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Positive Self-Statements: Power for Some, Peril for Others
Abstract
Positive self-statements are widely believed to boost mood and self-esteem, yet their effectiveness has not been demonstrated. We examined the contrary prediction that positive self-statements can be ineffective or even harmful. A survey study confirmed that people often use positive self-statements and believe them to be effective. Two experiments showed that among participants with low self-esteem, those who repeated a positive self-statement ("I'm a lovable person") or who focused on how that statement was true felt worse than those who did not repeat the statement or who focused on how it was both true and not true. Among participants with high self-esteem, those who repeated the statement or focused on how it was true felt better than those who did not, but to a limited degree. Repeating positive self-statements may benefit certain people, but backfire for the very people who "need" them the most.
... Their self-evaluation and capacity for adjustment get worse no matter how others support them. Another study proposed that when people with negative self-views make positive self-statements, it affects their mood and self-esteem negatively [76]. Moreover, BPD patients feel high levels of shame when they receive positive feedback [34]. ...
... Third, BPD patients feel negative about positive feedback. For instance, research has shown that positive self-affirmations can have negative effects on individuals with negative self-views, potentially worsening mood and self-esteem [76]. Another study pointed that BPD patients showed high shame when they receive positive feedback [34]. ...
Background
Adolescents with low self-efficacy may exhibit borderline personality features. This study aimed to investigate the role of school adjustment and social support in the association between self-efficacy and borderline personality features among adolescents.
Methods
Questionnaires were distributed to 2369 adolescents to collect data including general demographic characteristics, borderline personality features, social support, school adjustment, and self-efficacy.
Results
(1) Adolescents' school adjustment and self-efficacy were negatively associated with borderline personality features. (2) The relationship between borderline personality features and self-efficacy was partially mediated by school adjustment. (3) The relationships among borderline personality features, school adjustment, and self-efficacy were moderated by social support. High levels of social support were associated with a stronger negative correlation between borderline personality features and self-efficacy.
Conclusions
School adjustment is a crucial link between borderline personality features and self-efficacy. Although social support can mitigate this relationship to some extent, adolescents with borderline personality features may still face challenges in developing a strong sense of self-efficacy, even in supportive environments.
... Positive affirmations involve the practice of repeating positive statements or affirmations about oneself in order to promote self-esteem, self-confidence, and optimism [34]. For example, saying "I am worthy of love and belonging" or "I believe in my abilities and strengths" can help challenge negative self-talk and reinforce positive beliefs about oneself. ...
... For example, saying "I am worthy of love and belonging" or "I believe in my abilities and strengths" can help challenge negative self-talk and reinforce positive beliefs about oneself. Research has shown that self-compassion and positive affirmations are associated with various benefits for mental health, including reduced levels of anxiety, depression, and stress, as well as increased levels of well-being and resilience [34,35]. However, more research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms underlying these techniques and to identify factors that may influence their effectiveness. ...
Emotions are fundamental to human experience, influencing perceptions, decisions, and interactions. This chapter explores the nature of emotions, including their physical, mental, and behavioral components, and their impact on thought, behavior, and social interaction. Emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and surprise each have distinct physiological and psychological responses. Emotion regulation, the ability to manage emotional experiences, is crucial for mental health and interpersonal relationships. Various theories, including James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer, offer insights into the origins and processes of emotions. Effective emotion regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, and behavioral strategies, are essential for managing emotional responses. This chapter discusses cognitive techniques such as cognitive reappraisal, restructuring, thought challenging, and reality testing, which help individuals modify emotional responses to meet situational demands. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) uses these techniques to treat mental health disorders, promoting healthier behaviors and reducing symptoms. Additional strategies, including metacognitive approaches, rumination, self-compassion, and cognitive fusion and defusion, are explored for their roles in emotional resilience and well-being. Cognitive bias modification (CBM) and acceptance-based strategies, rooted in mindfulness, also aid in regulating emotions, reducing anxiety and depression. Applying these techniques can significantly enhance emotional health and therapeutic outcomes.
... 142-143). Moreover, research suggests that positive self-talk (Wood et al., 2009) only slightly increases good mood among those with good self-esteem while negatively affecting those with low self-esteem. As mixed results exist, positive motivational and instructional self-talk generally has encouraging effects on performance and mental health. ...
... This challenges previous research showing self-talk as a valuable psychological skill for coping with stressors in the military (e.g., Meyer, 2018), and defeating anxiety (Hanton & Jones, 1999) in sport. Nevertheless, there is empirical evidence showing that positive self-talk can worsen mood (Wood et al., 2009), which is reminiscent of the findings of exacerbated emotional stress symptoms in the present study. A possible explanation for self-talk's negative moderating effect is that too much of an instructive and motivating inner dialogue under demanding leadership challenges leads to unhealthy "overthinking and cognitive overload" (Van Raalte et al., 2017, pp. ...
Research shows that high-level military and sport leaders share a high-stress and high-stakes leader role due to similar experiences of demanding conditions mainly manifested in psychological burden. This raises research questions about leaders' psychological strategies to maintain their mental health and performance under demanding conditions. Thus, the current study investigated how experienced demanding conditions were related to self-rated leader performance level and mental health indicators among high-level military and sport leaders and whether the application of psychological skills by these leaders moderated these relationships. A composite questionnaire was used to collect data longitudinally, once a week for four consecutive weeks. Fifty-two Swedish high-ranking military officers and executives in elite team sport organizations completed the questionnaire. Multilevel analysis revealed no effect of demanding conditions on leader performance, but they harmed leader vitality and were associated with higher stress symptoms. Moreover, psychological skills did not moderate the relationship between demanding conditions and leader performance. However, motivational and instructional self-talk negatively moderated the relationship between demanding conditions and vitality. In contrast, emotional regulation, comprised of mindfulness and cognitive reappraisal, positively moderated vitality. Emphasizing the nuanced application of psychological skills is crucial while avoiding one-sided beliefs about their positive effects. Interventions are suggested to focus on vitality and related psychological skills to ensure leaders feel good while performing under demanding conditions. More cross-contextual leadership research, suggestively applied research, is needed to better understand the links between high-level military and sport leaders' psychological skills, leader performance, and mental health under demanding conditions.
... Research has shown that those who hold predominantly negative self-views actively seek out negative feedback from others and often prefer friends and romantic partners who evaluate them negatively [14]. Moreover, a study showed that when people with negative self-views make positive self-statements, it can adversely affect their mood and self-esteem [15]. Additionally, studies have found that when individuals are not being confirmed in their self-view, they can feel less trusting towards others and may be more likely to divorce from their partners [16,17]. ...
... It is possible that clinicians may be more inclined to support people with negative self-views by providing overly positive feedback or by getting patients to make positive selfstatements. However, this study and other studies show that when positive feedback is not in line with the self-view, it may inadvertently lower mood and self-esteem [15]. Moreover, this study suggests that incongruent positive feedback could adversely affect the therapeutic alliance. ...
Introduction
A disturbed, negative sense of self is associated with various interpersonal difficulties and is characteristic of disorders such as borderline personality disorder (BPD). Negative self-views may affect an individuals’ ability to build positive relationships, including a therapeutic relationship. However, it is not yet well understood how identity disturbances give rise to interpersonal difficulties. Using an experimental analogue design, we tested whether identity disturbances are associated with interpersonal difficulties.
Methods
Participants were university students (N = 43, age M = 20.51 (SD = 3.08), women N = 32 (74.4%)) who reported moderate to high levels of BPD features, with 34.9% reporting significant BPD features as measured by the Borderline scale of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI-BOR). In a within-subject experimental paradigm using a Social Feedback Task, participants received negative, intermediate, and positive evaluations, supposedly from a panel. Using multilevel models, we tested whether negative self-views were associated with how much the participants liked, trusted, and felt close to each of the three panel members who provided either predominantly negative, intermediate, or positive feedback.
Results
People with more negative self-views reported lower mood in response to positive feedback. In addition, where people with more positive self-views felt better when receiving feedback that was congruent with their self-views, people with more negative self-views did not report a better mood. Importantly, people with negative self-views felt lower desire to affiliate with the member who provided predominantly positive feedback. Affiliation was not affected when feedback was given by the negative member and intermediate member to those with negative self-views.
Conclusions
The findings validated that those with more negative self-views anticipated and expected more negative responses from others. Negative self-views, as relevant for BPD, may explain how people relate differently to those giving different types of feedback. Pervasive negative self-views may interfere with building new relationships including the therapeutic alliance. It may be helpful for clinicians to be aware of the potential challenges around creating a supportive therapeutic relationship for patients with negative self-views. Overly positive affirmations made by clinicians may inadvertently lower the patient’s mood and may impede alliance formation.
... In certain instances, individuals who focus on positivity during difficult times may subsequently experience feelings of worsened well-being, diminished self-worth, and self-blame. For instance, in a study conducted by Wood, Perunovic & Lee (2009), the repetitive affirmation of self-positive statements may prove ineffective and even detrimental, especially for those with low self-esteem (Chan & Mak, 2017;Petrocchi, et al., 2017;Hollenbaugh et al., 2020;Mills, 2021). ...
... This phenomenon is closely tied to the culture of positivity, which promotes the belief that maintaining a positive outlook is the universal solution to problems. In reality, insisting on staying positive in challenging situations is not a one-size-fits-all approach and can have unintended consequences (Wood, Perunovic & Lee, 2009;Vongxay et al., 2020;Ren & Shen, 2022). ...
This research is the first research derived from applied science in the field of public health to explore gender differences in levels of toxic positivity in adolescents. Toxic positivity is defined as the overgeneralization and ineffectiveness of happy and optimistic states in all situations resulting in the denial, minimization, and invalidation of authentic human emotional experiences. The research sample consisted of male and female teenagers aged 18-24. Data was collected through a questionnaire that measures the level of toxic positivity based on responses related to positivity and behavior that can ignore or override negative emotions. The results show that there is a significant difference between male and female adolescents in the level of toxic positivity. Adolescent girls tend to show lower levels of toxic positivity than adolescent boys. These findings indicate that adolescent girls are more likely to acknowledge and manage their negative emotions more openly than adolescent boys. This study provides important insights into gender differences in the context of toxic positivity in adolescents. The results can be used to develop more targeted interventions and approaches to help adolescents manage their emotions healthily and constructively. The novelty of this research is that it introduces a new measure of toxic positivity that can capture the subtle and complex ways in which people cope with their emotions. This study also contributes to the literature on gender and emotion regulation by highlighting differences in patterns and consequences of toxic positivity among male and female adolescents.
... So far, evidence on the efficacy of self-directed kindness statements in promoting self-esteem and alleviating depression is sparse and contradictory [8,10]. Importantly, these studies have relied on retrospective assessments, wherein participants were required to recall the daily frequency of using self-statements [10]. ...
