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HIT maintains performance during the transition period and improves next season performance in well-trained cyclists
Abstract
Purpose:
To investigate the effects of combining low-intensity endurance training (LIT) with one high-intensity endurance training (HIT) session every 7-10 days (EXP, n = 7) vs. traditional approach focusing on LIT (TRAD, n = 6) during the transition period. The effects of different training strategies during the transition period were investigated after the transition period and at the beginning of the subsequent competition season.
Methods:
Well-trained cyclists were tested after the competition season, after an 8-week transition period, and after a 16-week preparatory period, before the subsequent competition season. The only difference between groups was a larger time with HIT during the transition phase in EXP.
Results:
It was very likely that EXP had a larger impact on power output at 4 mmol L(-1) [la(-)] after both the transition period and after the preparatory period than TRAD [between-group change (90% CI): 10.6% (8.2%) and 12.9% (11.9%), respectively]. It was very likely that EXP had a larger impact on mean power output in the 40-min all-out trial after the transition period than TRAD [between-group change 12.4% (7.6%)]. EXP was also likely to have a larger improvement in the 40-min trial performance from pre-test to after the preparatory period than TRAD [between-group change 6.0% (6.6%)].
Conclusion:
The present findings suggest that HIT sessions should be incorporated during the transition phase to avoid reduction in fitness and performance level and thereby increase the likelihood of improved performance from the end of one season to the beginning of the subsequent season.
... Mujika et al. (36) found that attenuating the decline in performance during the off-season was associated with further enhancement of performance during the subsequent season when compared with the previous season. Similarly, Rønnestad et al. (48) found that adding supplementary high-intensity endurance training not only maintained endurance performance during the off-season, but it also allowed for further improvement in endurance performance during the subsequent season. Conversely, in that same study (48), the group that did not perform supplementary high-intensity endurance training experienced a decline in performance during the off-season, and performance during the subsequent season merely returned to the previous seasons' values. ...
... Similarly, Rønnestad et al. (48) found that adding supplementary high-intensity endurance training not only maintained endurance performance during the off-season, but it also allowed for further improvement in endurance performance during the subsequent season. Conversely, in that same study (48), the group that did not perform supplementary high-intensity endurance training experienced a decline in performance during the off-season, and performance during the subsequent season merely returned to the previous seasons' values. Therefore, the minimal training recommendations provided herein would also be valuable guidance for athletes during the off-season. ...
... c The effectiveness of HIIT to maintain performance during prolonged periods of reduced training. Previous research has already established the impressive effectiveness of HIIT for improving endurance performance (19); and preliminary research indicates HIIT is also effective supplementary training for maintaining endurance performance (48,56). Noteworthy, in addition to helping maintain physical performance during short-term (3 weeks) reduced training, incorporating a weekly HIIT session does not seem to negatively affect psychological indicators of "burnout" compared with performing only low-intensity training (1). ...
Maintaining physical performance: the minimal dose of exercise needed to preserve endurance and strength over time, Spiering, BA, Mujika, I, Sharp, MA, and Foulis, SA. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-Nearly every physically active person encounters periods in which the time available for exercise is limited (e.g., personal, family, or business conflicts). During such periods, the goal of physical training may be to simply maintain (rather than improve) physical performance. Similarly, certain special populations may desire to maintain performance for prolonged periods, namely athletes (during the competitive season and off-season) and military personnel (during deployment). The primary purpose of this brief, narrative review is to identify the minimal dose of exercise (i.e., frequency, volume, and intensity) needed to maintain physical performance over time. In general populations, endurance performance can be maintained for up to 15 weeks when training frequency is reduced to as little as 2 sessions per week or when exercise volume is reduced by 33-66% (as low as 13-26 minutes per session), as long as exercise intensity (exercising heart rate) is maintained. Strength and muscle size (at least in younger populations) can be maintained for up to 32 weeks with as little as 1 session of strength training per week and 1 set per exercise, as long as exercise intensity (relative load) is maintained; whereas, in older populations, maintaining muscle size may require up to 2 sessions per week and 2-3 sets per exercise, while maintaining exercise intensity. Insufficient data exists to make specific recommendations for athletes or military personnel. Our primary conclusion is that exercise intensity seems to be the key variable for maintaining physical performance over time, despite relatively large reductions in exercise frequency and volume.
