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Health effects of people living close to a petrochemical industrial estate in Thailand

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Objective: An acute health effect of people living near the petrochemical industrial estate in Thailand was assessed using a panel study design. Material and method: The populations in communities near the petrochemical industrial estates were recruited. The daily air pollutant concentrations, daily percentage of respiratory and other health symptoms reported were collected for 63 days. The effect of air pollutants to reported symptoms of people were estimated by adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence interval using binary logistic regression. Results: The significant associations were found with the adjusted odds ratios of 38.01 for wheezing, 18.63 for shortness of breath, 4.30 for eye irritation and 3.58 for dizziness for total volatile organic compounds (Total VOCs). The adjusted odds ratio for carbon monoxide (CO2) was 7.71 for cough, 4.55 for eye irritation and 3.53 for weakness and the adjusted odds ratio for ozone (O3) was 1.02 for nose congestion, sore throat and 1.05 for phlegm. Conclusion: The results showed that the people living near petrochemical industrial estate had acute adverse health effects, shortness of breath, eye irritation, dizziness, cough, nose congestion, sore throat, phlegm and weakness from exposure to industrial air pollutants.
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S64 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 96 Suppl. 5 2013
Health Effects of People Living Close to a Petrochemical
Industrial Estate in Thailand
Pornpimol Kongtip PhD*,
Panawadee Singkaew MS*, Witaya Yoosook PhD*,
Suttinun Chantanakul MD*, Dusit Sujiratat MSc**
* Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
** Department of Biostatistics, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
Objective: An acute health effect of people living near the petrochemical industrial estate in Thailand was assessed using a
panel study design.
Material and Method: The populations in communities near the petrochemical industrial estates were recruited. The daily air
pollutant concentrations, daily percentage of respiratory and other health symptoms reported were collected for 63 days. The
effect of air pollutants to reported symptoms of people were estimated by adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence interval
using binary logistic regression.
Results: The significant associations were found with the adjusted odds ratios of 38.01 for wheezing, 18.63 for shortness of
breath, 4.30 for eye irritation and 3.58 for dizziness for total volatile organic compounds (Total VOCs). The adjusted odds
ratio for carbon monoxide (CO
2
) was 7.71 for cough, 4.55 for eye irritation and 3.53 for weakness and the adjusted odds ratio
for ozone (O
3
) was 1.02 for nose congestion, sore throat and 1.05 for phlegm.
Conclusion: The results showed that the people living near petrochemical industrial estate had acute adverse health effects,
shortness of breath, eye irritation, dizziness, cough, nose congestion, sore throat, phlegm and weakness from exposure to
industrial air pollutants.
Keywords: Industrial air pollutants, Health effects, Petrochemical industrial estate
Correspondence to:
Kongtip P, Department of Occupational Health and Safety,
Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400,
Thailand.
Phone: 0-2644-4069, Fax: 0-2354-8561
E-mail: phpkt@mahidol.ac.th
J Med Assoc Thai 2013; 96 (Suppl. 5): S64-S72
Full text. e-Journal: http://www.jmatonline.com
Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate is located
in the municipality of Map Ta Phut, Mueng, Rayong.