... So far, evidence on the efficacy of self-directed kindness statements in promoting self-esteem and alleviating depression is sparse and contradictory [8,10]. Importantly, these studies have relied on retrospective assessments, wherein participants were required to recall the daily frequency of using self-statements [10]. This recall approach may, however, introduce biases, as participants might remember only those self-statements that had yielded positive results, or only those that had been most recently employed. ...
Previous research has suggested a favorable impact of self-kindness on subjective well-being. The present experiment investigated the effects of an app-assisted self-kindness intervention for increasing self-esteem and self-face gaze, and for decreasing depression. We explored self-face processing via a time-course analysis of eye-tracking data. Eighty participants (56 female, 24 male; mean age: 23.2 years) were randomly allocated to one of two intervention groups, each receiving daily instructions to enhance either self-kindness or relaxation (active control). Following a one-week intervention period, both groups reported improved self-esteem (p = .035, ηpart2 = .068) and reduced depression (p < .001, ηpart2 = .17). The duration of self-face gaze increased in both groups (p < .001, ηpart2 = .21). Self-face processing was characterized by an early automatic attention bias toward the self-face, with a subsequent reduction in self-face bias, followed in turn by an attentional self-face reapproach, and then a stable self-face bias. We thus identified a complex temporal pattern of self-face inspection, which was not specifically altered by the intervention. This research sheds light on the potential for app-assisted interventions to positively impact psychological well-being, while also highlighting the complexity of self-face processing dynamics in this context. In the future, we propose the inclusion of personalized self-kindness statements, which may amplify the benefits of these interventions.
... In some cases, people who have focused on positive things when experiencing problems later feel worse, worthless, and blame themselves (Chan & Mak, 2017;Petrocchi et al., 2017;Sudiansyah et al., 2023). For example, as in a study conducted by previous study the repetition of self-positive statements can be ineffective and make things worse, especially for those with low self-esteem (Wood et al., 2009). ...
... This cannot be separated from the culture of positivity, which teaches that focusing on and always being positive is the solution to problems. The reality is that staying positive in unpleasant circumstances is not the right solution for everyone, it can backfire later (Ahmadi, 2017;Wood et al., 2009). ...
Toxic Positivity is known as the concept of over-promotion of happiness. This concept believes that staying positive by ignoring negative emotions is the right solution in dealing with problems. This misconception about the concept of staying positive is certainly not by the fact that negative emotions are unavoidable in human life. The aims of this study is to analyze more deeply the meaning of the concept of toxic positivity, in terms of what those who experience toxic positivity think and feel, especially in the context of relationships. This qualitative research with a phenomenological approach focuses on the experiences of individuals with toxic positivity in their social relationship life, starting from what responses, feelings, and impacts arise when getting toxic positivity. Data collection in this study was conducted through interviews. The data obtained were then processed and categorized into the following themes. The findings show that toxic positivity is perceived as an inappropriate motivational response. The toxic positivity response elicits feelings of not being understood, anger, and disappointment, with negative impacts not only physically but also psychologically. The perpetrators are considered to come from individuals who have never experienced similar problems before and lack empathy. In addition, toxic positivity was also found in verbal abuse.
... An indication that these episodes of self-talk are a form of narrative self-enactment comes from empirical research showing that in order to be effective, self-talk needs to be truly reflective of the person's self-image. For instance, a series of experiments measured the effect of positive self-statement (e.g., "I am a lovable person") in a group of people scoring high in self-esteem measure and in a group of people scoring low (Wood et al. 2009). What emerged is that people with high self-esteem felt better after rehearsing positive self-statements, while the contrary was true for the other group: people with low self-esteem not only did not benefit from positive self-statement, but they reported feeling worse as a result. ...
... Indeed, one suggested underlying mechanism is that by rehearsing positive selfstatements when the content does not match one's own perceived identity, the difference between the implicit self-image and what is told becomes salient (Wood et al. 2009). This means that, for example, telling yourself "I am a wonderful person", when you know this is not the case, makes the difference between what is told and what is the believed target of attentional resources. ...
Psychologists and philosophers agree that personal narratives are a central component of one’s identity. The concept of narrative self has been proposed to capture this aspect of selfhood. In recent times, it has been a matter of debate how the narrative self relates to the embodied and experiential dimension of the self. In this debate, the role attributed to inner speech is that of constructing and maintaining personal narratives. Indeed, evidence suggests that inner speech episodes are involved in self-reflection and autobiographical reasoning. That is, previous works have focused mostly, if not solely, on the role of inner speech for narrative self-understanding. However, inner speech is also involved in enacting personal narratives. In such cases, the content of the inner speech episodes is not in the service of the construction of narratives, rather it implies the identification with the character of the personal narratives. I introduce two instances of the use of inner speech for narrative self-enactment: positive self-talk and stereotype threat. I conclude by considering the implications of the examples introduced for the debate regarding the relation between the narrative and the embodied dimensions of selfhood.
... Pada beberapa kasus, orang-orang yang setelah berfokus pada hal-hal positif saat mengalami masalah kemudian justru merasa lebih buruk, tidak berharga dan menyalahkan dirinya sendiri. Misalnya seperti pada penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Wood, Perunovic & Lee (2009), pengulangan kalimat positif terhadap diri sendiri (self-positive statement) yang dilakukan justru tidak efektif dan memperburuk keadaan, khususnya bagi mereka yang memliki self-esteem rendah. ...
... Hal ini tidak bisa lepas dari kultur positif, yang mengajarkan bahwa berfokus dan selalu positif sebagai solusi terhadap permasalahan. Kenyataanya tetap positif dalam keadaan yang tidak menyenangkan memang bukan solusi yang tepat bagi semua orang, justru dapat menjadi bumerang di kemudian waktu (Wood, Perunovic & Lee, 2009). ...
Toxic Positivity dikenal sebagai konsep promosi berlebihan terhadap kebahagiaan. Konsep ini percaya bahwa tetap positif dengan mengabaikan emosi negatif adalah solusi yang tepat dalam menghadapi masalah. Miskonsepsi mengenai konsep untuk tetap positif ini tentulah tidak sesuai dengan fakta bahwa emosi negatif sejatinya tidak bisa dihindarkan dari kehidupan manusia. Penelitian kualitatif dengan pendekatan fenomenologi ini berfokus pada pengalaman subyektif atau psikologis dua korban toxic positivity dalam kehidupan relasi sosial mereka, dimulai dari apa tanggapan, perasaan dan dampak yang muncul ketika mendapatkan toxic positivity. Hasil temuan menunjukkan bahwa toxic positivity dianggap sebagai respon motivasi yang tidak sesuai. Pemberian respon toxic positivity memunculkan perasaan tidak dipahami, marah dan kecewa, dampak negatif bukan hanya fisik namun juga pada psikologis korban. Pelakunya dianggap datang dari individu yang tidak pernah mengalami permasalahan yang sama sebelumnya dan minim empati. Selain itu, kalimat toxic positivity ditemukan pula pada verbal abuse.
... Cela peut s'expliquer par le fait que la manière dont les participants traitent les stimuli qui leur sont donnés est trop superficielle pour modifier la perception qu'ils ont d'eux-mêmes sans le soutien d'autres techniques de TCC. De plus, malgré une applicabilité clinique apparemment large, des études empiriques ont montré que ces interventions pouvaient diminuer l'estime de soi chez les personnes ayant une faible estime de soi initiale(Wood et al., 2009). Une explication de l'impact limité et parfois négatif des interventions par auto-déclarations positives est que les auto-déclarations positives, qui simulent des connaissances sur soi très globales ou génériques (ex : « j'ai accompli pleins de choses dans ma vie et je suis fier de moi », ...
... Nous avons cependant vu dans notre méta-analyse que ces interventions manquent d'efficacité pour l'augmentation de l'estime de soi. Une de nos hypothèses pour expliquer ce manque d'efficacité était que les interventions par auto-déclarations positives utilisent généralement des perceptions de soi très génériques(Cristea et al., 2014;Wood et al., 2009). Dans une procédure plus personnalisée,Philpot et Bamburg (1996) adaptent les items d'une échelle de pensées automatiques pour élaborer les auto-déclarations positives utilisées par les participants. ...
Self-esteem is recognized as an essential psychological resource. Low self-esteem is a trans-diagnostic symptom of many psychological disorders. Considering its association with coping skills and psychological adjustment strategies, the preservation of self-esteem appears to be an important clinical issue in oncology care as it would allow patients to better cope with the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. This thesis, through a meta-analysis of the interventions proposed to increase self-esteem in adults, has highlighted some of their characteristics that limit their efficacy and clinical applicability. Then, seven randomized controlled studies were conducted and allowed the development of a new short and self-administered technique for self-esteem increase, easily applicable to cancer patients. The lexical association technique aims at improving self-esteem by reinforcing the associative links between the Self and positive concepts stored in memory, through the activation of semantic and episodic forms of self-knowledge. This reinforcement is based on a reading and mental visualization exercise.
In this thesis, the efficacy of the lexical association technique on global self-esteem was highlighted in students and breast cancer patients. Various studies aiming to simplifying and increasing the clinical applicability of the technique have demonstrated the need for retrieval of detailed memory traces, as well as the importance of contact with the experimenter in the efficacy of our technique. These results enabled us to develop and test a second format of the lexical association technique on global self-esteem, optimizing the activation of episodic self-perceptions, and proposing personalized and engaging exercises. Self-perceptions, on which self-esteem is based, are rooted in the individual's memory system. This thesis has contributed to highlighting that their reinforcement requires a combined activation of the different forms of self-knowledge that constitute them. However, the clinical applications of the lexical association technique as a transdiagnostic intervention have yet to be defined.
... Our personalized value item list and self-improvisation allow users to customize the content themselves, leading to a better consistency between their beliefs and behavior. Moreover, to further reduce the likelihood of the intervention backfring (and resulting in negative experience, increased app usage frequency or duration), we intentionally frame these sentences in a neutral tone [81], and unbind the value sentence and the action sentence [73]. Specifcally, we avoid using verbs that may cause pressure or cognition distortion (e.g., "should", "need" statements) [59,71]. ...
... Although this group is the major target users of TypeOut, in future work, we will include a wider range of users to evaluate our technique more comprehensively. Additionally, researchers and practitioners have found that sometimes self-afrmation exercises can backfre when people fail to control their behavior, especially for those with low self-esteem: This can lead to disappointment and self-blame, and sometimes cause people give up on their self-regulation, strengthening their original behavior (phone overuse, in our case) [73,81]. We designed our intervention content with this in mind to leverage personalized value lists, a neutral tone, and a break between the value and action sentences. ...