... Elite cyclists typically spend up to 100 days in competition (Lucia et al., 2001), which is both a high physical and psychological exertion, with an inherent risk of burnout toward the end of the season (Silva, 1990;Lemyre et al., 2006). Although the need for a subsequent period of physical and mental recovery is regarded as necessary for elite athletes (Mujika et al., 2018), the manipulation of training in these transition periods is scarcely investigated (Garcia-Pallares et al., 2009;Ronnestad et al., 2014). To recover from the strenuous competition period, cyclists' training load is often drastically reduced for 2-3 weeks in the subsequent transition period (Lucia et al., 2000;Sassi et al., 2008). ...
... Maintaining a minimum of training load in periods of decreased training volume seems necessary to avoid performance decrements (Mujika, 1998;Bosquet et al., 2007), with highintensity training (HIT) playing a key role for maintenance of endurance performance (Neufer, 1989;Garcia-Pallares et al., 2009;Ronnestad et al., 2014). Maintenance of fitness in the transition period might also be crucial for continuous improvement in the following seasons of elite athletes (Mujika et al., 1995). ...
... Maintenance of fitness in the transition period might also be crucial for continuous improvement in the following seasons of elite athletes (Mujika et al., 1995). Indeed, a study by Ronnestad et al. (2014) on well-trained cyclists showed that performing a HIT session every 7-10 days during an 8-week period following the competition period maintained power output at 4 mmol·L −1 [BLa − ], maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2max ), and 40-min all-out performance better than low-intensity training (LIT; Ronnestad et al., 2014). However, performing HIT-sessions during the transition period where physical and mental recovery is needed might be too strenuous, leading to overreaching and burnout. ...
https://hdl.handle.net/11250/2718960
... Although low workloads with BFR are unlikely to improve VȮ 2 max or strength for endurance athletes, it could contribute to preventing or attenuating the detraining effect. For example, 1 weekly HIIT session during 8 weeks of reduced training volumes prevented a decrease in the percentage of VȮ 2 max at OBLA that occurred in a group that did not perform HIIT (103). Walking or cycling with BFR could also benefit injured athletes unable to tolerate high mechanical stress, by shortening the time between completing rehabilitation and returning to preinjury performance capacity (103). ...
... For example, 1 weekly HIIT session during 8 weeks of reduced training volumes prevented a decrease in the percentage of VȮ 2 max at OBLA that occurred in a group that did not perform HIIT (103). Walking or cycling with BFR could also benefit injured athletes unable to tolerate high mechanical stress, by shortening the time between completing rehabilitation and returning to preinjury performance capacity (103). Both low and moderate-to-high intensity aerobic exercise with BFR can therefore benefit endurance athletes in a range of scenarios because of the heightened physiological demands at a low workloads (92). ...
Smith, NDW, Scott, BR, Girard, O, and Peiffer, JJ. Aerobic training with blood flow restriction for endurance athletes: potential benefits and considerations of implementation. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2021-Low-intensity aerobic training with blood flow restriction (BFR) can improve maximal oxygen uptake, delay the onset of blood lactate accumulation, and may provide marginal benefits to economy of motion in untrained individuals. Such a training modality could also improve these physiological attributes in well-trained athletes. Indeed, aerobic BFR training could be beneficial for those recovering from injury, those who have limited time for training a specific physiological capacity, or as an adjunct training stimulus to provide variation in a program. However, similarly to endurance training without BFR, using aerobic BFR training to elicit physiological adaptations in endurance athletes will require additional considerations compared with nonendurance athletes. The objective of this narrative review is to discuss the acute and chronic aspects of aerobic BFR exercise for well-trained endurance athletes and highlight considerations for its effective implementation. This review first highlights key physiological capacities of endurance performance. The acute and chronic responses to aerobic BFR exercise and their impact on performance are then discussed. Finally, considerations for prescribing and monitoring aerobic BFR exercise in trained endurance populations are addressed to challenge current views on how BFR exercise is implemented.
