, India. The seeds were removed from the fruits and washed with
water. Approximately 100 g of seed was dried overnight at 80◦C and ground
in a coffee grinder. The oil was extracted for 8 h with petroleum ether
(b.p. 40–60◦C) as a solvent in a Soxhlet extractor. The solvent was removed
completely under vacuum, and the oil thus obtained was used for further
analysis. Extraction was performed in triplicates.
Proximate Analysis of Seed
Proximate analysis of moisture content, crude fat, crude protein, crude fiber,
carbohydrate, and ash was done (2).
Physico-Chemical Properties of Seed Oil
Oil from the seed was subjected to physical characterization. The color and
state of the oil at room temperature were noted by visual inspection, and
specific gravity was determined (3). The refractive index of the oil at room
temperature was estimated using the Abbe refractometer (4). Free fatty acids
(FFA), iodine value (IV), saponification number (SN), peroxide value (PV),
and unsaponifiable matter were measured (5). The analysis was performed
for the freshly extracted oils. The samples were analyzed in triplicates and
expressed as mean ±SE.
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150 S. H. Manohar et al.
Fatty Acid Analysis
Fatty acid methyl esters of G. xanthochymous seed oil were analyzed on
a Chemito G. C. 8610 gas chromatograph equipped with flame ionization
detector and capillary column B P ×70 (50 m ×0.32 mm ×0.25 µm
films). The detector temperature was 260◦C with flow rate of 0.3 mL.min−1.
The injector temperature was set at 240◦C, and nitrogen (purity 99.95 %)
was used as the carrier gas. Identification of the peaks was performed by
comparing retention times with standards.
Antimicrobial Analysis
Antimicrobial activity of G. xanthochymous seed oil was tested toward
15 microorganisms by the disc diffusion method according to the National
Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards Guidelines (16). Six gram-
positive bacteria— Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212; Staphylococcus aureus
ATCC 29213; Vancomycin Resistant Enterococcus (VRE) ATCC 51299;
Bacillus subtilis SDMC 025; Micrococcus spp. SDMC 016; and Staphylococcus
epidermidis SDMC 097—and six gram-negative bacteria—Escherichia coli
ATCC 25922; Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853; Proteus mirabilis SDMC
042; Salmonella paratyphi-A SDMC 014; Salmonella paratyphi-B SDMC 011;
and Providencia alcalifaciens SDMC 056—were used. Aspergillus niger
SDMC 052, Penicillium notatum SDMC 064, and Candida albicans SDMC
033 were the three fungi used for the study. The microorganisms used for the
analysis were obtained from American Type Culture Collection and cultures
maintained at Sri Dharmasthala Manjunatheswar Medical College, Dharwad,
Karnataka, India. The minimal inhibitory concentrations of the oil were deter-
mined by micro-dilution assay. The oil was two-fold serially diluted with
DMSO, which contained 0.125–16 µg.µL−1of oil (15).
Antioxidant Activity: Free Radical-Scavenging Capacity
The abilities of the oil to scavenge α,α-diphenyl-β-picrylhdrazyl (DPPH)
free radicals were measured (20). Ascorbic acid (ASC) and butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA) were also monitored for radical-scavenging activity.
Inhibition of free radical by DPPH in percent was calculated as scavenging
DPPH (%) =100 ×(Ablank - Asample/Ablank), where Ablank is the
absorbance of the control reaction (containing all reagents except the oil)
and Asample is the absorbance of the sample. The percentage of scavenged
DPPH was plotted versus the concentration of antioxidants and the con-
centration of antioxidant required to obtain 50% inhibition (50% inhibition
concentration or IC50).
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Chemical Composition of Garcinia xanthochymus Seeds 151
RESULTS
Moisture, ash, crude protein, carbohydrate, and crude fiber content of the
seed were (in g.100 g−1) 11.96 ±0.52, 2.35 ±0.29, 6.93 ±0.64, 45.22 ±
1.20, and 12.3 ±1.66, respectively. The seed oil was golden-orange in color
and was consistently liquid at room temperatures (25.0◦±2.0◦C; Table 1).
The iodine value 94.86 ±0.29 mg.100 g−1indicated this oil was non-drying
and high in unsaturated fatty acids.
Fatty acid profile of G. xanthochymous seed oil was composed of nine
major fatty acids: myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, palmitoleic acid,
oleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachidic acid, and behenic (Figure 1,
Table 2). The concentration of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and unsaturated
fatty acids (UFA) were 34.17% and 65.79%, respectively. The most prevalent
UFA were oleic acid (45.8 g.100g−1) and palmitoleic acid (17.6 g.100g−1), and
the most prevalent SFA was palmitic acid (32.96 g.100g−1).
The oil showed inhibition against the tested gram-positive bacteria
(S. aureus, B. subtilis, Micrococcus sps,andS. epidermidis) and no activity
against the tested gram-negative bacteria and fungus (Table 3).
The oil reduced the stable radical DPPH to the yellow-colored DPPH-H
with an IC50 value of 120 µg.mL−1. Ascorbic acid (ASC) and butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA) as two positive controls exhibited high antioxidant
activity with IC50 values 4.25 µg.mL−1and 5.66 µg.mL−1, respectively.