... The use of a negative comparison group raises the issue that a positive outcome of the technique may come from a significant drop in self-esteem in this negative comparison group. Moreover, despite apparent broad clinical applicability, empirical studies have shown that positive self-statement interventions could decrease self-esteem in people with low baseline self-esteem (Wood et al., 2009). One explanation of the negative impact of positive self-statement interventions on people with low self-esteem is that positive self-statements, which simulate generic self-perceptions (e.g., "I am intelligent"), can have only superficial effects on self-esteem with the repetition of a sentence-reading exercise alone because subordinate episodic self-perceptions are not changed accordingly. ...
... Mobilizing only the semantic aspects of self-perception through the repetition of a sentence-reading exercise could also have positive effects on self-esteem, as had been shown in the literature on the efficacy of positive self-statement interventions (Cristea et al., 2014;Philpot & Bamburg, 1996). However, positive self-statement interventions can have deleterious effects on people with low self-esteem (Wood et al., 2009). The mental visualization exercise using episodic self-perceptions helps to avoid this negative effect by encouraging the appropriation of the generic sentences presented. ...
Introduction: Self-esteem is central to human well-being, quality of life, and mental health. Therefore, it is important to propose preventive and therapeutic techniques to deal with decline in self-esteem. Different interventions have been proposed and their efficacies have been validated. However, they present certain constraints such as a cognitive and/or emotional cost, which limit some clinical applications. Method: Based on contributions from cognitive, social, and clinical psychology, we propose to test the efficacy of a new technique for self-esteem enhancement using brief lexical associations and mental visualization (six sessions of five minutes) for a stimulation of episodic and semantic self-perceptions. Results: Comparing the Lexical Association Technique to a control technique and using a double-blind pre-post design, two studies show the efficacy of this new technique on global self-esteem in two samples of students (n Study1 = 36; n Study2 = 89), as well as a sustained effect up to 5 days after the technique is stopped. Discussion: The mechanisms underlying the efficacy of this technique are discussed. Further studies are needed to precise the clinical applicability of the Lexical Association Technique on patients.
... The most common style, positive coping self-statements or self-instructions, involves the use of self-statements to direct or self-regulate behavior or solve problems. Although they are widely believed to boost mood and self-esteem, their effectiveness is discussed heterogeneously [44]. Our data indicate that positive self-statements are moderately associated with a better physical functioning, better role functioning/emotional, and better energy according to the SF-36. ...
... Should this observation be confirmed in larger studies, however, this would be dramatic because experiencing pain, as was previously shown, is more common with age and in higher disease stages [45][46][47]. Conversely, several studies showed that older patients, more often than young adults and middle adulthood, declared that they cope with pain in a more active manner [44,48]. Thus, for future studies, at this point elucidating whether behavioral strategies are actually used less frequently by older patients would be interesting, and if so, where do the obstacles lie. ...
Objective
To develop multidimensional approaches for pain management, this study aimed to understand how PD patients cope with pain.
Design
Cross-sectional, cohort study.
Setting
Monocentric, inpatient, university hospital.
Participants
52 patients with Parkinson’s disease (without dementia) analysed.
Primary and secondary outcome measures
Motor function, nonmotor symptoms, health-related quality of life (QoL), and the Coping Strategies Questionnaire were assessed. Elastic net regularization and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were used to study the association among coping, clinical parameters, and QoL.
Results
Most patients cope with pain through active cognitive (coping self-statements) and active behavioral strategies (increasing pain behaviors and increasing activity level). Active coping was associated with lower pain rating. Regarding QoL domains, active coping was associated with better physical functioning and better energy, whereas passive coping was associated with poorer emotional well-being. However, as demonstrated by MANOVA, the impact of coping factors (active and passive) on the Short Form 36 domains was negligible after correction for age, motor function, and depression.
Conclusion
Passive coping strategies are the most likely coping response of those with depressive symptoms, whereas active coping strategies are the most likely coping response to influence physical function. Although coping is associated with pain rating, the extent that pain coping responses can impact on QoL seems to be low.
... As we briefly noted in this review, some past dissonance research has used implicit measures of emotional responses (e.g., Carlsmith & Aronson, 1963;Levy et al., 2018;Wood et al., 2009). This research had participants evaluate other objects or activities to disguise the measurement of emotions. ...
This narrative review considers whether situations that evoke cognitive dissonance elicit discrete emotions. Festinger’s (1957) original theory of cognitive dissonance posited that dissonance was experienced as psychological discomfort. However, most research on dissonance theory did not measure participants’ emotional experience. More recent research has revealed that cognitive dissonance does produce discomfort and tension, leading some researchers to posit that these are the only emotional states evoked by dissonance. We broadly consider research related to cognitive dissonance and find evidence that specific situations that evoke cognitive dissonance (cognitive discrepancies) are associated with discrete negative emotions, which may include anxiety, sadness, guilt, regret, and anger. The reviewed research also suggests that dissonance processes may also involve surprise, humor, and relief. Throughout the article, we consider the implications of the reviewed research for cognitive dissonance theory and its research.
... For example, a manifester who fails at something may say they are "not yet in complete vibrational alignment" with their goal, or that "God's delays are not God's denials". While reframing can be an effective emotion-focused coping strategy (Wood et al., 2009), it has the potential to become harmful if it leads to denial or false hope (Aspinwall & Tedeschi, 2010;Gunn & Cloud, 2010). ...
A growing number of people are striving for and expecting to achieve high levels of success in their life, a trend that has facilitated a market for success education and guidance. However, there is a risk that an industry of ‘experts’ and ‘gurus’ selling secrets to success contribute to the formation and reinforcement of unrealistic, unproven beliefs about success. This could be leading to poorer decisions and decreased wellbeing, which highlights the need to better understand the psychology of the success industry.
This thesis examines a magical belief system often promoted by those in the success industry known as manifestation: the belief that success in life can be cosmically attracted through positive self-talk, visualization, and symbolic acts (e.g., acting as one’s desired self). It also explores the impact of this belief system on financial judgments and behaviour. More specifically, it examines manifestation belief and its association with multi-level marketing (MLM), a risky business opportunity which is well-known for promoting hope and faith as tools for success.
Chapter 1 presents a general introduction to the thesis, discussing belief in manifesting success, how manifestation is marketed by those in the success industry, and why MLM may be particularly attractive to people who believe in manifestation. Chapter 2 presents one two-wave correlational study (N = 1503) exploring which psychological factors are most associated with attraction to an MLM business opportunity, which factors distinguish those who have participated from those who have not, and which factors are associated with persisting longer in MLM. The results suggest that individuals who are attracted to MLM tend to have extrinsic goals related to money, status, and appearance, as well as beliefs related to spiritual guidance and thought-action fusion (i.e., the belief that their thoughts create physical reality). Additionally, they tend to employ intuitive decision-making over rational thinking. Implications of these motivations and belief systems for consumer education and regulatory interventions are discussed.
Drawing from the findings in Chapter 2, it was hypothesised that the manifestation belief system may provide a basis for understanding the links between these psychological factors and MLM. Chapter 3 reports three studies (combined N = 1023) which develop and validate the “Manifestation Scale”. The 11-item scale was found to be reliable and valid, resulting in two dimensions measuring “personal power” (i.e., the power to manifest success through positive thoughts, emotions, and symbolic acts) and “cosmic collaboration” (i.e., partnering with supernatural, cosmic, or universal forces to manifest success). Over one-third of participants rated above the midpoint of the scale, suggesting mainstream belief in manifestation. Those who score higher on the scale perceive themselves as more successful and anticipate greater future success. However, they also tend to be drawn to risky investments, believe in getting rich quickly, and are more likely to have been bankrupt. This suggests believing in manifestation is associated with overconfidence in business and financial decision making. The chapter concludes by discussing these implications in the context of the success industry which potentially reinforces and exploits this mindset.
Because the findings from Chapter 3 emphasise that manifestation belief is associated with overconfidence in financial decision making, Chapter 4 reports an experiment (N = 286) investigating whether manifestation belief is associated with overoptimistic evaluations of MLM opportunities, and whether an income disclosure statement attenuates that overoptimism. The results suggest individuals with manifestation beliefs tend to perceive MLM as more attractive, more credible, and more lucrative. This relationship is mediated through their tendency to engage in risky financial behaviours and belief in getting rich quickly, echoing the findings from Chapter 3. Encouragingly, income disclosure statements help create more realistic evaluations of MLM opportunities for all. Therefore, the standardisation and compulsory inclusion of these statements in MLM recruitment may improve ethical marketing practices and consumer judgement.
Chapter 5 summarises the empirical findings of the previous chapters and discusses their practical implications for consumer education and protection, contributing to the critical conversation about MLM and the success industry. The ability to measure and explore the manifestation belief system offers important insights into the potential causes of overoptimism in business and financial decision making. The thesis also provides guidance to consider such prior beliefs when designing future consumer education campaigns, therefore empowering individuals to make informed judgments that align with their best interests. Given the growing desire for success, particularly in the face of a precarious work outlook, the thesis emphasizes the need to improve marketing practices in the success industry and empower individuals to make sound and informed judgments about their future.
... Близким к приему аудиозаписи обращения к себе являются аффирмации (Cohen & Sherman, 2014;Sherman & Hartson, 2011;Wood, Perunovic, & Lee, 2009). Исследования в этой области описывают эффективность и ограничения метода аффирмаций на практике. ...
The article is devoted to the study of the psychotechnical potential of ego-directed speech, that is, addressing oneself as another person. The idea is based on the cultural-historical theory of L. S. Vygotsky about the stages of a child’s mastery of cultural means of influence in social interaction. It is proposed to develop this idea — one more stage, influencing oneself from the position of someone else, which allows one to theoretically substantiate the presence of a transformative/psychotechnical effect. The authors designed and tested a procedure for self-referral in the form of an audio recording: goal setting, sound recording of self-referral, repeated listening to the recording. The results showed that during goal setting, criticality to expected changes decreases, the first listenings cause voice confrontation (the vector of the psychologist’s work with the client is to emphasize the task of accepting one’s voice and oneself), and continuous repetition of the appeal to oneself actually makes positive changes in the self-attitude of the study participants. The proposed technique has the effect of flexible adjustment depending on the presence or absence of voice confrontation in a person. For people with vocal confrontation, repeated listening to the message will be more effective in increasing self-acceptance and reducing internal contradictions. People without voice confrontation will be able to make neutral attitudes more positive and soften negative attitudes.
... This understanding aligns with broader concerns about individualization and risk in knowledge societies (Bauman, 2000;Beck, 1992;Furlong & Cartmel, 1997). Furthermore, studies within this framework have shown that promoting selfesteem through positive self-statements can have a negative effect because a focus on positive inner motivation implies rising ambitions and making comparisons with others, which can lead to some individuals feeling worse (Madsen, 2020;Wood et al., 2009). ...