... Recent studies exploring the consequences of partial training reduction indicate that maintaining VO 2 max levels is achievable by incorporating a single weekly high-intensity training (HIT) session alongside reduced low-intensity training (LIT) volume during an 8week transition period. Conversely, using solely LIT during a partial cessation period, would not produce the same conservative effect (Rønnestad et al., 2014). Incorporating a weekly sprint session within a constrained LIT volume yields no significant alterations in VO 2 max when compared to exclusively performing LIT over a shorter span of 3 transition training weeks (Almquist et al., 2020). ...
Background: A training program can stimulate physiological, anatomical, and performance adaptations, but these improvements can be partially or entirely reversed due to the cessation of habitual physical activity resulting from illness, injury, or other influencing factors.
Purpose: To investigate the effects of detraining on cardiorespiratory, metabolic, hormonal, muscular adaptations, as well as short-term and long-term performance changes in endurance athletes.
Methods: Eligible studies were sourced from databases and the library up until July 2023. Included studies considered endurance athletes as subjects and reported on detraining duration.
Results: Total cessation of training leads to a decrease in VO2max due to reductions in both blood and plasma volume. Cardiac changes include decreases in left ventricular mass, size, and thickness, along with an increase in heart rate and blood pressure, ultimately resulting in reduced cardiac output and impaired performance. Metabolically, there are declines in lactate threshold and muscle glycogen, increased body weight, altered respiratory exchange ratio, and changes in power parameters. In the short term, there is a decrease in insulin sensitivity, while glucagon, growth hormone, and cortisol levels remain unchanged. Skeletal muscle experiences reductions in arterial-venous oxygen difference and glucose transporter-4. Implementing a partial reduction in training may help mitigate drastic losses in physiological and performance parameters, a consideration when transitioning between training seasons.
Conclusion: There is a dearth of data investigating the detraining effects of training reduction/cessation among endurance athletes. Delving deeper into this topic may be useful for professionals and researchers to identify the optimal strategies to minimize these effects.
... The benefits of home training are aligned with previous research, where HIIT has been found to help maintain fitness during an offseason. 22,23 Lockdown was also described by one coach as a period of rest and recovery for a gymnast experiencing rapid growth prior to lockdown. Typically, gymnastics training is comprised of year long, intense training; however, additional periods of rest or less intense training could benefit gymnasts experiencing periods of rapid growth. ...
Following the outbreak of COVID‐19 (coronavirus), the UK entered a national lockdown, and all sport was suspended. The study aimed to explore the process of returning to gymnastics training after several months away from the gym, with particular interest towards training load and injury. Twenty‐six, national programmed gymnasts from Men’s artistic, Women’s artistic and Trampoline gymnastics recorded training load and injury whilst returning to training. At the end of data collection, 3 coaches were interviewed to further explore the experiences and practices of returning to training. Home‐based training during lockdown was seen as beneficial in maintaining a level of fitness. Coaches described a gradual increase in training to reduce the risk of injury and this partly explains a non‐significant association between training load and a substantial injury (P=0.441). However, week‐to‐week changes in training load following periods of additional restrictions (additional lockdown, periods of isolation or substantial restrictions), were not always gradual. There was a significant association between an injury in the preceding week (niggle or substantial injury to a different body part) and a substantial injury in the subsequent week (RR: 5.29, P=0.011). Monitoring training was described to be a useful practice during the process of returning to training. Coaches believed that although the short‐term development of their gymnasts were affected, the long‐term development would not be impacted from COVID‐19. It is anticipated that learnings from this study can be applied to future practices and situations, particularly when gymnasts are away from the gym for an extended period.