The question was asked whether industries and
communities can live together
(1)
. The industrial estate
has fifty-eight production industries, including gas
separation facilities, an oil refinery, petrochemical,
chemical, and steel production, fertilizer industries, and
power plants
(2)
. In 1997, 120 students at a school located
in the northeastern area of Map Ta Phut Industrial
Estate complained of nuisance odors. Some students
developed dizziness, sinusitis, sore throat and
fatigue
(3)
. In 1999, the Thailand Environment Institute
(TEI) surveyed and collected data from the industries
located within Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate and found
that volatile organic compounds (VOCs), primarily
released from fuel combustion, incinerators, industries
and storage tanks pervaded the surrounding
atmosphere
(4)
. The Pollution Control Department
(PCD), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
reported 34 VOCs monitoring of the ambient air from
September 2006 to June 2010 and found that levels of 1,
3-butadiene, 1, 2-dichloroethane and benzene at
the Map Ta Phut primary care unit were higher than
the Thai annual standard
(5)
. The health effects of
petrochemical industry were mainly concentrated on
respiratory symptoms in young children
(6,7)
. Molhave
et al (1986) studied sixty-two healthy volunteers
exposed to a mixture of twenty-two VOCs at three
concentration levels of 0, 5 and 25 mg/m
3
for 2.75
hours
(8)
. The increased irritation of eyes, nose, and
throat had a significant correlation with exposure to
both concentrations of 5 and 25 mg/m
3
. Yang et al
(1997) looked at the residents of a petrochemical
polluted town in Taiwan and reported that the
complaints of eye and throat irritation, nausea were
markedly higher in those areas of the town which
experienced increased VOC levels
(9)
. The effects of the
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 96 Suppl. 5 2013 S65
Fig. 1 The studied area showing Soi Ruam Pattana and
Wat So Phon communities, the ambient air
monitoring station at Map Ta Phut health center,
and Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate.
ambient air pollution on general population caused
complaints; people do not need to consult with medical
doctors. The effects of ambient air pollution to people’s
health are not properly investigated particularly in
developing countries
(10)
.
This research aimed to study the effects of
petrochemical air pollutants around Map Ta Phut
Industrial Estate including PM
10
(Particulate matter),
CO (Carbon monoxide), total VOCs (Volatile Organic
Compounds), O
3
(Ozone), NO
2
(Nitrogen dioxide) and
SO
2
(Sulfur dioxide) upon the local population
living near the estate. The study identified adverse
health effects, primarily respiratory symptoms, and other
health symptoms suffered by the population living in
this area.
Material and Method
A panel study of the population living close
to the petrochemical industries was conducted to
evaluate daily respiratory symptoms and other health
symptoms in relation to the daily concentrations of
petrochemical air pollutants for a 63-day study period.
The present study was reviewed and approved by the
Ethics Committee on Human Rights Related to Human
Experimentation, Mahidol University, No. MUPH 2009-
079.
Study area
The studied area comprised the Soi Ruam
Pattana and Wat So Phon communities, Map Ta Phut,
Muang, Rayong. They are located approximately two
kilometers to the northeast of Map Ta Phut Industrial
Estate (Fig. 1). The two communities were close to the
industrial estate. The wind direction blows from the
north into the area from October to December and the
wind direction comes from the south to the area in
February-April. In June to September, the wind from
the southwest will flow into the area in community
(11)
.
The people in the community are exposed to volatile
chemicals from the wind direction from the south and
the southwest from February to April and June to
September, respectively. The effects of land breeze and
sea breeze also affect the wind direction at Map Ta
Phut. Some small mountains situated along the shores
in the gulf of Thailand prevent the land breeze to
blow the VOC emission from the Map Ta Phut industrial
estate into the sea.
An air monitoring station of the Pollution
Control Department (PCD), Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment, is located at Map Ta Phut
primary care unit in the Wat So Phon community. They
are densely populated areas having residences close
to industrial areas.
Study population and sample group
The population in Soi Ruam Pattana and Wat
So Phon communities is approximately 3,600. Most
residents worked and had business with the industries
in the estate. The inclusion of subjects was carried out
with the help of community leaders. A purposive
sampling was used to recruit subjects using a screening
questionnaire to identify subjects conforming to the
following criteria: (1) males and females working and
living in the community, (2) age range from 18 to 60
years old, (3) do not work in the industries, (4) are
not currently suffering from asthma, tuberculosis, or
chronic bronchitis and (5) are pleased to participate
in the present study for 63 days with written
informed consent. Approximately 150 subjects were
screened and, finally, 111 subjects conformed to the
present study criteria and voluntarily participated in
the present study.