DISCUSSION
Although the moisture content of G. xanthochymus was less than G. man-
gostana (13.08 ±1.99 g.100 g−1), the ash content was higher than that of G.
mangostana (1). The crude protein content is comparable with 6.57 g.100g−1
TABLE 1 Physicochemical Characteristics of the Seed Oil of Garcinia xanthochymous∗
Component Garcinia xanthocymus oil
Acid value (mg NaOH/g oil) 5.43 ±0.63
Saponification number (mg KOH/g oil) 169.21 ±1.12
Unsaponifiable matter 1.20 ±0.06
Iodine value (mg/100 g) 94.86 ±0.29
FFA (%) as oleic acid 2.73 ±0.32
Peroxide value (mg/g oil) 13.9 ±1.46
Ester value (mg/KOH) 141.1 ±2.69
State at RT Liquid
Color Golden-orange
Specific gravity 0.971 ±0.01
Refractive index at RT 1.488
FFA (%), free fatty acid (%); RT, room temperature.
∗Values are means ±standard error of triplicate determinations.
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152 S. H. Manohar et al.
FIGURE 1 Gas chromatogram of fatty acids profile of Garcinia xanthochymous seed oil.
TABLE 2 Fatty Acid Composition of Garcinia xanthochymous
Seed Oil
Fatty Acid Values
C14:0 Myristic 0.11
C16:0 Palmitic 32.96
C18:0 Stearic 0.96
C16:1 Palmitoleic 17.65
C18:1 Oleic 45.87
C18:2 Linoleic 1.93
C18:3 Linolenic 0.34
C20:0 Arachidic 0.07
C22:0 Behenic 0.07
Total saturates 34.17
Total unsaturates 65.79
for G. mangostana (1). The seeds contained 31.7 ±1.74 g.100 g−1crude fat,
which is lower than 45.5 g.100 g−1reported for G. indica (13) but higher
than 21.18 ±6.18 g.100 g−1reported for G. mangostana seeds (1). The
carbohydrate and crude fiber contents were similar to that G. mangostana
(43.5 ±2.09 g.100 g−1and 13.7 ±0.89 g.100 g−1). The seeds are rich in
carbohydrates and proteins, could serve as source of roughage, and can be
used in animal feeds.
Refractive index of the oil was 1.488, comparable with that of G. man-
gostana (1). The total acidity, expressed as acid value was 5.43 ±0.63 mg
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Chemical Composition of Garcinia xanthochymus Seeds 153
TABLE 3 Antimicrobial Activity and Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of Garcinia xan-
thochymous Seed Oil
Organism
Garcinia xanthochymous
oil zone of inhibition
(mm) and MIC (µg.mL−1)
Standard Zone of
inhibition (mm) and MIC
(µg.mL−1)
S. aureus ATCC 29213 18 ≤429≤0.005
B. subtilis SDMC 025 15 ≤823≤0.010
Micrococcus SDMC 016 18 ≤432≤0.005
S. epidermidis SDMC 097 16 ≤420≤0.005
E. faecalis ATCC 29212 — 30 ≤0.010
V.R.E ATCC 51299 — 21 ≤0.010
E. coli ATCC 25922 — 24 ≤0.005
P. aeruginosa ATCC 27853 — 15 ≤0.010
S. paratyphi A SDMC 014 — 12 ≤0.020
S. paratyphi B SDMC 011 — 13 ≤0.020
P. mirabilis SDMC 042 — 24 ≤0.010
Pr. Alcalifaciens SDMC 056 — 11 ≤0.020
A. niger SDMC 052 — 13 ≤0.040
P. notatum SDMC 064 — 09 ≤0.160
C. albicans SDMC 033 — 10 ≤0.160
MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration.
NaOH/g and was within the allowable limits of edible oils (10). The
saponification value was 169.21 ±1.12 mg and KOH/g was comparable to
common vegetable oils (19). Free fatty acid (FFA) content of G. xanthochy-
mous at 2.73 ±0.32% was similar to other edible oils (7) with long shelf life.
The peroxide value of the oil was 13.9 ±1.46 g.100 g−1, suggesting that it
can be stored for a long period without deterioration; however, this value
is higher than the seed oil of G. mangostana (3.27 ±0.12 g.100 g−1). The
concentration of SFA and UFA were varied with respect to G. mangostana
(1), which was SFA, 59.6% and UFA, 35.3%.
Free radicals are believed to be involved in bacterial and parasitic
infections, lung damage, inflammation, reperfusion injury, cardiovascular
disorders, atherosclerosis, aging, and neoplastic diseases (8). In biochem-
ical systems, H2O2generates extremely reactive hydroxyl radicals in the
presence of certain transition metal ions (e.g., iron and copper) or by ultra-
violet photolysis (21). Hydroxyl radicals can attack DNA molecules, cause
lipid peroxidation (11), tissue damage, protein denaturation, and glutathione
depletion (17). The oil obtained from G. xanthochymus seeds has shown
significant antioxidant activity and hence of significant health value.
FUNDING
This work was partially financed by the University Grants Commission
under the Special Assistance program, New Delhi, India. Authors are
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154 S. H. Manohar et al.
thankful to the Department of Biotechnology (DBT-KUD-IPLS program
BT/PR14555/INF/22/126/2010), University Grants Commission [Project No. F.