Purpose
Altitude training is a common strategy used with the intent to increase hemoglobin mass (Hb mass ) in athletes. However, if the Hb mass is increased during altitude camps it seems to decline rapidly upon returning to sea level. This study aimed to examine the efficacy of three weekly heat training sessions over a 3.5-week period following a 3-week altitude camp, on the maintenance of Hb mass in elite cyclists.
Methods
Eighteen male cyclists (maximal oxygen consumption: 76 ± 5 mL·min ⁻¹ ·kg ⁻¹ ) underwent a 3-week altitude training camp at ~2100 m above sea level. After the camp, participants were divided into one group performing three weekly heat sessions that was subtracted from their usual training (HEAT) while the other continuing usual training (CON). Training characteristics were recorded during the intervention, while hematological measurements were recorded before the camp as well as two days and 3.5-weeks after the altitude camp.
Results
The 3-week altitude camp led to an overall increase in total Hb mass of 4.1%. Afterwards, HEAT maintained Hb mass (0.2%, p = 0.738), while CON group experienced a significant reduction (-3.3%, p < 0.001) (ΔHEAT vs. ΔCON, p < 0.001). Moreover, HEAT increased plasma volume (PV) by 11.6% (p = 0.007) and blood volume (BV) by 5.8% (p = 0.007), whereas CON only showed an increase in PV (5.5%, p = 0.041). Exercise intensity and training load were not different between groups during the maintenance period.
Conclusions
This study suggests that incorporating three weekly heat training sessions into the usual training routine preserves a moderately increased Hb mass in elite cyclists following an altitude camp.
Cross-country (XC) skiing is an Olympic Winter sport combining upper-and lower-body work to cross varied terrain in endurance competitions lasting from multiple ∼3 min (∼1.3–1.8 km) efforts in the sprint discipline to more than 2 hours (≤50 km) in the longest distance competitions. Over the last decades, retrospective training analyses of world-class XC skiers combined with more experimental designs have led to a well-developed theoretical framework of endurance training in XC skiing, although there is an ongoing discussion on how training volume and intensity should be progressed throughout the preparation period to optimize performance development. These training methods have elicited some of the highest maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) values reported in the literature, with concurrent high peak oxygen uptakes (VO2peak) within the main sub-techniques of the skating and classical technique. In this context, it would be interesting to understand how athletes originating from other endurance sports would progress their VO2max/VO2peak values, in addition to improving their technique and efficiency, while transferring to XC skiing and adopting these training methods. Accordingly, the overall objectives of the present dissertation were to: (1) investigate both the short-term and more subsequent effects of increased low (LIT)- vs. high-intensity endurance training (HIT) on performance and physiological adaptations in the preparation period of junior XC skiers (study I-II), and (2) investigate the influence of adopting state-of-the-art training methods in XC skiing to endurance athletes originating from other sports in a talent transfer program (study III-IV).
Studies I-II are based on a randomized, experimental design which investigated the effects of increased load of LIT vs. HIT during an 8-week intervention (simulating general preparation period) followed by 5 weeks of standardized training with similar intensity distribution (simulating specific preparation period), and thereafter 14 weeks of self-chosen training and competitions (competition period) in junior XC skiers. Study I demonstrated that performance adaptations, including uphill running time-trial performance and peak speed when incremental running and roller-ski skating to exhaustion in the laboratory, did not differ significantly between the two groups. However, increased HIT elicited ~3-4% greater changes in VO2max running and VO2peak roller-ski skating compared to increased LIT. Study II was a follow-up study, demonstrating that the observed differences in physiological adaptations between the two groups during the 8-week intervention were outbalanced following 5 weeks of standardized training with similar intensity distribution across groups. Lastly, no further changes in any performance or physiological indices neither within nor between groups were found 14 weeks into the subsequent competition period.