Air pollutants monitoring
The air pollutants were identified as, PM
10
,
NO
2
, O
3
, CO, VOCs and SO
2
. Meteorological conditions
were monitored daily for the 63-day study period at the
air monitoring station of the PCD at Map Ta Phut
primary care unit. Monitoring began on the 20
th
December 2009 and concluded on the 20
th
February
2010. The air pollutants were collected on a daily basis
at the primary care unit in the community area
throughout the present study period.
S66 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 96 Suppl. 5 2013
Symptoms
The subjects were interviewed by the
researcher and trained staff daily, using a slightly
modified questionnaire (ATS-DLD-78-Adult
Questionnaire)
(12)
consisting of general characteristics,
and a daily symptom diary during the 63-day study
period. The trained staff were high school students
living in the community and they were familiar with
those subjects. Each trained staff was responsible
for collecting information for 15-20 subjects throughout
the present study period. They had to explain the
different health symptoms in the diary to each subject
during the first few days of the interview, and tried
to confirm with the subjects when they reported any
symptoms. The daily symptom diary consisted of
twelve symptoms which could be categorized into
respiratory symptoms (i.e. nose congestion, sore throat,
cough, phlegm, wheeze and chest tightness) and other
health symptoms (i.e. headache, shortness of breath,
fever, eye irritation, dizziness and weakness). The
interviewers asked about symptoms on the previous
day. The percentage of daily reported symptoms was
calculated
(13)
. If the interviewers did not meet with the
subjects on the day of the interview, they would ask
the subjects on the next day and report to the daily
symptom diary.
Data analysis
The arithmetic and geometric means,
median, range and interquartile range (IQR) were used
for descriptive statistics. The arithmetic, geometric
mean and median (50% percentile) were presented due
to the skewed data. The adjusted odds ratios and 95%
confidence interval were calculated using binary logistic
regression. The assumption of the analysis was that all
these pollutants namely, total VOCs, NO
2
, O
3
,
CO and
PM
10
had effects on the health symptoms of people in
the communities. To avoid multi-collinearity, all air
pollutants could not be put into one model because
NO
2
and O
3
were theoretically correlated between
them
(14,15)
. Therefore, the effects of NO
2
and O
3
need to
be analyzed separately into two models.
Two models of analysis were used to quantify
the effects of the multiple air pollutants, total VOCs,
CO, NO
2
, O
3
and PM
10
for 63-d study period. The first
model estimated the effects of total VOCs, CO, and O
3
by controlling for gender, age, working duration (h)
and PM
10
. The second model calculated the effect of
multiple pollutants using total VOCs, CO and NO
2
by
adjusting for gender, age, working duration (h) and
PM
10
.
General characteristics Number %
of subjects
(n = 111)
Sex
Male 37 33.3
Female 74 66.7
Age
18-19 1 0.9
20-29 16 14.4
30-39 39 35.1
40-49 30 27.0
50-60 25 22.5
Education
Uneducated 6 5.4
Primary school 46 41.4
Secondary school 12 10.8
High school 12 10.8
High and vocational schools 17 15.3
Bachelors degree 16 14.4
Master degree 2 1.8
Occupation
Merchant 45 40.5
Housewife 8 7.2
General employee 30 27
Student 5 4.5
Hairdresser 5 4.5
Self employed 11 9.9
Others 7 6.4
Working duration
<8 hrs 39 35.1
8.1-12.0 hrs 49 44.1
>12.1 23 20.7
Smoking
Yes 18 16.2
No 91 82.0
Ex-smoker 2 1.8
Total 111 100.0
Table 1. Characteristics of subjects
Results
Characteristics of subjects
One hundred eleven subjects participated in
this study; most of them had age ranging from 30 to 39
years old. Most of them (46.8%) had a primary school
level or lower, 10.8% had secondary school levels and
10.8% had high school levels of education (Table 1).