This article investigates the process of re-enrolling young people who have dropped out of school. Drawing on an analytical framework that integrates perspectives on resilience and belonging, the study explores the potential of at-risk youth to overcome challenges and complete their upper secondary education. A crucial aspect of facilitating their reintegration is establishing a sense of belonging. The data comprise in-depth interviews and observations involving 41 young participants in a flexible learning arena over a period of three years. The analytical design is based on a thematic analysis, where questions mainly initiated the narratives from the participants themselves. The findings show that dropouts can be reintegrated into a flexible learning arena within the school system. Furthermore, this re-enrolment initiative acts as a catalyst, reigniting participants’ sense of mastery. However, the pivotal factor lies in creating an environment that fosters a renewed sense of belonging to peers and the school.
... A happy mood increases self-esteem, self-respect, and participation in various activities effectively whether as an observer or participant (Baumeister et al., 2003). On the contrary, people who feel sad or are not in a very positive mood don't prefer to participate in various activities (Wood et al., 2009). Therefore, the most suitable time for training is once a player is positive because the thinking and behaving are according to the mood (Hanin, n.d.). ...
The purpose of this study was to identify the prevailing mood patterns amongst handball players in Jordan. Therefore, this descriptive study was conducted on a sample consisting of (76) male handball players participating in the 2022/2023 Jordanian Handball League championship. The list of mood patterns for athletes was used as a data collection tool along with the following three statistical methods: Arithmetic mean, Standard deviations, and Two-Way ANOVA. The study results showed that the personal flexibility pattern emerged in first place with a high level and an arithmetic average of (2.3728). The cease operations pattern emerged second with a high level and an arithmetic average of (2.2556). The excitement operations pattern emerged third with a high level and an arithmetic average of (2.2257). Results relatively exhibited that there were no statistically significant differences in the level of mood patterns according to the variable of experience and player position amongst handball players. The researchers suggested a number of recommendations including, raising the awareness of handball players on psychological importance; in addition to mood preparation prior to the competitions. It is advised that players take courses and educational workshops that can be offered to athletes to enhance their psychological and physical performance Especially courses in regard to the excitement operations pattern, which obtained the lowest order among the three mood patterns.
... As shown, self-affirmation can polarise judgements when it follows thinking, thereby magnifying the impact of whatever dominant thought is accessible at the time (e.g., Vohs et al., 2013). For example, Wood et al. (2009) revealed that having participants express selfaffirmations (e.g., "yes, I can," "I am stronger everyday") led to benefits for those with positive thoughts (individuals high in self-esteem), but to negative outcomes for those with negative thoughts (for those with low self-esteem; Brummelman et al., 2014). Thus, affirmations can increase or decrease evaluations depending on thought direction, with paradoxical consequences when validating variables apply to negative thoughts. ...
... A happy mood increases self-esteem, self-respect, and participation in various activities effectively whether as an observer or participant (Baumeister et al., 2003). On the contrary, people who feel sad or are not in a very positive mood don't prefer to participate in various activities (Wood et al., 2009). Therefore, the most suitable time for training is once a player is positive because the thinking and behaving are according to the mood (Hanin, n.d.). ...
The purpose of this study was to identify the prevailing mood patterns amongst handball players in Jordan. Therefore, this descriptive study was conducted on a sample consisting of (76) male handball players participating in the 2022/2023 Jordanian Handball League championship. The list of mood patterns for athletes was used as a data collection tool along with the following three statistical methods: Arithmetic mean, Standard deviations, and Two-Way ANOVA. The study results showed that the personal flexibility pattern emerged in first place with a high level and an arithmetic average of (2.3728). The cease operations pattern emerged second with a high level and an arithmetic average of (2.2556). The excitement operations pattern emerged third with a high level and an arithmetic average of (2.2257). Results relatively exhibited that there were no statistically significant differences in the level of mood patterns according to the variable of experience and player position amongst handball players. The researchers suggested a number of recommendations including, raising the awareness of handball players on psychological importance; in addition to mood preparation prior to the competitions. It is advised that players take courses and educational workshops that can be offered to athletes to enhance their psychological and physical performance Especially courses in regard to the excitement operations pattern, which obtained the lowest order among the three mood patterns.
... For example, some use positive self-talk (e.g., "I can do this") when attempting to override the negative appraisals associated with anxiety (Neck & Manz, 1992). However, asserting positive statements and suppressing existing thoughts is cognitively depleting and may also trigger psychological reactance that, ironically, exaggerates the suppressed thoughts (e.g., Wegner et al., 1987;Wood et al., 2009). Other approaches involve relabeling the experience, essentially attempting to override an aversive emotion with a more favorable one (e.g., Brooks, 2014). ...
We investigate a strategy entrepreneurs can use to manage their emotions prior to pitching: linking anxiety to passion. We theorize that internally acknowledging anxiety and interpreting it as a reflection of one’s passion for the venture can make passionate feelings salient, facilitate expressions of passion during pitches, and increase judges’ evaluations of pitch performance. A field study and a randomized experiment support the theory, offering insights for how entrepreneurs can mentally reframe their seemingly detrimental emotional experiences for beneficial outcomes. More broadly, this work demonstrates the utility of fostering beneficial emotions rather than just alleviating negative ones
... Modeling can also be a powerful tool in fostering hope with clients. For example, by modeling the use of positive affirmations, career counselors can help clients build a more positive self-image and increase a sense of hope (Wood et al., 2009). Gratitude has been linked to emotional and psychological wellbeing (Emmons & McCullough, 2003). ...
The impact of trauma on career development is well-documented and includes effects on career decision, stability, and unemployment. However, literature on trauma-informed interventions in the career counseling setting is scarce and a universal model for providing career counseling with a trauma-informed lens does not currently exist. Therefore, the authors discuss existing literature on trauma-informed care and application for career counseling. An integrated framework for trauma-informed career counseling, the HEART model, is proposed and includes five components: (a) instilling hope, (b) establishing safety, (c) recognizing and responding to chronic stress, (d) building resilience, and (e) the importance of engaging in ongoing training. Practical application recommendations are offered for licensed counselors to utilize the HEART model in the career counseling setting with clients who have experienced trauma. Additional recommendations are discussed for counselor education training programs, professional counseling organizations, and future research efforts to further integrate evidence-based trauma-informed practices in career counseling.
... On the other hand, another study examining a traditional values-based selfaffirmation, where adolescents chose to affirm a value from a prescribed list of values, found no effects on state self-esteem (Thomaes et al., 2009). Similarly, a series of studies examining the effects of positive self-statements (i.e., affirmations) on young adults' state self-esteem produced null effects (Flynn & Bordieri, 2020;Wood et al., 2009). The inconsistency of such interventions' effects may be attributable to methodological and developmental factors; it has been suggested, for example, that self-affirmation is most effective when it is appropriately timed (e.g., at key developmental transitions; Borman et al., 2018;Yeager & Walton, 2011) and contextually sensitive (e.g., considering students' personal experiences; Sherman et al., 2013). ...
Given the importance of self-esteem for promoting adolescents’ social, psychological, and academic adjustment and the growing importance of social identities during adolescence, this five-wave study examined whether an identity-based self-affirmation intervention attenuated declines in adolescent self-esteem following the high school transition. A sample of ninth graders in the United States (N = 388; Mage = 14.05; 60.6% female; 35.8% male; 3.6% nonbinary, trans, or identifying with another gender; 46% White, 19% Black, 17% Asian, 6% Arab, Middle Eastern, North African, 6% Biracial/Multiethnic, 3% Latinx/Hispanic, and 3% another race/ethnicity) was recruited for the study. Following completion of a baseline online survey assessing self-esteem, participants were assigned to one of three conditions and corresponding writing exercises: identity-based self-affirmation, values-based self-affirmation, or control. Participants completed the same writing exercise during the first three waves of the study, and they completed measures of self-esteem at all five waves. Results indicated that participants in the self-affirmation conditions, but not the control condition, were protected from declining self-esteem across 1 year.
... According to Ford & Troy's model, these additional feelings can compound to lead to negative outcomes over time such as decreased mental health. In fact, other evidence similarly suggests that positive but insincere emotional displays (Rosenberg et al., 2001), self-views (Thomaes et al., 2009), and self-statements (Wood et al., 2009) may be more harmful than accepting realistic negativity. ...
Positive reappraisal has been shown to be a generally effective emotion regulation strategy associated with multiple indices of greater psychological functioning. There are, however, some emotion-eliciting events, such as discrimination, that may not lend themselves to favorable alternative interpretations or which have relatively fewer affordances. In such instances, a reappraisal strategy could lose its effectiveness. We conducted an experimental test of this hypothesized ineffectiveness of positive reappraisal within a discriminatory context. Participants were 404 Black and Latine college students randomly assigned to imagine being the recipient of a rude or discriminatory comment and immediately afterward were asked to either ruminate about or positively reappraise the event. Overall, positive reappraisal was more effective than rumination in downregulating anxiety and anger. However, a single-df contrast test revealed that positive reappraisal in response to the rude comment was significantly more effective in reducing anxiety relative to the other three conditions (average of positive reappraisal of the discriminatory comment or rumination to either the rude or discriminatory comment). Additional analyses also showed that oppressed minority ideology (OMI) moderated the utility of anger regulation such that, for those lower on OMI, positive reappraisal was most effective in regulating anger in response to discrimination (compared to all other conditions), but among those higher on OMI, rumination and reappraisal to discrimination were equally effective. Results suggest that the effectiveness of positive reappraisal is lessened in a discrimination context and that more robust strategies may be needed to deal with the emotional fallout from this unique stressor.
... Many early research studies on self-talk compared the effects of positive and negative self-talk on sport or sport task performance ( Harvey et al., 2002;Van Raalte et al., 1995). The assumption was that positive self-talk would help performance and negative self-talk would hurt performance, however not everyone is comfortable using positive self-talk ( Wood et al., 2009). Further, the bad reputation of negative self-talk may be overstated. ...
... Western psychology and social sciences have long emphasized the value of a positive attitude toward oneself [1][2][3]. Certain forms of contemplative practices (that are defined by the attentive regulation of breathing), such as compassion-related meditations, may be related to cultivation of positive affect [4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Specifically, compassion is described by Paul Gilbert and the Buddhist monk Choden as a sensitivity to one's own and others' suffering coupled with a commitment to lessen and prevent it [4], while Kristin Neff defines self-compassion as "being open to and moved by one's own suffering, experiencing feelings of caring and kindness toward oneself, taking an understanding, non-judgmental attitude toward one's inadequacies and failures, and recognizing that one's experience is part of the common human experience" [11]. ...