Studies III-IV are based on a prospective, observational design investigating the development of performance, physiological, and technical indices of endurance athletes (i.e. runners, kayakers, and rowers) transferring to XC skiing during a talent transfer program. Study III demonstrated that the 6-month training period elicited large improvements in sport-specific performance indices (i.e. roller-ski skating and double-poling ergometry), whereas performance indices in a general mode (i.e. running) were unchanged. Improvements in sport-specific performance indices were coincided by better skiing efficiency/work economy and longer cycle lengths while roller-ski skating, as well as increased upper-body one-repetition maximum-strength (1RM) in ski-specific exercises. However, no changes in VO2max running and VO2peak roller-ski skating and double-poling ergometry were found at a group level. Moreover, larger development in sport-specific performance indices were found in runners compared to kayakers/rowers, which coincided with improved VO2peak and overall better physiological adaptations in roller-ski skating. Study IV was a follow-up study, comparing high- and low-performance responders to the 6-month training period using a multidisciplinary approach. Here, high-responders demonstrated superior physiological adaptations both at submaximal and maximal workloads (e.g. power at 4 mmol·L-1 and VO2max running and VO2peak roller-ski skating) than low-responders. These findings were coincided with higher training loads, greater perceived effort during sessions, and lower incidents of injury and illness during the 6-month period in comparison to their lower-responding counterparts. Lastly, qualitative interviews with the athletes coaches highlighted that greater motivation and passion for XC skiing together with the ability to build a strong coach-athlete relationship separated high- from low-responders.
Conclusively, the present dissertation demonstrates that performance development can successfully be achieved both by increased low- and high-intensity endurance training during the preparation period in XC skiers, although increased high-intensity training may provide short-term benefits for maximal aerobic energy turnover. However, these different ways of progressing training load had little or no effects on the subsequent performance and physiological development following a period of similar training regimes. Moreover, adopting the theoretical framework of training (i.e. state-of-the-art) in XC skiing on endurance athletes (i.e. runners, kayakers, and rowers) transferring to XC skiing elicits large sport-specific performance improvements, while improvements in aerobic energy turnover were limited. Here, the athletes with largest development had a background from running and the ability to concurrently develop high aerobic energy turnover rates together with skiing efficiency, cycle length, and upper-body specific strength. However, a more long-term approach than employed in the present studies is clearly needed to reach a high international level in XC skiing following talent transfer. Overall, the present data provides novel understanding of both the short-term and more subsequent effects of progressing endurance training volume and intensity in XC skiing, as well as the effects of applying state-of the-art XC skiing training to endurance athletes originating from other sports.
Purpose:
To investigate how the effects of increased low- versus high-intensity endurance training in an 8-week intervention influenced the subsequent development of performance and physiological indices in cross-country skiers.
Methods:
Forty-four (32 men and 12 women) junior cross-country skiers were randomly assigned into a low-intensity training group (LITG, n = 20) or high-intensity training group (HITG, n = 24) for an 8-week intervention followed by 5 weeks of standardized training with similar intensity distribution, and thereafter 14 weeks of self-chosen training. Performance and physiological indices in running and in roller-ski skating were determined preintervention, after the intervention, and after the standardized training period. Roller-ski skating was also tested after the period of self-chosen training.
Results:
No between-groups changes from preintervention to after the standardized training period were found in peak speed when incremental running and roller-ski skating (P = .83 and .51), although performance in both modes was improved in the LITG (2.4% [4.6%] and 3.3% [3.3%], P < .05) and in roller-ski skating for HITG (2.6% [3.1%], P < .01). While improvements in maximal oxygen consumption running and peak oxygen uptake roller-ski skating were greater in HITG than in LITG from preintervention to after the intervention, no between-groups differences were found from preintervention to after the standardized training period (P = .50 and .46), although peak oxygen uptake in roller-ski skating significantly improved in HITG (5.7% [7.0%], P < .01). No changes either within or between groups were found after the period of self-chosen training.
Conclusions:
Differences in adaptations elicited by a short-term intervention focusing on low- versus high-intensity endurance training had little or no effect on the subsequent development of performance or physiological indices following a period of standardized training in cross-country skiers.