Most subjects worked as merchants (40.5%) and
general employees (27%). No subjects worked in
the industries; they worked for 8-12 hours in the
communities. Approximately 16% admitted to smoking
cigarettes. The subjects were asked about annual
physical check-up, fifty-one percent had an annual
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 96 Suppl. 5 2013 S67
Air pollutants Day Mean** Median Range IQR 1-hr standard*
(14-15)
AM GM
PM
10
(μg/m
3
) 63 62.05 59.46 55.33 37.75-140.29 48.29-74.92 120 μg/m
3
(24-hr)
CO (ppm) 63 0.51 0.46 0.49 0.12-1.14 0.34-0.68 30 ppm
Total VOCs (ppm) 63 2.30 2.29 2.27 1.97-2.98 2.12-2.45 -
O
3
(ppb) 63 27.11 25.79 26.43 11.70-49.96 20.78-32.13 100 ppb
NO
2
(ppb) 63 14.53 13.35 13.35 5.30-30.30 9.39-19.35 170 ppb
SO
2
(ppb) 63 5.99 5.03 5.55 1.17-15.04 2.82-8.57 300 ppb
* Thai ambient air standard
** AM = arithmetic mean; GM = geometric mean
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for 1-hr average air pollutant concentrations at Map Ta Phut health center, Mueng, Rayong
Symptoms Mean Median SD Range IQR
Headache 3.77 3.60 3.16 0-11.70 0.90-5.40
Nose congestion 2.76 2.70 1.77 0-6.30 0.90-3.60
Sore throat 2.70 2.70 1.96 0-7.20 0.90-3.60
Cough 4.08 3.60 2.66 0-15.30 1.80-5.50
Phlegm 2.78 2.00 2.47 0-12.60 0.90-4.50
Wheeze 0.62 0.00 0.93 0-4.50 0-0.90
Chest tightness 0.46 0.00 0.68 0-2.70 0-0.90
Shortness of breath 0.63 0.00 1.00 0-3.60 0-0.90
Eye irritation 1.83 0.90 2.29 0-11.70 0-2.70
Dizziness 2.42 1.80 2.48 0-9.00 0-4.50
Weakness 2.66 1.80 2.71 0-13.50 0.90-3.60
Table 3. The percentage (%) of the daily reported symptoms of subjects (111)
physical check-up and 10% of subjects reported that
they had diseases, such as high blood pressure, cancer,
high cholesterol and diabetes.
Air pollutants monitoring
The daily 1-hr air pollutants monitored were
PM
10
, SO
2
, NO
2
, O
3
, VOCs and CO during the 63-d study
period (Table 2). The arithmetic, geometric means and
median (50% percentile) were presented due to the
skewed data. The geometric means were used for
comparisons with other studies. Most PM
10
levels were
below the Thai standard (120 μg/m
3
)
(16)
except for the
PM
10
level being 140 μg/m
3
on the 24
th
of December,
2010 due to the construction sites in the area. The total
VOCs in the communities were monitored because
the VOCs may be the cause of health symptoms in
people in the communities nearby the petrochemical
industries
(4)
. The 1-hr ambient air quality standard was
not available for total VOCs. The CO, O
3
, NO
2
and SO
2
levels were all below the national standard
(16,17)
. The
temperature in the communities ranged from 21.4 to
32.7°C with an average temperature of 27.7°C. The
relative humidity ranged from 33 to 87% with an average
of 68.8%.
Daily symptom frequencies reported
The average daily percentages of subjects
reporting symptoms are shown in Table 3. The median
(50 percentile) was presented because the data were
not normally distributed. The most often reported
symptoms were coughing, headache, phlegm, nose
congestion, sore throat, and weakness. The least often
reported symptoms were chest tightness, wheezing and
shortness of breath.