Western psychology and social sciences have long emphasized the value of a positive attitude toward oneself. Previous research had developed psychometric tools assessing self-compassion, defined as being open to and moved by one's own suffering. However, self-compassion did not describe whether people actually applied such protective factors when acutely faced with threats. The Unconditional Self-Kindness Scale (USKS) was developed as a tool to measure the behavioral response of self-kindness during an acute presence of threat to the self and not just as a general attitude when threat is absent. Since it can be experienced even in the most challenging situations and may promote resilience, this kindness may be defined as unconditional. We validated the Italian version of the USKS and found that the scale retained a one-factor structure. The USKS showed sound psychometric properties and good convergent validity since it was found to show very strong correlations with the Self-Compassion Scale-Short-Form and the Reassure Self subscale of the Forms of Self-criticizing/Attacking and Self-Reassuring Scale (FSCRS). In addition, the USKS showed good discriminant validity since it was found to show a negative moderate correlation and a negative strong correlation with the HS subscale and with the IS subscale of the FSCRS, respectively. Finally, the USKS showed good test-retest reliability and its use is encouraged in clinical and research settings in which the assessment of a positive attitude toward oneself during an acute presence of threat to the self is of interest.
... In addition, district-wide affirmation interventions cut this gap by 12% in schools with higher racial identity threats (Hanselman et al., 2014). Although beneficial for students with high selfesteem, self-affirmation strategies had adverse results by reinforcing negative selfperceptions of students with low self-esteem (Wood et al., 2009). ...
Abstract
A Phenomenological Study of Young Black American Professionals Deploying Social Capital to Support Black Youth in Underserved Communities. Kathy Andrews-Williams 2022: Applied Dissertation, Nova Southeastern University, Abraham S. Fischler College of Education and School of Criminal Justice.
Keywords: phenomenology, IPA, social capital theory, Critical Race Theory, prosocial behaviors, anti-Black racism
This phenomenology explored the lived experiences of young Black professionals deploying social capital to support Black youth in underserved communities. The six participants (five female and one male), averaging 33.3 years of age, were medical, legal, and engineering professionals. They responded to online recruitment flyers, completed an eligibility survey, and met study requirements. Qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted to gather data on their lived experiences. The interviews were audio and video captured, transcribed, and coded. Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), the Researcher collected and analyzed data and applied a double hermeneutics lens to understand the young Black professionals’ meaning making of their experiences. Based on the findings, the four themes that emerged were anti-Black racism and oppression, prosocial behaviors, commitment, and care. The participants illustrated a critical consciousness of the intersectionality of race, class, and social capital from their lived experiences to act as institutional and/or empowerment agents for Black youth.
The participants decried the impact of anti-Black racism that disparaged underserved communities yet counteracted with prosocial behaviors to provide resources to Black youth. Despite enduring the socioeconomic challenges of the new millennia, the Black professionals remained steadfast to deploy their social capital in underserved communities. The Researcher discovered that they maintained prosocial behaviors during the Pandemic and social protests against police brutality via technology tools and social media to cultivate, communicate and sustain relationships with the youth. The Black professionals mentored and networked in their wake work, an attentiveness and activism to resist and interrupt racial injustices. They recommended being authentic and present to build relationships and actively listen to the youth. In addition, the professionals underscored the importance of self-care while engaging in these prosocial behaviors.
... In addition, district-wide affirmation interventions cut this gap by 12% in schools with higher racial identity threats (Hanselman et al., 2014). Although beneficial for students with high selfesteem, self-affirmation strategies had adverse results by reinforcing negative selfperceptions of students with low self-esteem (Wood et al., 2009). ...
Abstract
A Phenomenological Study of Young Black American Professionals Deploying Social Capital to Support Black Youth in Underserved Communities. Kathy Andrews-Williams 2022: Applied Dissertation, Nova Southeastern University, Abraham S. Fischler College of Education and School of Criminal Justice.
Keywords: phenomenology, IPA, social capital theory, Critical Race Theory, prosocial behaviors, anti-Black racism
This phenomenology explored the lived experiences of young Black professionals deploying social capital to support Black youth in underserved communities. The six participants (five female and one male), averaging 33.3 years of age, were medical, legal, and engineering professionals. They responded to online recruitment flyers, completed an eligibility survey, and met study requirements. Qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted to gather data on their lived experiences. The interviews were audio and video captured, transcribed, and coded. Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), the Researcher collected and analyzed data and applied a double hermeneutics lens to understand the young Black professionals’ meaning making of their experiences. Based on the findings, the four themes that emerged were anti-Black racism and oppression, prosocial behaviors, commitment, and care. The participants illustrated a critical consciousness of the intersectionality of race, class, and social capital from their lived experiences to act as institutional and/or empowerment agents for Black youth.
The participants decried the impact of anti-Black racism that disparaged underserved communities yet counteracted with prosocial behaviors to provide resources to Black youth. Despite enduring the socioeconomic challenges of the new millennia, the Black professionals remained steadfast to deploy their social capital in underserved communities. The Researcher discovered that they maintained prosocial behaviors during the Pandemic and social protests against police brutality via technology tools and social media to cultivate, communicate and sustain relationships with the youth. The Black professionals mentored and networked in their wake work, an attentiveness and activism to resist and interrupt racial injustices. They recommended being authentic and present to build relationships and actively listen to the youth. In addition, the professionals underscored the importance of self-care while engaging in these prosocial behaviors.
... Notwithstanding, given that LKM also encourages sending compassionate wishes to oneself, it is intriguing why it should activate guilt. However, studies on self-help (Wood et al., 2009;Yeung & Lun, 2016) have shown that exposure to positive self-statements may activate negative emotions. ...
Our understanding of the emotions elicited by loving-kindness meditation (LKM) at early stages of practice is limited, despite the influence that these emotions may have on later engagement. Past work suggests that LKM may elicit emotional ambivalence at early stages of the practice, but it is still unclear whether the content of LKM activates this ambivalence and who is more likely to experience it. Given the specific content of LKM, we defend that this meditation is likely to elicit empathetic emotions, both positive (compassion and gratitude) and negative (guilt), to a greater extent than an active control. Guilt is likely to be elicited by memories of incidents where naïve meditators were not able to experience compassion and/or by the difficulties in sending compassionate love to disliked others during the meditation. Furthermore, individuals with greater self-discrepancy and lower self-esteem are more likely to experience guilt. These hypotheses were tested in two experimental studies with community and student samples (n = 55 and n = 33, respectively) and This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
... Further, people having high self-esteem think commonly positive about self while disclosing information to others, whereas people having low self-esteem demonstrate a vice-versa pattern and they experience negative emotions about themselves like inferiority complex and uncertainty while disclosing information with others (Gentzler et al., 2010). Researchers like Wood et al. (2009) have also established that low self-esteem may invalidate the advantages of savouring. Both high self-esteem and savouring have inherent association with emotional stability (Gentzler et al., 2013). ...
... For them, self-immersed focus on expedience/worth/power/ status/pleasure may be what spurs BAS-mediated relief from anxious distress and defensiveness. This possibility is suggested by past research linking power, self-esteem, and fun/pleasure with approach motivation (Anderson & Berdahl, 2002;Carver & White, 1994;Heimpel, Elliot, & Wood, 2006;Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003;May, Juergensen, & Demaree, 2016;McGregor et al., 2007, Study 2), and other research indicating that people with high but not low self-esteem are able to benefit from self-worth enhancement opportunities (Dodgson & Wood, 1998;McGregor, 2006a;Wood, Perunovic, & Lee, 2009; see OSD for negative correlation between meaning search and self-esteem). Another possibility is that such people dislike and are not used to focusing on selftranscendent topics, and so being forced to do so creates a conflict that activates the BIS (and thereby mutes BAS). ...
Fidelity with self-transcendent values is hailed as a hallmark of mature and magnanimous character by classic psychological and philosophical theories. Dozens of contemporary experiments inspired by self-affirmation theory have also found that when people are under threat, focus on self-transcendent values can confer magnanimity by improving psychological buoyancy (less anxious and more courageous, determined, and effective) and decreasing belligerence (less defensive, extreme, and hostile). The present research was guided by the postulate that both aspects of magnanimity—its buoyancy and its freedom from belligerence—arise from the approach motivated states that self-transcendent foci can inspire. Experimental manipulations of self-transcendent foci (values, spirituality, compassion) heightened state approach motivation as assessed by electroencephalography (Study 1, n = 187) and self-report (Study 2, n = 490). Further, even though the heightened approach motivation was transient, it mediated a longer-lasting freedom from moral (Study 1) and religious (Study 2) belligerence. Importantly, self-transcendent-focus effects on approach motivation and belligerence occurred only among participants with high trait meaning search scores. Results support an interpretation of meaningful values and spiritual ideals as self-transcendent priorities that operate according to basic motivational mechanics of abstract-goal pursuit. The transient, approach-motivated state aroused by transcendence-focus causes longer lasting relief from preoccupation with threat, leaving people feeling buoyant and generous. Relevance of results for self-affirmation theory and the psychology of spirituality are discussed.
... However, positive self-talk, such as repeating to yourself "I am a lovable person," has been shown to work only with already high self-esteem individuals, and then to have only a small effect. Among individuals with chronically low self-esteem, positive self-talk typically backfires because the person tends not to believe it and actually feels worse after saying it (Wood, Perunovic, & Lee, 2009). Lilienfeld, Linn, Ruscio, and Beyerstein (2010) are similarly skeptical of self-talk attempts to make yourself feel happier, especially if you are feeling very depressed or anxious. ...
... Fourth, it might be particularly difficult to enhance the self-esteem of individuals with low selfesteem because they show adverse reactions to affirmations designed to improve their selfesteem (Kwang & Swann, 2010;Wood et al., 2009). Fifth, a deeper understanding of the interpersonal and intrapersonal mechanisms that account for the benefits of high self-esteem is needed to improve the design of effective interventions. ...
Debates about the benefits of self-esteem have persisted for decades, both in the scientific literature and in the popular press. Although many researchers and lay people have argued that high self-esteem helps individuals adapt to and succeed in a variety of life domains, there is widespread skepticism about this claim. The present article takes a new look at the voluminous body of research (including several meta-analyses) examining the consequences of self-esteem for several important life domains: relationships, school, work, mental health, physical health, and antisocial behavior. Overall, the findings suggest that self-esteem is beneficial in all these domains, and that these benefits hold across age, gender, and race/ethnicity, and controlling for prior levels of the predicted outcomes and potential third variable confounds. The meta-analytic estimates of self-esteem effects (which average .10 across domains) are comparable in size to estimates for other hypothesized causal factors such as self-efficacy, positive emotionality, attachment security, and growth mindset, and larger than some generally accepted pharmaceutical interventions. Discussion focuses on several issues that are critical for evaluating the findings, including the strength of the evidence for making causal inferences, the magnitude of the effects, the importance of distinguishing between self-esteem and narcissism, and the generalizability of the results. In summary, the present findings support theoretical conceptions of self-esteem as an adaptive trait that has wide-ranging influences on healthy adjustment and adaptation, and suggest that interventions aimed at boosting self-esteem might, if properly designed and implemented, benefit individuals and society as a whole.