Purpose: To investigate the effects of including repeated sprints in a weekly low-intensity (LIT)-session during a 3-week transition period on cycling performance 6 weeks into the subsequent preparatory period in elite cyclists. Methods: Eleven elite male cyclists (age: 22.0 [3.8]y, body mass: 73.0 [5.8]kg, height: 186 [7]cm, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max): 5469 [384] mL·min-1) reduced their training load by 64% and performed only LIT-sessions (CON, n=6), or included 3 sets of 3 x 30-sec maximal sprints in a weekly LIT-session (SPR, n=5) during a 3-week transition period. There were no differences in training load leading up to the transition period, in the reduction during the transition period or in the increase in the preparatory period between groups. Physiological and performance measures were compared between the end of the competitive period (COMP) and 6 weeks into the subsequent preparatory period (PREP). Results: SPR demonstrated a 7.3% [7.2%] improvement in mean power output during a 20-min all-out test (W·kg-1) at PREP, which was greater than CON (-1.3% [4.6%]) (p=0.048). SPR had a corresponding 7.0 [3.6]% improvement in average VO2 during the 20-min all-out test, which was larger than the 0.7 [6.0]% change in CON (p=0.042). No change in VO2max, gross efficiency or power output at blood lactate concentration of 4 mmolL-1 from COMP to PREP occurred in either group. Conclusion: The inclusion of sprints in a weekly low-intensity (LIT)-session during the transition period of elite cyclists provided a performance advantage 6 weeks into the subsequent preparatory period, which coincided with a higher performance-VO2.
Accepted for pulication nov 15. 2020.
Unlabelled:
During the last decade discussion about training-intensity distribution has been an important issue in sports science. Training-intensity distribution has not been adequately investigated in speed skating, a unique activity requiring both high power and high endurance.
Purpose:
To quantify the training-intensity distribution and training hours of successful Olympic speed skaters over 10 Olympiads.
Methods:
Olympic-medal-winning trainers/coaches and speed skaters were interviewed and their training programs were analyzed. Each program was qualified and quantified: workout type (specific and nonspecific) and training zones (zone 1 2 mMol/L lactate, zone 2 2-4 mMol/L lactate, zone 3 lactate >4 mMol/L). Net training times were calculated.
Results:
The relation between total training hours and time (successive Olympiads) was not progressive (r = .51, P > .5). A strong positive linear relation (r = .96, P < .01) was found between training distribution in zone 1 and time. Zones 2 and 3 both showed a strong negative linear relation to time (r = -.94, P < .01; r = -.97, P < .01). No significant relation was found between speed skating hours and time (r = -.11, P > .05). This was also the case for inline skating and time (r = -.86, P > .05).
Conclusions:
These data indicate that in speed skating there was a shift toward polarized training over the last 38 y. This shift seems to be the most important factor in the development of Olympic speed skaters. Surprisingly there was no relation found between training hours, skating hours, and time.
The race-to-race variation in performance of a top athlete determines the smallest change in performance affecting the athlete's chances of winning. We report here the typical variation in competition times of elite cyclists in various race series. Repeated-measures analysis of log-transformed official race times provided the typical variation in a cyclist's performance as a coefficient of variation. The typical variation of a top cyclist (and its 95% likely limits) was 0.4% (0.3–0.5%) in World Cup road races, 0.7% (0.7–0.8%) in Tour de France road races, 1.2% (0.8–2.2%) in the Kilo, 1.3% (0.9–2.4%) in road time trials, 1.7% (1.2–2.6%) in Tour de France time trials, and 2.4% (2.1–2.8%) in World Cup mountain biking. Cyclist interdependence arising from team tactics and pack riding probably accounts for the lower variability in performance of cyclists in road races and precludes estimation of the smallest worthwhile change in performance time for cyclists in these events. The substantial differences in variability between the remaining events, where riders act independently of each other, arise from various event-specific aspects. For these events the smallest worthwhile changes in performance time (~0.5×typical variation) are ~0.5% in the Kilo, ~0.6% in road time trials, and ~1.2% in mountain-bike races.