No. 41-423/2012 (SR)], New Delhi and Department of Atomic Energy (BRNS
project No. 2013/35/BRNS/20), Mumbai for financial assistance.
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... Commonly known as gamboge and yellow mangosteen, G. xanthochymus, belongs to the family of Clusiaceae (Bagget et al., (a) 2005;Youn et al., 2017;Manohar et al., 2014). It is a Bushy, annual evergreen tree, 5-15m high, 40-130 cm in diameter, the bark is greyish brown; the trunk is erect, drooping cone-shaped branches; stems are solid, woody, rough, fibrous, polygonal, and produce whitish gummy latex (Gupta et al., 2018). ...
... The column chromatographic technique was one of the most commonly adopted methods for isolating compounds from this plant. Seed oil is composed of nine major fatty acids: myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachidic acid, and behenic acid were also identified (Manohar et al., 2014). (Zhong et al., 2007;Nguyen et al., 2017;Han et al., 2007). ...
... When experimented with DPPH, xanthones such as jacareubin, garcinenone A, bigarcinenone A, alloathyriol, subeliptenone B, and flavanoids such as fukugiside, volkensiflavone etc. exhibited excellent antioxidant activity. Aside from that, benzophenones separated, and the oil of G. xanthochymus seeds has additionally shown good cancer prevention activity (Manohar et al., 2014). This finding might be valuable to the researchers for contributing to a profoundly successful pharmacological compound with the least side effects (Chen et al., 2010) (Table 2). ...
Unveiling insights into the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties of Garcinia xanthochymus L.: a systematic review
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The objective of this work was to compile information on the phytochemical profile, traditional uses, and pharmacological pro perties of Garcinia xanthochymus. A literature review was conducted, including published books, journals, and papers. Databases such as Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, PubMed, ProQuest, and others were used to gather information. Chem Sketch 5.0 was used to sketch the chemical structures of phytoconstituents. The fruits of Garcinia xanthochymus are traditionally used as an anthelmintic, appetite stimulant, and cardiotonic. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of polyprenylated benzophenone derivatives such as xanthochymol and isoxanthymol, flavones and xanthones, and other phytochemica ls in the bark, leaves, roots, twigs, and seeds. These phytochemicals contribute to the plant's pharmacological activity. This review provides up-to-date data on the phytochemical profile, traditional uses, and pharmacological properties of Garcinia xanthochymus. The information gathered from this study can be useful for further research on this plant and its potential therapeutic applications.
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... StOSt), is included into cocoa butter equivalents according to European Union Directive (2000/36/EC). Increasing reports have recently revealed that other Garcinia seed fats contained abundant amounts of fatty acids except for stearic and oleic acids, for example, palmitic, palmitoleic and linoleic acids, resulting in different melting and crystallisation behaviours as well as wide usages in foods (Manohar et al., 2014;Hiranrangsee et al., 2016). However, their usages are currently limited because information on chemical compositions and physical properties is unavailable for food manufacturers. ...
... In Asia, more than 30 species originally occur in India, for example, kokum, yellow mangosteen, Garcinia andamanica King and Garcinia dhanikhariensis; and nearly 20 species are found in China, especially mangosteen. For instance, kokum is found growing in the western parts of India ; yellow mangosteen is native to India and Myanmar (Manohar et al., 2014); G. andamanica King is an endemic species of Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Bohra et al., 2021b); G. dhanikhariensis is an endemic species distributed in South Andaman Island (Bohra et al., 2021a) and mangosteen become one of the most commercially successful tropical fruits (known as the Queen of fruits) in Southern China, Thailand and Malaysia (Ajayi et al., 2007). Africa also possesses some important native Garcinia species. ...
... In this regard, antibacterial effects are the important advantages for these Garcinia seed fats. Yellow mangosteen seed fat is also demonstrated to show antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria (Manohar et al., 2014). In addition, some Garcinia seed fats contained special components, for example, keto fatty acids, which are suggested for use as biodiesel instead of use in food for nutritional reasons (Hosamani et al., 2007). ...
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  • Dec 2023
  • INT J FOOD SCI TECH
Fruits of commercial Garcinia genus have been used for centuries in subtropic and tropic areas. However, large amounts of their seeds and included kernels are generally discarded as wastes or treated as low‐value agricultural products due to lack of appropriate processing technologies. The kernels have considerable values as sources of specialty fats and liposoluble bioactive compounds. Typical Garcinia seed fats for commercial purposes are mainly kokum (Garcinia indica) butter, mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) seed fat and yellow mangosteen (Garcinia xanthochymus). These fats contained special sn‐1,3‐disaturated‐2‐unsaturated triacylglycerols, especially StOSt, POSt, StLSt and PLSt (P, palmitic acid; St, stearic acid; O, oleic acid and L, linolic acid), which are quite different from the triacylglycerol structure in common vegetable oils. Their improved usages in chocolate fats, trans‐free shortenings, dressings, salad and cooking oils, oleogels and antioxidants were concluded in this review. The health benefits contributed by their functional micronutrients (e.g. tocopherols, phytosterols, polyphenols and flavonoids) were further discussed to expand their application in functional foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
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... G. xanthochymus (37.7%), G. morella (38.1%), and G. mangostana (24.2%) seed oil were higher than the present study (Manohar et al., 2014;Parthasarathy et al., 2014;Payamalle et al., 2016). BOX 24.1 Details of Analytical Conditions Followed to Assess FAMEs by the Gas Chromatograph. ...