... Generating positive self-statements may highlight the discrepancy between people's perceived deficiency and the preferred standard they would like to meet. The discrepancy between their actual and ideal selves as a result becomes more salient, which makes them feel worse [see e.g., (57)]. In line with 'person-activity fit' concept from the positive-activity model [(58, 59); see also (10)], these findings broadly mirror that certain types of activities could be good for certain types of people, but not for others. ...
This study builds on growing evidence on implementation-intention-based self-affirmation intervention effects on mental health. Using a factorial design, this pre-registered study aimed to further investigate whether (1) strengthening the element of specificity within body-related self-affirming implementation intention (BS-AII) intervention compared to general self-affirming implementation intention (S-AII) would provide greater improvements in mental health outcomes for adults with psoriasis, and (2) whether the addition of a booster component would result in enhancing effectiveness at follow-up. A total of 306 adults with psoriasis were assessed for eligibility and 222 (aged 18–71 years) were randomized and received S-AII, BS-AII, or MGI (mere goal intention—control condition). Within each group, participants were again randomized to booster (B) or no-booster condition in a 3 × 2 factorial design, resulting in six groups: S-AII; S-AII + B; BS-AII; BS-AII + B; MGI; and MGI + B. Data were collected over three-time points, at baseline, 2 weeks post-intervention, and at 1-month later. Three primary outcomes were defined as a reduction of anxiety and depressive symptoms and enhancement of well-being. In terms of secondary outcomes, positive other- and self-directed feelings and also an emotional attitude toward the body were evaluated. To fully estimate intervention effects through intention-to-treat analysis, linear mixed models were used. A significant effect of time was observed, but no evidence of time-by-group interactions and no three-way interactions were detected. Exploratory analyses revealed two significant moderating effects of age and self-esteem, pointing to boundary conditions of the interventions. These findings offer to gain deeper insights on null (or negative) effects also reported in past works and highlight that self-affirmation interventions should be more thoroughly investigated and optimized before they can be broadly implemented in real-life contexts, especially to prevent backfiring and negative-enhancing effects.
... A growing body of research has failed to show that confronting negative "maladaptive" thoughts and changing belief content is necessary to affect improvements in CBT and improve outcomes (Dimidjian et al., 2006;Longmore & Worrell, 2007;Stice et al., 2010). Some studies have also shown that adopting positive thinking patterns may lower mood and self-esteem or may prove to be effective only for some people (Haeffel, 2010;Wood et al., 2009). Similarly, past research has highlighted that attempts to change thoughts/beliefs are paradoxically associated with an increase in pain (Goubert et al., 2004;Masedo & Esteve, 2007). ...
Vulvodynia is characterised by persistent vulvar pain which can be spontaneous, arise from touch or pressure (Provoked Vestibulvodynia; PVD) or a combination of both. The lifetime prevalence of Vulvodynia ranges from 10–28%, and it is associated with significant impacts on women’s physical, social, sexual, and emotional functioning. Despite its prevalence and wide-ranging impacts, the causes of this condition are unknown, and biomedical treatments have resulted in poor and unsatisfactory improvements in pain and sexual function. This suggests the need for a wider conceptualisation and approach to treatment in this population, one that incorporates psychosocial factors. Previous research indicates that exploring psychosocial factors and applying psychological interventions may be beneficial in people with persistent pain. Relatedly, the Psychological Flexibility (PF) model and the treatment most directly linked to this -- Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) -- have growing evidence for their relevance and effectiveness in persistent pain. However, understanding of psychosocial factors in Vulvodynia is currently limited, and PF and ACT have not been applied to this population. The purpose of this thesis was to explore psychosocial factors in Vulvodynia, including PF, and to develop and test an ACT-based intervention in this population. This thesis comprises four studies: 1) a systematic review, 2) a cross-sectional network analysis study, 3) a longitudinal study, 4) a single-case experimental design intervention study.
Study 1: The systematic review investigated the relationship between psychosocial factors and pain and sexual functioning in women with Vulvodynia. Twenty-one observational/experimental studies were included and comprised only of women with PVD. Significant associations between psychosocial factors and outcomes in PVD were found. Some psychosocial factors were consistent with the general pain literature. These included depression, anxiety, self-efficacy, catastrophising, pain anxiety, and pain acceptance. However, some of the identified psychosocial factors were unique to PVD compared to more general pain literature. These included body-exposure anxiety/avoidance during intercourse, attention to sexual cues, painful intercourse self-efficacy, partner hostility and solicitousness and penetration cognitions. Overall, the systematic review highlights the need to consider psychosocial factors in the treatment of this condition, and treatments may need to be tailored to appreciate the particular importance of interpersonal and sex-related aspects in Vulvodynia. Limitations of the literature include the exclusive focus on PVD, that the variables examined lacked a guiding and integrating theoretical model, and the studies did not examine the complexity of inter-relationships between psychosocial factors and multiple outcomes simultaneously.
Study 2: To begin to address some of the identified limitations, this cross-sectional study examined the association between PF (pain acceptance, present-moment-awareness, and committed action), body-exposure anxiety, unmitigated sexual communion, and perceived injustice with pain and sexual outcomes and depression through network analysis. A sample of 349 women with Vulvodynia (112 provoked, 237 spontaneous/mixed subtype) was recruited online. Networks were computed for the total sample and the subtypes separately to explore potential differences. The results showed that perceived injustice, pain acceptance, and depression were “central” factors in all models. Similarly, PF facets were relevant for all networks. However, depression was more central in the network for mixed/spontaneous Vulvodynia, and body-exposure anxiety was most central for the provoked subtype. Overall, perceived injustice, depression, and PF may play a meaningful role in Vulvodynia, but there are differences across subtypes. Mood-related factors may be more important in women with spontaneous/mixed Vulvodynia and intercourse-related aspects in PVD. Tailored treatment approaches are suggested, and psychological treatment focused on PF and injustice is indicated, regardless of the subtype.
Study 3: Building on the cross-sectional findings, this study examined the prospective association between facets of PF (as in study 2), body-exposure anxiety during intercourse, and perceived injustice with the pain and sexual outcomes and depression. Women with Vulvodynia were recruited online and completed self-report measures at baseline (n=349) and again after three months (n=244), overlapping with the COVID-19 pandemic. From baseline to three months, there were significant decreases in pain intensity, pain interference, present-moment-awareness, committed action, and a significant increase in depression. In regression analyses, pain acceptance significantly predicted pain interference at three months, and committed action significantly predicted depression at three months. Overall, this study provides preliminary evidence that two facets of PF prospectively predict two important areas for women with Vulvodynia. Psychosocial approaches that foster PF, such as ACT, may represent a promising avenue for treatment in this population.
Study 4: This multiple baseline single-case experimental design (SCED) evaluated whether an online ACT programme, combined with a Vulvodynia-specific manual, improved pain and sexual outcomes and depression in Vulvodynia. The study also explored whether the intervention led to changes in possible processes of therapeutic change. During baseline and treatment phases, 7 participants completed daily self-report measures of outcomes and process variables. Full-length assessments of these variables were also completed. Visual inspection, Tau and Tau-U scores and analyses of clinically significant change suggested improvements in pain interference, pain intensity, sexual functioning and sexual satisfaction for some individuals. However, participants had highly individual treatment effects. Limited improvement was found in depression. Pain acceptance, committed action, and perceived injustice emerged as potential mechanisms of change for some individuals. These results suggest that an online ACT-based approach may help to improve pain and sexual outcomes in some people with Vulvodynia. Future investigations using SCEDs and ACT-based interventions in this population are warranted.
Discussion: This thesis provides evidence for a set of psychosocial factors in women with Vulvodynia, including facets of PF, and for the potential utility of using an online ACT-based idiographic approach in this population. The thesis findings suggest a multi-layered understanding of psychosocial processes in Vulvodynia is needed. Psychological Flexibility provides a companion set of functional processes, alongside interpersonal and social experiences which together influence Vulvodynia outcomes. These psychosocial factors may be individually varying and subtype-specific. This multi-layered understanding can guide future research and refine our understanding of this condition. Use of idiographic approaches may enable further understanding of individual and subtype differences in this population.
... SVT suggests that such positive inductions can increase positive outcomes in some cases (when thoughts are positive) but can actually enhance negative outcomes in others (when a person's thoughts are negative). Indeed, SVT research reveals that positive inductions can validate both positive and negative thoughts polarizing judgments (for additional examples of self-affirmation validating the dominant response, see Briñol, Gallardo, et al., 2004;Briñol, Petty, Gallardo, & DeMarree, 2006Wood et al., 2009). ...
Self-validation theory (SVT) is introduced and presented as a series of six postulates. The core notion of SVT is that thoughts become more consequential for judgment and action as the perceived validity of the thoughts is increased. Instead of focusing on the objective accuracy of thoughts, self-validation research focuses on a subjective sense that one's thoughts are valid or appropriate to use. People come to rely on any thought more when they perceive that thought is likely to be true (cognitive validation) or because they feel good about the thought (affective validation). Perceptions of thought validity are influenced by thought-relevant as well as incidental factors (e.g., one's moods, sense of ease), and the impact of these factors can vary with their meaning. Individual and situational factors moderate when people rely on their assessments of validity and what thoughts are salient to validate. In short, SVT is a comprehensive and integrative framework from which to examine the use of thoughts across many seemingly diverse variables, outcomes, and domains in psychology. The theory is also relevant to understanding judgments in numerous applied contexts. By identifying moderators and mediators of thought validation processes and outcomes, SVT is capable of specifying when and why many different variables have an impact on judgments and actions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
In Fach- und Führungskräfte-Coachings ist das Thema Prokrastination auch und gerade bei leistungs- und wettbewerbsorientierten, sehr gut ausgebildeten Klient*innen weit
verbreitet. Prokrastinierenden Personen wird häufig eine mangelnde Fähigkeit zur Selbstregulation und eine geringe Planungskompetenz attestiert. Der Beitrag zeigt anhand eines semi-fiktiven Coaching-Prozesses auf, wie wichtig eine ausführliche Anamnese und Zielklärung sind, welche Erkenntnisse eine Auseinandersetzung mit
der Prokrastinations-Spirale liefert und welche Lösungsansätze im Prozess entwickelt werden können. Prokrastinieren ist jedoch ein erlerntes Verhalten, das abgelegt werden kann. Der Klient im diskutierten Fall ist Teamleiter bei einem Mittelständler, der
kürzlich das Arbeiten mit OKR (Objectives and Key Results) eingeführt hat. Obwohl er die Methode befürwortet und sein Team dabei unterstützt, kontinuierlich an den
individuellen Zielen zu arbeiten, schiebt der Klient dies selbst immer weiter auf. Im Beitrag werden Hypothesen und Konzeptideen für die Coachingpraxis vorgestellt und Herausforderungen und Wendepunkte im Prozess reflektiert.