Quantification of effects of air pollutants
The present study investigated twelve
respiratory and health symptoms most likely caused
by industrial air pollutants, PM
10
, NO
2
, O
3
, CO and
VOCs. Binary logistic regression was used to quantify
the effects of multiple industrial air pollutants. The
adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence interval was
S68 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 96 Suppl. 5 2013
Symptoms CO Total VOCs NO
2
OR (95%CI) OR (95%CI) OR (95%CI)
Headache 4.01 (1.47-10.94)* 1.98 (0.54-7.29) 1.00 (0.93-1.06)
Nose congestion 2.34 (0.71-7.70) 0.53 (0.11-2.63) 1.05 (0.97-1.13)
Sore throat 1.86 (0.56-6.20) 0.59 (0.12-2.94) 1.07 (0.99-1.15)
Cough 6.23 (2.27-17.07)* 0.43 (0.11-1.731) 1.06 (0.99-1.12)
Phlegm 7.97 (2.50-25.48)* 0.81 (0.17-3.90) 1.00 (0.93-1.08)
Wheeze 0.64 (0.05-9.22) 0.22 (0.01-7.65) 1.16 (0.98-1.37)
Chest tightness 4.98 (0.33-75.17) 5.54 (0.17-176.81) 1.10 (0.93-1.29)
Shortness of breath 4.12 (0.04-41.30) 1.89 (0.98-1.03) 0.98 (0.84-1.14)
Eye irritation 4.91 (1.19-20.28)* 15.92 (2.69-94.14)* 0.98 (0.90-1.07)
Dizziness 3.09 (0.87-10.98) 1.74 (0.33-9.27) 1.06 (0.98-1.15)
Weakness 1.38 (0.40-7.74) 0.65 (0.13-3.28) 1.11 (1.03-1.20)*
* significant at p<0.05
Table 5. The adjusted odds ratio with 95% confidence interval (CI) was estimated for multiple air pollutants, PM
10
, CO,
total VOCs and NO
2
on a series of daily reported symptoms (Model 2). The results are controlled for gender, age,
working duration (hr) and PM
10
estimated for multiple air pollutants, O
3
, CO and total
VOCs based on a series of daily reported symptoms
(Model 1) by controlling for gender, age, working
duration (h) and PM
10
(Table 4). When the level of CO
is increased 1 ppm, the adjusted odds ratios increase
3.53 for headache, 7.71 for cough, 4.55 for eye irritation
and 3.53 for weakness. In addition, when the level of
total VOCs is increased by 1 ppm, the adjusted odds
ratios for developing symptoms increase 38.01 for
wheezing, 18.63 for shortness of breath, 4.30 for eye
irritation and 3.58 for dizziness. Furthermore, with an
increase of 1 ppb O
3
, the adjusted odds ratio for reported
nose congestion, sore throat, phlegm and shortness of
breath increases by 1.02, 102, 1.05 and 1.02, respectively.
The second model presented the effects of multiple
industrial air pollutants, NO
2
, CO and total VOCs based
on a series of daily reported symptoms by controlling
for gender, age, working duration (h) and PM
10
(Table
5). The adjusted odds ratios of reported symptoms
increase to 4.01 for headache, 6.23 for coughing, 7.97
for phlegm and 4.91 for eye irritation with an increase
of 1 ppm CO. When total hydrocarbons are increased
by 1 ppm, the adjusted odds ratios increase 15.92 for
eye irritation. In addition, the adjusted odds ratio
Symptoms CO Total VOCs O
3
OR (95%CI) OR (95%CI) OR (95%CI)
Headache 3.53 (1.39-8.96)* 2.29 (0.81-6.42) 1.010 (0.20-1.03)
Nose congestion 2.61 (0.88-7.77) 1.66 (0.47-5.85) 1.020 (1.00-1.04)*
Sore throat 2.15 (0.72-6.41) 2.47 (0.71-8.63) 1.020 (1.00-1.04)*
Cough 7.71 (2.57-23.14)* 0.83 (0.23-2.98) 1.000 (0.98-1.02)
Phlegm 1.11 (0.11-11.02) 4.66 (0.36-60.39) 1.050 (1.00-1.09)*
Wheeze 6.73 (0.57-79.45) 38.01 (2.65-546.12)* 1.030 (0.99-1.07)
Chest tightness 2.69 (0.32-22.70) 2.38 (0.24-24.16) 1.025 (0.99-1.07)
Shortness of breath 3.40 (0.91-12.68) 18.63 (4.45-78.00)* 1.020 (1.00-1.05)*
Eye irritation 4.55 (1.41-14.65)* 4.30 (1.14-16.26)* 1.000 (0.98-1.02)
Dizziness 2.52 (0.83-7.63) 3.58 (1.04-12.35)* 1.010 (0.99-1.03)
Weakness 3.53 (1.39-8.96)* 2.29 (0.81-6.42) 1.010 (0.20-1.03)
Table 4. The adjusted odds ratio with 95% confidence interval (CI) was estimated for multiple air pollutants, PM
10
, CO ,
total VOCs and O
3
on a series of daily reported symptoms (Model 1). The results are controlled for gender, age,
working duration (hr) and PM
10
* significant at p<0.05
J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 96 Suppl. 5 2013 S69
increases 1.11 for weakness with an increase of 1 ppb
NO
2
.