... Compared to other studies, palmitic and stearic acids were lower, while the oleic acid was higher in the cold extraction . However, the palmitic acid content in hot extraction in our study was higher than G. indica (3.3%) and G. morella (1%), while it was lower than G. mangostana (47.2%) and G. xanthochymus (33%) (Manohar et al., 2014;Parthasarathy et al., 2014;Payamalle et al., 2016). The stearic acid on hot extraction (14.4%) was higher than G. xanthochymus (1%) and G. mangostana (2.3%), while it was lower than G. indica (49.3%) and G. morella (45%). ...
... The oleic acid content was lower than G. indica (26.2%), G. mangostana (34%), G. morella (45.4%), and G. xanthochymus (45.9%) (Manohar et al., 2014;Parthasarathy et al., 2014;Payamalle et al., 2016). The docosanoic acid was confined to the hot extraction, while the saturated fatty acid, elaidic acid, was confined to the cold extraction. ...
Insight on the Total Lipids and Fatty Acids of Garcinia gummi-gutta Seeds
Chapter
  • Jan 2024
This study evaluated the total lipids as well as fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) of seeds of edible fruits of Garcinia gummi-gutta acquired from the Western Ghat region by two methods of extractions. The hot extraction yielded higher total lipids than to cold extraction. The methods of extraction influenced the quality and quantity of saturated as well as unsaturated fatty acids. Hot extraction yielded the highest quantity of nonanoic acid, while cold extraction yielded equal quantities of stearic as well as palmitic acids. The oleic acid constitutes the major unsaturated fatty acid found in these extractions with the highest in cold extraction. The total unsaturated fatty acids as well as the unsaturated/saturated fatty acids ratio were the highest in cold extraction. Oleic acid is advantageous to human health by reduction of systolic blood pressure, inhibits platelet aggregation, and decreases serum cholesterol. The difference in quantity and quality of total lipids as well as FAMEs in seeds of different Garcinia species seems to be dependent on the landrace, geographic location, stage of ripening, and method of processing. Seeds of G. gummi-gutta are produced in large quantities in the southwestern parts of India. The nutritional and medicinal principles (sour and lipids) obtained from these fruits is currently confined to the regional scale, which needs future advancement toward the industrial scale.
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... The seeds contained 2.35 g of ash, 6.93 g of protein, 45.22 g of carbohydrate, 12.3 g of crude fiber in 100 g and contained 34.17% saturated fatty acids, 65.79% unsaturated fatty acids [5]. The seed oil of G. xanthochymus contains 0.11% myristic acid, palmitic acid 32.96%, stearic acid 96%, palmitoleic acid 17.65%, oleic acid 45.87%, linoleic acid 1.93%, linolenic acid 0, 34%, arachidic acid 0.07%, and behenic acid 0.07% [5]. ...
... The seeds contained 2.35 g of ash, 6.93 g of protein, 45.22 g of carbohydrate, 12.3 g of crude fiber in 100 g and contained 34.17% saturated fatty acids, 65.79% unsaturated fatty acids [5]. The seed oil of G. xanthochymus contains 0.11% myristic acid, palmitic acid 32.96%, stearic acid 96%, palmitoleic acid 17.65%, oleic acid 45.87%, linoleic acid 1.93%, linolenic acid 0, 34%, arachidic acid 0.07%, and behenic acid 0.07% [5]. This oil has activity as an antimicrobial against gram-positive bacteria and as an antioxidant more potent than ascorbic acid and butylated hydroxyanisole [5]. ...
... The seed oil of G. xanthochymus contains 0.11% myristic acid, palmitic acid 32.96%, stearic acid 96%, palmitoleic acid 17.65%, oleic acid 45.87%, linoleic acid 1.93%, linolenic acid 0, 34%, arachidic acid 0.07%, and behenic acid 0.07% [5]. This oil has activity as an antimicrobial against gram-positive bacteria and as an antioxidant more potent than ascorbic acid and butylated hydroxyanisole [5]. Dichloromethane and [6]. ...
Elastase inhibitory activity of methanol extract and n-hexane extract of Garcinia xanthochymus Pericarp
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2021
Garcinia xanthochymus is a plant found in Indonesia and rich in quercetin. Ethanol extract of bark can reduce LDL levels. Xanthon from the G. xanthochymus has antidiabetic activity. This study aims to determine the anti-elastase activity of n-hexane extract and methanol extract of G. xanthochymus pericarp. Samples were macerated for one time 24 hours using n-hexane and methanol, respectively. The elastase enzyme inhibition test used spectrophotometry methods by reacting extracts with the porcine pancreatic elastase enzyme and using the substrate N-Succ-(Ala)-3-p-nitroanilide (SANA). Absorbance was measured at a wavelength of 405 nm with a microplate reader. The results showed that the concentration of 100 ppm extract of n-hexane extract of pericarp had enzyme inhibiting activity 65.17 ± 6.44%, methanol extract of pericarp 29.81 ± 10.67%. Meanwhile, the inhibitory activity of quercetin elastase enzyme as a positive control was 62.75 + 1.89%. This research concludes that the n-hexane extract of the pericarp of G. xanthochymus has activity as an inhibitor of the enzyme elastase is very high and can potentially be used as a material for making cosmetics.