One’s own voice undergoes unique processing that distinguishes it from others’ voices, and thus listening to it may have a special neural basis for self-talk as an emotion regulation strategy. This study aimed to elucidate how neural effects of one’s own voice differ from those of others’ voices on the implementation of emotion regulation strategies. Twenty-one healthy adults were scanned using fMRI while listening to sentences synthesized in their own or others’ voices for self-affirmation and cognitive defusion, which were based on mental commitments to strengthen one’s positive aspects and imagining metaphoric actions to shake off negative aspects, respectively. The interaction effect between voice identity and strategy was observed in the superior temporal sulcus, middle temporal gyrus, and parahippocampal cortex, and activity in these regions showed that the uniqueness of one’s own voice is reflected more strongly for cognitive defusion than for self-affirmation. This interaction was also seen in the precuneus, suggesting intertwining of self-referential processing and episodic memory retrieval in self-affirmation with one’s own voice. These results imply that unique effects of one’s own voice may be expressed differently due to the degree of engagement of neural sharpening-related regions and self-referential networks depending on the type of emotion regulation.
The aim of the research conducted in the aviation sector is to measure how effective stress is and whether it mediates social anxiety caused by the perception of social comparison experienced by individuals working in organisations. The research sample consists of ground service personnel working in the aviation sector in the Marmara Region. The study's findings revealed that social comparison and job stress significantly predicted social anxiety and that job stress had a mediating role. This study, conducted in the aviation sector, can be used to improve individuals' experiences in business life.
Sharing positive messages on social media can produce positive outcomes for message senders due to self-effects—the effect of sending messages on message senders themselves. In this domain, one question is whether the performative display of positivity can engender positivity. By examining the sharing of personal experiences in a positive manner on social media, several boundary conditions to self-effects were found: displaying positivity is beneficial to message senders only if message senders have higher (vs. lower) self-esteem or if they experience less (vs. more) toxicity—defined as the suppression of the negative aspects of one’s perceived reality due to engagement with or sending a positive message. Otherwise, displaying positivity can dampen enjoyment or make message senders reluctant to commit to their public self-presentations. However, after people receive feedback from friends, perceived social approval is a better predictor of enjoyment and commitment than displaying positivity.
Many researchers have identified distribution shift as a likely contributor to the reproducibility crisis in behavioral and biomedical sciences. The idea is that if treatment effects vary across individual characteristics and experimental contexts, then studies conducted in different populations will estimate different average effects. This paper uses ``generalizability" methods to quantify how much of the effect size discrepancy between an original study and its replication can be explained by distribution shift on observed unit-level characteristics. More specifically, we decompose this discrepancy into ``components" attributable to sampling variability (including publication bias), observable distribution shifts, and residual factors. We compute this decomposition for several directly-replicated behavioral science experiments and find little evidence that observable distribution shifts contribute appreciably to non-replicability. In some cases, this is because there is too much statistical noise. In other cases, there is strong evidence that controlling for additional moderators is necessary for reliable replication.
We explored the psychology of those who believe in manifestation: the ability to cosmically attract success in life through positive self-talk, visualization, and symbolic actions (e.g., acting as if something is true). In three studies (collective N = 1,023), we developed a reliable and valid measure-the Manifestation Scale-and found over one third of participants endorsed manifestation beliefs. Those who scored higher on the scale perceived themselves as more successful, had stronger aspirations for success, and believed they were more likely to achieve future success. They were also more likely to be drawn to risky investments, have experienced bankruptcy, and to believe they could achieve an unlikely level of success more quickly. We discuss the potential positives and negatives of this belief system in the context of growing public desire for success and an industry that capitalizes on these desires. Access the full article for free at:
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/01461672231181162
Objectives: The research sought to analyse the perceptual life changes and perceived quality of life (PQoL) subsequent to participating in an integrated coaching and PPI programme.
Design: A qualitative approach was employed and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was utilised to analyse the data.
Method: Three girls from an inner-city London school were selected to participate. Semi-structured interviews were used.
Results: Three key themes emerged: the ability to control emotions/reactions; increased experience of positive emotions/thoughts; and the identification of purpose and meaning to life.
Conclusion: The participants reported that participating in the programme brought the benefit of an improved perception of quality of life.
A large array of randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses have determined the efficacy of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT). However, determining that ACT works does not tell us how it works. This is especially important to understand given the current emphasis on Process-Based Therapy, the promise of which is to identify manipulable causal mediators of change in psychotherapy, and how their effectiveness is moderated by individual contexts. This paper outlines four key areas of concern regarding ACT’s status as a Process-Based Therapy. First, the relationship between ACT and Relational Frame Theory has been widely asserted but not yet properly substantiated. Second, most of the studies on ACT’s core process of change, psychological flexibility, have used invalid measures. Third, while lots of research indicates means by which individuals can be helped to behave consistently with their values, there is virtually no research on how to help people effectively clarify their values in the first instance, or indeed, on an iterative basis. Finally, the philosophy underlying ACT permits a-moral instrumentalism, presenting several ethical challenges. We end by making several recommendations for coherent methodological, conceptual, and practical progress within ACT research and therapy.
Lau and Cheng (2011, 2013) reported that a gratitude induction procedure reduced death anxiety but that it did not promote emotional well-being. The present study was aimed at replication of their reported findings. Experiment 1 assessed single gratitude intervention effects on death anxiety, feeling, and mental health among college students. Results showed death anxiety was not reduced by the intervention but positive feeling and mental health were improved. Experiment 2 examined effects of one-month gratitude intervention on death-related anxiety, feeling, and mental health. We also examined effects of trait gratitude. Results showed no significant effect of gratitude intervention on death anxiety reduction, but participants with higher gratitude traits exhibited better mental health. These results suggest that trait gratitude is associated with mental health, although the results did not confirm a death anxiety reduction effect of gratitude intervention, as reported by Lau and Cheng (2011, 2013).
Toxic positivity is indicated by encouraging words spoken in difficult situations that force someone to feel good about themselves. It becomes a current issue around the Generation Z because of the realization that toxic positivity could have a negative impact on mental health and individual social relationships. This study aims to analyze the views of Generation Z on the phenomena of toxic positivity. The approach of this study was quantitative using descriptive methods.
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
In 4 experiments, college students received bogus personality-test feedback that they possessed an actual-self, ideal-self (desired but unpossessed), or rejected-self (unwanted and unpossessed) trait. When the test had low credibility, rejected-self feedback produced positive mood (PM), whereas ideal-self feedback produced negative mood (NM). Self-comparison of the feedback with self-representations apparently revealed the falsity of the feedback, making salient Ss’ virtues or shortcomings. The pattern reversed when test credibility was high: Rejected-self feedback led to NM and ideal-self feedback to PM. These effects were not evident, however, when the feedback trait had high personal importance or when Ss generated counterexamples before feedback about an unimportant trait. This suggests that reactions to self-discrepant feedback depend on whether convincing counterexamples are readily accessed during self-comparison.
Experienced ease of recall was found to qualify the implications of recalled content. Ss who had to recall 12 examples of assertive (unassertive) behaviors, which was difficult, rated themselves as less assertive (less unassertive) than subjects who had to recall 6 examples, which was easy. In fact, Ss reported higher assertiveness after recalling 12 unassertive rather than 12 assertive behaviors. Thus, self-assessments only reflected the implications of recalled content if recall was easy. The impact of ease of recall was eliminated when its informational value was discredited by a misattribution manipulation. The informative functions of subjective experiences are discussed.
This study investigated the relationship between childhood anxiety disorders, the valence and content of self-statements, and the impact of treatment on the internal dialogue. Participants (151 8- to 13-year-olds) included 71 youth with anxiety disorders and 80 control participants. Positive and negative self-statements and a states-of-mind (SOM) ratio were examined. Results indicated that the negative self-statements and SOM ratio (but not positive self-statements) of children with anxiety disorders significantly predicted anxiety. Results also indicated that negative (but not positive cognition) and SOM ratio predicted improvement in anxiety after treatment and mediated treatment gains. Results of analyses to explore the content specificity hypothesis were mixed. The impact of negative self-talk on children's anxious symptomatology and favorable treatment outcome is discussed.
It is proposed that independent desires for positivity and verisimilitude shape the sequence of cognitive operations people perform on self-relevant evaluations. In phase 1, the mere identification of evaluative information triggers a minimally cognitive tendency to embrace favorable evaluations and eschew unfavorable ones, a positive tropism. If sufficient motivation and cognitive resources are available, people proceed to phase 2, wherein they evaluate the verisimilitude of the evaluation by comparing it with a series of representations of self; beginning with their actual selves. To the extent that actual selves are uncertain and cognitive resources and motivation to continue processing are ample, people make additional comparisons with various possible selves (e.g., who they ought to be, who they ideally might be, and who they are according to "objectively accurate" indexes). If sufficient cognitive resources and motivation are still available, people will engage in a third phase, consisting of a cost-benefit analysis.
The impact on self-esteem of activating self-doubt was investi- gated in three studies. Individuals with enduring high self- doubt were expected to be more threatened by an experimental induction of self-doubt (modeled on the ease of retrieval para- digm) than individuals low in enduring self-doubt, and their self-esteem was predicted to decline. The predictions were sup- ported when self-esteem was measured postexperimentally (Experi- ment 1) and when it was measured both pre- and postexperimentally (Experiment 2). There was no comparable loss in self-esteem for individuals low in self-doubt. A third experiment explored the phenomenology of low-self-doubt individuals and replicated the finding that their level of self-esteem was unaffected by the induc- tion designed to produce doubt.