The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of two different methods of organizing endurance training in trained cyclists during a 12-week preparation period. One group of cyclists performed block periodization (BP; n = 8), wherein every fourth week constituted five sessions of high-intensity aerobic training (HIT), followed by 3 weeks of one HIT session. Another group performed a more traditional organization (TRAD; n = 7), with 12 weeks of two weekly HIT sessions. The HIT was interspersed with low-intensity training (LIT) so that similar total volumes of both HIT and LIT were performed in the two groups. BP achieved a larger relative improvement in VO(2max) than TRAD (8.8 ± 5.9% vs 3.7 ± 2.9%, respectively, P < 0.05) and a tendency toward larger increase in power output at 2 mmol/L [la(-) ] (22 ± 14% vs 10 ± 7%, respectively, P = 0.054). Mean effect size (ES) of the relative improvement in VO(2max) , power output at 2 mmol/L [la(-) ], hemoglobin mass, and mean power output during 40-min all-out trial revealed moderate superior effects of BP compared with TRAD training (ES range was 0.62-1.12). The present study suggests that BP of endurance training has superior effects on several endurance and performance indices compared with TRAD.
The primary purpose of this study was to compare seasonal changes in cycling gross efficiency (GE) and economy (EC) with changes in other aerobic fitness indices. The secondary aim was to assess the relationship between maximum oxygen consumption, GE, and EC among elite cyclists. The relationships of maximum oxygen consumption with GE and EC were studied in 13 cyclists (8 professional road cyclists and 5 mountain bikers). Seasonal changes in GE and EC, predicted time to exhaustion (pTE), maximum oxygen consumption, and respiratory compensation point (RCP) were examined in a subgroup of 8 subjects, before (TREST) and after (TPRECOMP) the pre-competitive winter training, and during the competitive period (TCOMP). GE and EC were assessed during a constant power test at 75% of peak power output (PPO). Significant main effect for time was found for maximum oxygen consumption (4.623 0.675, 4.879 0.727, and 5.010 0.663 Lmin¹p = 0.028), PPO (417.8 46.5, 443.0 48.0, and 455 48 Wp< 0.001), oxygen uptake at RCP (3.866 0.793, 4.041 0.685, and 4.143 0.643 Lmin¹p = 0.049), power output at RCP (330 64, 354 52, and 361 50 Wp< 0.001), and pTE (17 4, 30 8, and 46 17minp< 0.001). No significant main effect for time was found in GE (p = 0.097) or EC (p = 0.225), despite within-subject seasonal changes. No significant correlations were found between absolute maximum oxygen consumption and GE (r =0.276p= 0.359) or EC (r =0.328p = 0.272). However, cyclists with high maximum oxygen consumption values (i.e., over 80mLkg¹min¹), showed low efficiency rates. Despite within-subject seasonal waves in cycling efficiency, changes in GE and EC should not be expected as direct consequence of changes in other maximal and submaximal parameters of aerobic fitness (i.e., maximum oxygen consumption and RCP).
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of heavy strength training on thigh muscle cross-sectional area (CSA), determinants of cycling performance, and cycling performance in well-trained cyclists. Twenty well-trained cyclists were assigned to either usual endurance training combined with heavy strength training [E + S; n = 11 (male symbol = 11)] or to usual endurance training only [E; n = 9 (male symbol = 7, female symbol = 2)]. The strength training performed by E + S consisted of four lower body exercises [3 x 4-10 repetition maximum (RM)], which were performed twice a week for 12 weeks. Thigh muscle CSA, maximal force in isometric half squat, power output in 30 s Wingate test, maximal oxygen consumption (VO(2max)), power output at 2 mmol l(-1) blood lactate concentration ([la(-)]), and performance, as mean power production, in a 40-min all-out trial were measured before and after the intervention. E + S increased thigh muscle CSA, maximal isometric force, and peak power in the Wingate test more than E. Power output at 2 mmol l(-1) [la(-)] and mean power output in the 40-min all-out trial were improved in E + S (P < 0.05). For E, only performance in the 40-min all-out trial tended to improve (P = 0.057). The two groups showed similar increases in VO(2max) (P < 0.05). In conclusion, adding strength training to usual endurance training improved determinants of cycling performance as well as performance in well-trained cyclists. Of particular note is that the added strength training increased thigh muscle CSA without causing an increase in body mass.