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... The presence of both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids is reported in Garcinia seeds. The seed oil of G. xanthochymus is composed of nine major fatty acids such as myristic acid (0.11%), palmitic acid (32.96%), stearic acid (0.96%), palmitoleic acid (17.65%), oleic acid (45.87%), linoleic acid (1.93%), linolenic acid (0.34%), arachidic acid (0.07%), and behenic acid (0.07%) (Manohar et al., 2014). While myristic acid (0.02%), palmitic acid (1.04%), palmitoleic acid (0.02%), margaric acid (0.12%), cis-10-heptadecanoic acid (0.02%), stearic acid (44.95%), oleic acid (45.38%), linoleic acid (7.77%), linolenic acid (0.09%), arachidic acid (0.31%), behenic acid (0.24%), total saturated fatty acids (46.70%), total unsaturated fatty acids (59.23%) are reported to be present in G. morella seeds (Payamalle et al., 2016). ...
... Furthermore, the isolated compounds, 4-O-sulpho-b-d-glucopyranosyl abscisate and proanthocyanidin A2 from pericarp of G. mangostana, garcinexanthone F (20), and bigarcinenone B (21) from the bark of G. xanthochymus also demonstrated significant antioxidant activity (Chen et al., 2010;Tran et al., 2016). Apart from this, studies have shown that phytoconstituents from Garcinia species exhibit better or equivalent antioxidant activity than ascorbic acid, butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT), and butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA) (Manohar et al., 2014;Murthy et al., 2017;Fu et al., 2012;Raksat et al., 2020). ...
A comprehensive review on ethnobotany, nutritional values, phytochemistry and pharmacological attributes of ten potent Garcinia species of South-east Asia
Article
  • Aug 2022
  • S AFR J BOT
The tropical plants of Garcinia (Clusiaceae family) have been extensively used in folk medicine apart from its limited use in the preparation of certain dishes. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive and updated report on the diverse range of phytochemicals, the traditional uses, the nutritional values, the major pharmacological attributes, and the toxicological findings of ten Garcinia plants of south-east Asia. This was achieved by compiling data from various scientific journals, and books available on electronic databases viz. Pub Med, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and others, published within the time period of 2010-2020. A myriad of natural products are found in Garcinia sp. The major classes of biomolecules reported to be present in these plants include organic acids, xanthones, benzophenones, flavonoids, phloroglucinols, fatty acids, and terpenoids. The chemical structures of the phytoconstituents presented in this review are drawn using ChemDraw Professional 16.0. Additionally, the important pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, antimicrobial, and hepatoprotective activities along with the toxicological studies of the Garcinia sp., are discussed. Although a good amount of research has been conducted on Garcinia sp., however some of these species still remain unattended and are becoming endemic. Therefore, this comprehensive review sheds light on the phyto-pharmacological profile of ten known Garcinia sp. to pave a path towards explorating of their traditional uses, isolating new molecules, encouraging in-depth preclinical and clinical research to understand the mechanism of action, thereby help in the development of new drug candidates with lesser side-effects. In addition, measures must be taken to enhance the conservation of endangered Garcinia sp.
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... Garcinia fat/butter could be utilized as a substitute to cocoa butter and as an ingredient in personal care products, pharmaceuticals, biofuels, edible oils and other products (Ananthakrishnan and Rameshkumar, 2016;Parthasarathy and Nandakishore, 2014). Though Garcinia butter has considerable potential, only a few species such as G. andamanica King, G. indica, G. gummi-gutta and G. xanthochymus have been studied (Bohra et al., 2021;Manohar et al., 2014;Patil et al., 2016), while other Indian Garcinia species are yet to be explored (Parthasarathy and Nandakishore, 2014;Patil et al., 2016). During the present study, fatty acid composition of G. dhanikhariensis was carried out for the first time. ...
... Palmitic acid is the most common constituent in soaps, cosmetics and skin care products due to its positive effects on skin including softening and healing effects (Parthasarathy and Nandakishore, 2014). Apart from the major compounds, linoleic acid, palmitoleic acid, arachidic acid and 11-eicosenoic acid were also present in the studied species, which have been reported at varied concentrations in other Garcinia species as well (Bohra et al., 2021;Manohar et al., 2014;Patil et al., 2016). ...
Seed Fatty Acid Composition and Germination Studies in Garcinia dhanikhariensis S.K. Srivastava (Clusiaceae): A Novel Tropical Fruit Species from Bay Islands, India
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2021
Garcinia dhanikhariensis is an endemic tropical species distributed in the Bay Islands, India. The species has been found to be of horticultural significance owing to its edible fruits and potential as natural colorant. Being an endemic species, identifying the potential uses and standardization of nursery techniques of G. dhanikhariensis could be helpful in conserving and popularizing it. The present investigation aimed at determining fatty acid composition of seed fat using GC-MS and standardization of seed germination technique for mass multiplication. Results revealed that seeds had higher saturated fatty acids, dominant being stearic acid (43.62%) and oleic acid (42.40%). Among the pretreatments studied, soaking of seeds in potassium nitrate (0.1%) or gibberellic acid (500 mg/L) was recommended based on superior germination percentage and seedling growth parameters. The effect of seed source on germination characteristics was also studied, which revealed considerable variability among the collections. Regenerated seedlings were successfully transplanted without any mortality. Thus, seeds of G. dhanikhariensis were found to be novel sources of industrially important stearic acid and oleic acid. Nursery protocol discussed here would be useful for mass multiplication of this novel fruit species.