Discussion
Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate was established
in 1988 following the government policy to be the
biggest petrochemical complex in Thailand
(18)
.
Currently, Map Ta Phut produces substantial amounts
of petrochemicals, chemical products, steel and oil
refineries. As the rapid development and expansion of
Map Ta Phut went on, the impact upon people’s health
also increased, including problems with air quality,
water, quality of life, etc. Finally, the government
declared Map Ta Phut and the nearby areas as pollutant
control areas in May 2009. An action plan for pollutant
reduction and mitigation has been underway
(18)
. This
current study collected data from the 20 December 2009
to 10 February 2010 in the winter season. The wind
blew from the south to the area; the wind blew pass
through the industrial estate to the community. The
community people would expose to VOCs and other
pollutants from the industrial estate. The temperature
in the community areas ranged from 21.4 to 32.7°C with
an average temperature of 27.7°C. The relative humidity
ranged from 33 to 87% with an average of 68.8%.
Most subjects (56.9%) had low education
levels from being completely uneducated up to primary
and secondary schools. Merchants made up 40.5%;
they operated small shops, were self-employed and
sold a number of different things consumed by the
local people and industrial estate workers. With
regard to general employees, they worked as laborers
depending upon the needs of employers in the
community. If they had higher education, they
could get work in the industries. During the period
of the present study, the Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate
and the area nearby had already become a pollution
control area. Most industries have many corporate,
social responsibility programs in order to share
resources, support health promotion and the general
welfare of the people in the communities. This research
may encounter selection bias because some subjects
are reluctant to participate in the research because of
long duration of data collection. Some who are serious
with the VOC emissions from the industries refuse to
be part of the present study. In the present study design
at the beginning, the study intended to recruit only
non-smokers without chronic diseases, who worked
and lived in the community, but could not get enough
subjects to participate. Finally, smoker-subjects (16.2%)
were recruited in the present study.
The present study used only one air
monitoring station at Map Ta Phut primary care unit.
Measuring personal exposure of petrochemical air
pollutants of individual subject was not possible due
to high cost and difficulty. Misclassification of
exposure was the limitation of the study. The subjects
in the same area were assumed to be exposed to the
same concentration of multiple pollutants each day.
The sources of air pollutants may come from emissions
of the petrochemical industries and traffic related air
pollutants. The levels of air pollutants in the
communities, CO, total VOCs, O
3
, SO
2
,
NO
2
, and
PM
10
were primarily below the Thai standard. The
concentration of SO
2
was low because of industries
having to use coal containing less sulfur as a source of
fuel in industrial processes. This gas can be changed
into sulfide or sulfate at high humidity and it can
also incorporate into particulate matter
(19)
. The CO
may come from any burning or igniting of chemicals
experiencing incomplete combustion. The geometric
means of SO
2
(5.03 ppb), NO
2
(13.35 ppb) and PM
10
(59.46 μg/m
3
) in this current study were lower than those
of SO
2
(10.60 ppb), NO
2
(17.43 ppb) and PM
10
(93.57 μg/
m
3
) in the petrochemical polluted area in Taiwan
(9)
.