This study analyzed changes in physiological parameters, hormonal markers and kayaking performance following 5-wk of reduced training (RT) or complete training cessation (TC). Fourteen top-level male kayakers were randomly assigned to either a TC (n = 7) or RT group (n = 7) at the end of their competitive season (T1). Subjects undertook blood sampling and an incremental test to exhaustion on a kayak ergometer at T1 and again following 5 weeks of RT or TC (T2). Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and oxygen uptake at second ventilatory threshold (VT2) significantly decreased following TC (-10.1% and -8.8%, respectively). Significant decreases were also observed in RT group but to a lesser extent (-4.8% and - 5.7% respectively). Heart rate at VT2 showed significant increases following TC (3.5%). However, no changes, were detected in heart rate at VO2max in any group. Peak blood lactate remained unchanged in both groups at T2. Paddling speed at VO2max declined significantly at T2 in the TC group (-3.3%), while paddling speed at VT2 declined significantly in both groups (-5.0% and -4.2% for TC and RT, respectively). Stroke rate at VO2max and at VT2 increased significantly only following TC by 5.2% and 4.9%, respectively. Paddling power at VO2max and at VT2 decreased significantly in both groups although the values observed following RT were higher than those observed following TC. A significant decline in cortisol levels (-30%) was observed in both groups, while a higher increase in testosterone to cortisol ratio was detected in the RT group. These results indicate that a RT strategy may be more effective than complete TC in order to avoid excessive declines in cardiovascular function and kayaking performance in top-level paddlers.
The effects of 15 days of detraining and 15 days of retraining were studied in 6 well-trained runners. Detraining resulted in significant decreases in the mean activities of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) of 24 % and 13 %, respectively, but no significant increases in these enzyme activities occurred with retraining. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) decreased by 4% with detraining (p < 0.05), and increased by a similar amount with retraining. Performance time in an intense submaximal run decreased by 25% (p < 0.05) with inactivity, but still averaged 9% below the initial level after retraining. Maximal heart rate and peak heart rate during the performance run were higher after detraining by 4 and 9 beats per min, respectively (p < 0.05). With retraining, these heart rate values were decreased by 7 and 9 beats per min (p < 0.05). Blood lactate concentrations after the VO2 max and performance run were approximately 20% lower after detraining and retraining (p < 0.05). Muscle fibre areas for three subjects tended to be larger in biopsy samples taken after detraining and retraining. These data suggest that even short periods of detraining result in significant changes in indices of physiological capacity and function in subjects near their upper limit of adaptation, and that a longer period of retraining is necessary for muscle to re-adapt to its original trained state.
To investigate the effects of heavy strength training on the mean power output in a 5-min all-out trial following 185 min of submaximal cycling at 44% of maximal aerobic power output in well-trained cyclists. Twenty well-trained cyclists were assigned to either usual endurance training combined with heavy strength training [E+S; n=11 (♂=11)] or to usual endurance training only [E; n=9 (♂=7, ♀=2)]. The strength training performed by E+S consisted of four lower body exercises [3 × 4-10 repetition maximum (RM)], which were performed twice a week for 12 weeks. E+S increased 1 RM in half-squat (P≤0.001), while no change occurred in E. E+S led to greater reductions than E in oxygen consumption, heart rate, blood lactate concentration, and rate of perceived exertion (P<0.05) during the last hour of the prolonged cycling. Further, E+S increased the mean power output during the 5-min all-out trial (from 371 ± 9 to 400 ± 13 W, P<0.05), while no change occurred in E. In conclusion, adding strength training to usual endurance training improves leg strength and 5-min all-out performance following 185 min of cycling in well-trained cyclists.