A hierarchical facet model of self-esteem proposed by R. J. Shavelson et al (see record
1978-30429-001) was partially tested in a previous study by J. S. Fleming and W. A. Watts (see record
1981-28061-001). Their 3 factors, which were labeled Self-Regard, Social Confidence, and School Abilities, corresponded to 3 of the 4 dimensions posited by Shavelson et al. Predictions of other individual-difference variables from these factors were also tested by correlational analysis. Improvements to the instrument led to a replication of their 3 factors plus 2 predicted physical factors: Physical Appearance and Physical Abilities. In the present study, with 259 undergraduates, a 2nd-order factor analysis yielded a single, superordinate factor of global self-esteem, supporting the hierarchical interpretation of the facet model. Construct validity was further examined by replication of the correlational findings of Fleming and Watts and by correlations with other measures of personality and adjustment, including a global measure of self-esteem: the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The facet model as presently operationalized measures dimensions of relevance for the intended population, but these dimensions are not so broadly defined as to be redundant with related constructs. (65 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Despite the amount of attention that researchers have devoted to the topic of self-esteem, many central questions remain unanswered. Sociometer theory addresses many such questions by suggesting that self-esteem is part of a psychological system (the sociometer) that monitors the social environment for cues indicating low or declining relational evaluation (e.g., lack of interest, disapproval, rejection) and warns the individual when such cues are detected. The theory suggests that people are not motivated to maintain their self-esteem per se as has been typically assumed, but rather seek to increase their relational value and social acceptance, using self-esteem as a gauge of their effectiveness. The present chapter describes sociometer theory's perspective on self-esteem, reviews evidence relevant to the theory, and describes how it explains phenomena in which self-esteem has been implicated, including interpersonal emotion, social identity effects, intergroup behaviour, and clinical disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)
In numerous self-affirmation studies, Claude Steele and colleagues have demonstrated that self-affirmations reduce the need to justify dissonant behavior even when the affirmation is unrelated to the dissonance-evoking action. However, research has not sufficiently examined the impact of reaffirming self-aspects that are related to the dissonance. The authors argue that relevant affirmations of this sort can make salient the standards that are violated in the course of dissonant behavior; thereby increasing dissonance and the need for self justification. In a laboratory study using the induced-compliance paradigm, it was demonstrated that dissonance can be exacerbated by reaffirming standards that are violated in the course of the dissonant behavior. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/68836/2/10.1177_0146167297237002.pdf
Experienced ease of recall was found to qualify the implications of recalled content. Ss who had to recall 12 examples of assertive (unassertive) behaviors, which was difficult, rated themselves as less assertive (less unassertive) than subjects who had to recall 6 examples, which was easy. In fact, Ss reported higher assertiveness after recalling 12 unassertive rather than 12 assertive behaviors. Thus, self-assessments only reflected the implications of recalled content if recall was easy. The impact of ease of recall was eliminated when its informational value was discredited by a misattribution manipulation. The informative functions of subjective experiences are discussed.
Despite growing evidence that depression is linked with self-focused attention, little is known about how depressed individuals become self-focused or, more generally, about what arouses self-focus in everyday life. Two experiments examined the hypothesis that affect itself induces self-focused attention. In Experiment 1, moods were manipulated with an imagination mood-induction procedure. Sad-induction Ss became higher in self-focus than did neutral-induction Ss. Experiment 2 replicated this effect for sad moods by means of a musical mood-induction procedure and different measures of self-focus. However, Experiment 2 failed to support the hypothesis that happy moods induce self-focus. The results have implications for mood-induction research, self-focused attention, and recent models of depression.
Mood experience is comprised of at least two elements: the direct experience of the mood and a meta-level of experience that consists of thoughts and feelings about the mood. In Study 1, a two-dimensional structure for the direct experience of mood (Watson & Tellegen, 1985) was tested for its fit to the responses of 1,572 subjects who each completed one of three different mood scales, including a brief scale developed to assist future research. The Watson and Tellegen structure was supported across all three scales. In Study 2, meta-mood experience was conceptualized as the product of a mood regulatory process that monitors, evaluates, and at times changes mood. A scale to measure meta-mood experience was administered to 160 participants along with the brief mood scale. People's levels on the meta-mood dimensions were found to differ across moods. Meta-mood experiences may also constitute an important part of the phenomenology of the personal experience of mood.
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
Analysis of continuous variables sometimes proceeds by selecting individuals on the basis of extreme scores of a sample distribution and submitting only those extreme scores to further analysis. This sampling method is known as the extreme groups approach (EGA). EGA is often used to achieve greater statistical power in subsequent hypothesis tests. However, there are several largely unrecognized costs associated with EGA that must be considered. The authors illustrate the effects EGA can have on power, standardized effect size, reliability, model specification, and the interpretability of results. Finally, the authors discuss alternative procedures, as well as possible legitimate uses of EGA. The authors urge researchers, editors, reviewers, and consumers to carefully assess the extent to which EGA is an appropriate tool in their own research and in that of others.
Despite growing evidence that depression is linked with self-focused attention, little is known about how depressed individuals become self-focused or, more generally, about what arouses self-focus in everyday life. Two experiments examined the hypothesis that affect itself induces self-focused attention
Insofar as people organize information about and evaluations of important topics in connected and coherent systems, attitudes may be changed from within by enhancing the salience of information already present virtually within the person's belief system without communicating new information from outside sources. A cognitive positivity bias is predicted such that stimulus evaluation (e.g., self-esteem) is affected more by characteristics that the stimulus possesses than by ones it lacks. Experiment 1 tested relations between participants' momentary self-esteem and concurrently salient desirable(vs. undesirable) self-characteristics possessed (vs. lacked). Experiments 2 and 3 changed participants' self-esteem by using directed-thinking tasks to manipulate the salience of desirable (vs. undesirable) self-characteristics possessed (and, to a lesser extent, lacked).
The mood-congruent judgment effect refers to the fact that when a mood and an idea are similar in pleasantness, the idea will generally seem better in some way. For example, when people are happy, they will judge pleasant concepts as richer in their associations, pleasant attributes as more applicable, and pleasant examples of categories as more typical. This mood-related component of cognition is viewed longitudinally among normal students for the first time here. The authors demonstrate that over time, changes in mood covary with changes in judgment in normal individuals.
Contrasts are statistical procedures for asking focused questions of data. Researchers, teachers of research methods and graduate students will be familiar with the principles and procedures of contrast analysis included here. But they, for the first time, will also be presented with a series of newly developed concepts, measures, and indices that permit a wider and more useful application of contrast analysis. This volume takes on this new approach by introducing a family of correlational effect size estimates. By returning to these correlations throughout the book, the authors demonstrate special adaptations in a variety of contexts from two group comparison to one way analysis of variance contexts, to factorial designs, to repeated measures designs and to the case of multiple contrasts.
when (or under what conditions) will a message recipient be relatively open-minded, and motivated by concerns for validity, and when will he or she be close-minded, and motivated to defend his or her attitude / this is the critical question now faced by researchers interested in the communication-persuasion process (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Assimilation and contrast effects in the placement of opinion items in a series and in the evaluation of the acceptability of such items are explained by principles derived from psychophysical studies of stimulus placement and the development of scales of judgment. The book contains a systematic survey of relevant psychophysical studies plus an analysis of several of the authors' recent experiments on the judgment of weights, opinion topics, and political parties. In addition to the argument that assimilation and contrast effects depend on the location of anchors employed by the judge in evaluating the stimulus items, the authors introduce the concepts of latitude of acceptance and latitude of rejection and discuss the implications of these concepts for attitude change and communication. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two techniques for inducing depressed mood in the laboratory are described and evaluated. The Velten mood induction procedure has been shown to mimic the effects of naturally occurring depressed mood on a wide range of variables, some of which are unlikely to be susceptible to faking. It therefore appears that the Velten depression induction produces a state which is a good analogue of mild, naturally occurring retarded depression. However, between 30% and 50% of subjects fail to respond to the Velten. This makes it cumbersome for research purposes and raises questions about the generalizability of results obtained using it. The Musical mood induction procedure has been less extensively researched than the Velten. However the available evidence suggests that it also produces a good analogue of mild, naturally occurring retarded depression. In addition, it has the advantage that almost all subjects respond to it. Some commentators have taken the fact that the Velten procedure can induce depressed mood as evidence for the cognitive theory of depression. It is argued that this conclusion is invalid as it makes unwarranted assumptions about the strategies subjects use in order to change mood during the Velten procedure. Several practical points relating to the use of Velten and Musical induction procedures are discussed.
There are few topics so fascinating both to the research investigator and the research subject as the self-image. It is distinctively characteristic of the human animal that he is able to stand outside himself and to describe, judge, and evaluate the person he is. He is at once the observer and the observed, the judge and the judged, the evaluator and the evaluated. Since the self is probably the most important thing in the world to him, the question of what he is like and how he feels about himself engrosses him deeply. This is especially true during the adolescent stage of development.
In 4 experiments, college students received bogus personality-test feedback that they possessed an actual-self, ideal-self (desired but unpossessed), or rejected-self (unwanted and unpossessed) trait. When the test had low credibility, rejected-self feedback produced positive mood (PM), whereas ideal-self feedback produced negative mood (NM). Self-comparison of the feedback with self-representations apparently revealed the falsity of the feedback, making salient Ss' virtues or shortcomings. The pattern reversed when test credibility was high: Rejected-self feedback led to NM and ideal-self feedback to PM. These effects were not evident, however, when the feedback trait had high personal importance or when Ss generated counterexamples before feedback about an unimportant trait. This suggests that reactions to self-discrepant feedback depend on whether convincing counterexamples are readily accessed during self-comparison.
Insofar as people organize information about and evaluations of important topics in connected and coherent systems, attitudes may be changed from within by enhancing the salience of information already present virtually within the person's belief system without communicating new information from outside sources. A cognitive positivity bias is predicted such that stimulus evaluation (e.g., self-esteem) is affected more by characteristics that the stimulus possesses than by ones it lacks. Experiment 1 tested relations between participants' momentary self-esteem and concurrently salient desirable (vs. undesirable) self-characteristics possessed (vs. lacked). Experiments 2 and 3 changed participants' self-esteem by using directed-thinking tasks to manipulate the salience of desirable (vs. undesirable) self-characteristics possessed (and, to a lesser extent, lacked).
This study investigated the relationship between childhood anxiety disorders, the valence and content of self-statements, and the impact of treatment on the internal dialogue. Participants (151 8- to 13-year-olds) included 71 youth with anxiety disorders and 80 control participants. Positive and negative self-statements and a states-of-mind (SOM) ratio were examined. Results indicated that the negative self-statements and SOM ratio (but not positive self-statements) of children with anxiety disorders significantly predicted anxiety. Results also indicated that negative (but not positive cognition) and SOM ratio predicted improvement in anxiety after treatment and mediated treatment gains. Results of analyses to explore the content specificity hypothesis were mixed. The impact of negative self-talk on children's anxious symptomatology and favorable treatment outcome is discussed.
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Like yourself and live The power of positive thinking
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