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... The seeds of Bridelia stipularis are rich in oil content (9.10 g/100 g; Table 4). The refractive index oil was 1.47, which is comparable to Garcinia xanthocymus (1.47) [23] and higher than Garcinia livingstonei (0.90) [24] and Lavandula bipinnata seed oil (0.97) [25] . Peroxide and free fatty acid values are the two parameters that determine the stability of the seed oil during storage. ...
... The peroxide and free fatty acid values of Bridelia stipularis seed oil were 4.13 mEq O2/kg and 3.02% of respectively (Table 4) and these values are comparable to the seed values of Garcina livingstonei seed oil . [23] The peroxide and free fatty acid values suggest that of Bridelia stipularis seed oil could be stored for a longer duration without deterioration. The iodine value of the seed oil depicts the amount of unstaturation of the oil and the iodine value of Bridelia stipularis seed oil was 115 mg/100 g and this is due to higher levels of unsaturated fatty acids such as lineolenic and oleic acids (Table 5). ...
Bioactive constituents and nutritional composition of Bridelia stipularis L. Blume fruits
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2021
Bridelia stipularis (L.) Blume is a fruit-yielding climbing shrub native to Southern Asia and various parts of the plant have been used in traditional systems of medicines to treat a range of diseases. Proximate, mineral, phytochemical analysis of Bridelia stipularis fruit pericap and seeds were carried out in the present study to assess nutritional and phytochemical status. The pericarp and seeds were rich in carbohydrate (38.78 and 33.46 g/100 g dry mass), protein (8.94 and 44.40 g/100 g dry mass), fiber (3.86 and 2.83 g/100 g dry mass) and minerals, in addition to these, seeds also contain oil (9.10 g/100 g dry mass). Pericarp and seeds possess higher concentrations of phenolics (9.84–125.59 mg GAE/g dry mass), flavonoids (7.17–44.67 mg QE/g dry mass), tannins (11.79–17.71 mg TAE g dry mass) and lesser concentrations of antinutritive factors, such as phytate (0.06–0.26 g/100 g dry mass) and oxalate (0.23–0.46 g/100 g dry mass). The physicochemical characteristics and fatty acid profile revealed that B. stipularis seed oil could be used for edible purposes. The seed oil is abundant with linolenic acid (36.7 g/100 g of oil), oleic acid (23.39 g/100 g oil) and hence, it could be used in soap and detergents.
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... The chemical constituents and pharmacological activity of G. xanthochymus seed have been investigated less. In the previous research, it was found that the seed mainly contains saturated (34.17%) and unsaturated fatty acids (65.79%) [42]. The seed extract demonstrated antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus [43] and strong antidiabetic activity [44]. ...
Cytotoxic Isopentenyl Phloroglucinol Compounds from Garcinia xanthochymus Using LC-MS-Based Metabolomics
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2023
Many unique chemical metabolites with significant antitumor activities have been isolated from Garcinia species and have become a leading hotspot of antitumor research in recent years. The aim of this study was to identify bioactive compounds from different plant parts (leaf, branch, stem bark, fruit, and seed) of G. xanthochymus through combining LC-MS-based metabolomics with cytotoxicity assays. As a result, 70% methanol seed extract exerted significant cytotoxic effects on five human cancer cell types (HL-60, A549, SMMC-7721, MDA-MB-231, and SW480). LC-MS-based metabolomics analysis was used, including principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), in order to identify 12 potential markers from seed extract that may relate to bioactivity. LC-MS guidance isolated the markers to obtain three compounds and identified new isopentenyl phloroglucinols (1–3, named garxanthochin A–C), using spectroscopic methods. Among them, garxanthochin B (2) demonstrated moderate inhibitory activities against five human cancer cell types, with IC50 values of 14.71~24.43 μM. These findings indicate that G. xanthochymus seed has significant cytotoxic activity against cancer cells and garxanthochin B has potential applications in the development of antitumor-led natural compounds.
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... Underutilized fruits are considered as a vital source of essential amino acids, vitamins, mineral elements, and dietary fiber. In addition to these constituents, fruits are also rich in proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and reducing and non-reducing sugars [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Underutilized fruits are not only a primary source of food, but also have immense therapeutical potential due to the presence of bioactive compounds, including antioxidants such as unsaturated fats, organic acids, and sugars [1][2][3][4]7,8]. ...
Analysis of Free Sugars, Organic Acids, and Fatty Acids of Wood Apple (Limonia acidissima L.) Fruit Pulp
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2022
Wood apple (Limonia acidissima L.) is an underutilized, fruit-yielding tree that is native to India and Sri Lanka. Wood apple trees are also cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Kampuchea, Laos, and Indonesia for delicious fruits and medicinal purposes. The major objective of the present work was the analysis of the nutritional status of wood apple fruit pulp.The fruits are rich in total carbohydrates (24.74 ± 0.19%), total proteins (9.30 ± 0.16%), oil (0.99 ± 0.01%), fiber (3.32 ± 0.02%), and ash (2.73 ± 0.12%). Further analysis and quantification of free sugars, organic acids, and fatty acid methyl esters were carried out by using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatographic (GC) methods. In total, five sugars and nine organic acids were detected and quantified. The predominant sugars were fructose (16.40 ± 0.23%) and glucose (14.23 ± 0.10%), whereas the predominant organic acids were D-tartaric (4.01 ± 0.03%), ascorbic (4.51 ± 0.05%), and citric acid (4.27 ± 0.04%). The oil content of fruit pulp was 0.99 ± 0.01% and GC-MS analysis revealed that, it comprise of 16 fatty acid methyl esters. The percentage of saturated fatty acids were 32.17 ± 0.35%, that includes palmitic (18.52 ± 0.12%) and stearic acids (9.02 ± 0.08%), whereas, the unsaturated fatty acids were 51.98 ± 0.94%, including oleic acid (23.89 ± 0.06%), α-linolenic acid (16.55 ± 0.26%), linoleic acid (10.02 ± 0.43%), and vaccenic acid (1.78 ± 0.23%).
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Comparative physicochemical analysis of seed oils of wild cucumber (Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Alef.), cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. var. sativus), and gherkin (Cucumis anguria L.)
Article
  • Jul 2021
  • S AFR J BOT
To determine the suitability of wild cucumber as a natural resource of seed oil, we assessed the chemical composition of seeds and seed oils from wild cucumber (Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Alef.) and compared them with those of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. var. sativus) and gherkin (Cucumis anguria L.). Wild cucumber, cucumber, and gherkin seeds contained 21.04, 23.87, and 21.32 g 100 g⁻¹ of oil, respectively, and were rich in proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, and fiber. Free fatty acids, iodine value, peroxide value, acid value, saponification, and ester values of wild cucumber seed oil were 1.12%, 124.45 mg 100 g⁻¹, 0.84 meq O2 Kg⁻¹, and 2.24, 140.25, and 138.0 mg of KOH g⁻¹, respectively. The main fatty acid in seed oils was linoleic acid, followed by oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids. Thus, wild cucumber seeds are an alternative source of vegetable oil, a potential raw material in food applications.
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Renewable energy sources from Michelia champaca and Garcinia indica seed oils: A rich source of oil
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2009
  • BIOMASS BIOENERG
Michelia champaca and Garcinia indica seeds yielded 45.0% and 45.5% of oil. The fatty acid profiles of both the seed oils were examined. The saponification value (SV), iodine value (IV) and cetane number (CN) of fatty acid methyl esters of both the seed oils were empirically determined. The saponification value (SV) and iodine value (IV) are in good agreement with the experimentally observed values. The fatty acid compositions, iodine value and cetane number were used to predict the quality of fatty acid methyl esters of oil for use as biodiesel. Thus, the fatty acid methyl esters of seed oils of M. champaca and G. indica were found to be the most suitable biodiesel and they meet the major specification of biodiesel standards. The selected plants M. champaca and G. indica have great potential for biodiesel. M. champaca and G. indica seed oils were found to contain keto fatty acids along with the other normal fatty acids, respectively. These fatty acids have been detected and characterized by UV, FTIR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, MS, GC techniques and chemical transformations.
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Anti-inflammatory activity of various extracts of leaves of Garcinia xanthochymus
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2005
In the present study, the leaves of Garcinia xanthochymus (Guttiferae) was investigated for antiinflammatory activity using carrageenan-induced rat paw edema method.The results demonstrated that the equivalent percentage inhibition of petroleum ether extract and methanolic extract was 86.4 and 80.7%, respectively compared to standard Ibuprofen, which is statistically significant.
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Vegetable Fats and Oils
Article
  • Jul 1954
  • SOIL SCI
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Food Crop Potential of Tropical Trees
Article
  • Jul 1989
  • EXP AGR
Trees are important sources of food in both the humid and semi-arid tropics. Some species have been exploited for centuries and are widely distributed around the world, others have been cultivated only in limited areas, while most are still essentially wild. The potential for rapid genetic improvement by clonal selection is enormous and well-proven by the recent history of some species. Trees can yield as much food per hectare as most C3 annual crops – although special problems may have to be overcome to ensure regular bearing of fruit and nut trees. Trees also offer great ecological and social benefits.(Accepted November 10 1988)
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The composition of Indian foods—Mineral composition and intakes of Indian vegetarian populations
Article
The trace element (Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu) and Ca and P contents of cereals, legume grains, vegetables, milk products and oilseeds commonly consumed by Indian vegetarians were determined. Green leafy vegetables contained the highest amounts of Fe, Mn and Cu (15–171, 90–133 and 4–21 mg kg−1, respectively); buffalo milk, buttermilk and curd contained most zinc (53–63 mg kg−J). Legumes contained the highest levels of P, whilst buffalo milk and curd, and leafy vegetables possessed most Ca. The levels of these elements in prepared foods and diets were entirely consistent with the above findings. In general, the mineral intakes of the populations of children (4–9 years), adolescents (10–19), adults (20–45) and older adults (45–60) examined in this study were lower for Zn and Ca, similar for Fe and Ca, and higher for Mn and P than the recently prescribed Indian Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). It is likely that other constituents of cereals and pulses, such as fibre and phytate, will greatly reduce the bioavailability of trace minerals and Ca in Indian vegetarian diets. In contrast to earlier studies, no significant overall differences were observed between populations from farming and non-farming backgrounds.
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Chemical Constituents from the Bark of Garcinia xanthochymus and Their 1,1‐Diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Radical‐Scavenging Activities
Article
A new bis-xanthone (xanthone=9H-xanthen-9-one), named bigarcinenone A (1) which is the first example of a bis-xanthone with the xanthone–xanthone linkage between an aromatic C-atom and a C5 side chain from a guttiferae plant, a new phloroglucinol (=benzene-1,3,5-triol) derivative, named garcinenone F (2), together with seven known xanthones were isolated from the bark of Garcinia xanthochymus. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods, especially 2D-NMR techniques. Bigarcinenone A (1) exhibited potent antioxidant activity in the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging test with a IC50 value of 9.2 μM, compared to the positive control, the well-known antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) with a IC50 of 20 μM (Table 3).
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Essential oils of Lavandula bipinnata and their antimicrobial activities
Article
  • Feb 2010
  • FOOD CHEM
The essential oils from dried leaves of Lavandula bipinnata (Roth) Kuntze (Lamiaceae), obtained by soxhlet extraction was analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and was evaluated for in vitro antimicrobial activity. The most common components usually found in lavender essential oils were present in the oil samples analysed, out of 43 peaks, 29 components, which constitute 72.38%, were identified in the essential oil. The major constituents were transcarveol (18.93%), pulegone (8.45%), camphor (7.09%) and menthol (5.89%). Other constituents present in fairly good amounts are pipertone (4.65%), caryophyllene oxide (3.68%), linalyl acetate (3.37%) and bicyclogermacrene (3.09%). The essential oil was screened for antimicrobial activity by disc diffusion assay and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against bacteria and fungus. Results reveal that L. bipinnata essential oils are inhibitory against the tested bacteria and fungal strains.
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Chemical analysis and preliminary toxicological evaluation of Garcinia mangostana seeds and seed oil
Article
  • Dec 2007
  • FOOD CHEM
The chemical analysis and preliminary toxicological evaluation of Garcinia mangostana seeds and seed oil have been investigated in order to determine the possibility of using them for human and/or animal consumption. Proximate analysis showed that the seeds had high amount of carbohydrate and were rich in oil (21.68 ± 6.18%) but have a low protein content. The physical properties of the oil extracts showed the state to be liquid at room temperature (25 ± 1 °C) and the colour of the oil golden-orange. The specific gravity of the oil was 0.98 ± 0.01. Among the chemical properties of the oil extracts, acid value, saponification number, iodine value, percent free fatty acid and peroxide value compared well with those of conventional edible oils. The seed flour was found to be a good source of minerals. It contained considerable amounts of potassium (7071 mg/kg), magnesium (865 mg/kg) and calcium (454 mg/kg). Fatty acid composition of the seed oil indicated that the oil contained one essential fatty acids small proportions: linoleic acid (1.30%). The most prevalent fatty acids were palmitic acid (49.5%) and oleic acid (34.0%). Weanling albino rats appeared to suffer no toxicological effects when fed with G. mangostana seed oil in their diet for 8 weeks. Weekly monitoring of the rats showed good physical appearance and steady weight increase. Histological examination of sections of the heart, liver, kidney, spleen and lung revealed that the kidney of some of the rats had some degrees of pathology which included diffuse glomerular and tubular degeneration. No lesion was found in the heart and liver of the rats. The seed oil could be useful as an edible oil and for industrial applications.
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Antioxidant Properties of Extracts from Medicinal Plants Popularly Used in Taiwan
Article
  • Jan 2005
We have examined antioxidant activities of twenty-six medicinal herbal extracts that have been popularly used as folk medicines in Taiwan. The results of scavenging DPPH radical activity show that, among the 26 tested medicinal plants, Ludwigia octovalvis, Vitis thunbergii, Rubus parvifolius, Lindernia anagallis, and Zanthoxylum nitidum exhibited strong activities and their IC50 values for DPPH radicals were 4.6, 24, 27, 36, 50 g/mL, respectively. As for the su- peroxide anion scavenging activity (IC50, g/mL), the top five most significant activities were observed in plant extracts of Ludwigia octovalvis (26  g/mL), Vitis thunbergii (58  g/mL), Prunella vulgaris (113  g/mL), Saurauia oldhamii (124  g/mL), and Rubus parvifolius (151  g/mL). The IC50 values for DPPH and superoxide anion of catechin (positive control) were 2.5 and 7.2  g/mL, respectively. It was also observed in the present study that, at 1 mg/mL, Ludwigia octovalvis and Bombax malabaricum exhibited significant protection onψx174 supe r- coiled DNA against strand cleavage induced by UV irradiated H2O2 with a superior or compati- ble effect to that of catechin.
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