When comparing between the air pollutants in the
petrochemical polluted area in Rayong and the traffic
polluted area in Bangkok, the average level of SO
2
was
similar. The average level of CO (0.51 ppm), NO
2
(14.53
ppb) and VOCs (2.3 ppb) in the industrial, polluted area
in Rayong was considerably lower than the average
CO (1.43 ppm), NO
2
(52.58 ppb) and VOCs (3.54 ppm) in
the traffic-polluted areas in Bangkok
(13)
. It can be seen
that the people who live or work close to the industrial
polluted area are exposed to lower air pollutants
than those in the traffic-polluted area, but the chemical
compositions in the traffic-polluted area may be
different from the petrochemical polluted area. The
toxicity of chemicals depends on types and
composition of chemicals.
A daily symptom diary for each subject was
used to report acute symptoms everyday for 63 days.
They were asked by the trained staff about the
symptoms experienced the previous day. The subjects
who reported more symptoms continued to report
more symptoms every day, whereas the subjects who
reported fewer symptoms reported less. The average
daily reported symptoms were used to compare with
the daily concentrations of mixed industrial pollutants
on each day for the 63 days of the study period. The
daily reported symptoms of cough (4.08), phlegm (2.78)
and wheezing (0.62) in this current study were quite
S70 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 96 Suppl. 5 2013
low when compared with reported symptoms of
cough (11.2), phlegm (10.8), wheezing (6.70) in the
petrochemical polluted area in Taiwan
(9)
or with reported
symptoms of cough (7.10), phlegm (22.36) in the traffic-
polluted area in Bangkok
(13)
. The lower reported
symptoms of people in the communities may have
resulted from becoming accustomed to or building up
a tolerance for industrial air pollutants after having lived
in this area for so many years or the lower level of air
pollutants in the present study.
The pollutants having associated adverse
health effects was put into the model together with
other confounding factors. The confounding by
population characteristics was neglible because
subjects served as their own control
(20)
. The first model
included O
3
, CO and total VOCs by controlling for
gender, age, working duration (h) and PM
10
. Significant
associations between petrochemical air pollutants and
health effects were found, including total VOCs with
wheezing, shortness of breath, eye irritation and
dizziness. CO showed significant association with
headache, cold, cough, eye irritation and weakness
and O
3
demonstrated a relationship with nose
congestion, sore throat and phlegm. Wheezing was
scarcely reported by the subjects.
In the second model, O
3
was replaced by NO
2
;
consequently,
the effect of CO was slightly different
from the first model. The effect of CO was significantly
associated with headache, cough and eye irritation the
same as in the first model, but the effect of weakness
was not significant in the second model. Moreover, the
effect of CO was also significantly associated with
phelgm in the second model. Total VOCs were
associated with only eye irritation at very high odds
raito (15.92). The odds ratio of NO
2
with weakness was
very low (1.11). When study the effects of several
pollutants at the same time, VOCs, CO, O
3
, NO
2
and
PM
10
, the errors of multi-collinearity may encounter.
The NO
2
and VOCs were the precursor of O
3
(14,15)
. In
urban air, NO
2
can photolysis to NO and atomic
oxygen; the atomic oxygen reacts with oxygen to
form O
3
. However, fresh nitric oxide (NO) from vehicles’
combustion reacts with O
3
to form NO
2
lead to ozone
removal
(14,15)
. The main sources of air pollutants in the
Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate come from petrochemical
industries and traffic in the area. If unexpected situation
occurr in Map Ta Phut industrial estate, such as
chemicals leakage, fire and explosion of chemicals; the
VOC levels will be much higher concentration than the
results in the current study. The reported accute health
effects will be more serious. When compared the results
of the present study with other studies, the EPA did a
study in six communities in different parts of the United
States, and found that the VOCs were ten times higher
indoors than those outdoors, including areas with
petrochemical plants as air pollution sources of
VOCs
(21)
. The current study gave similar results with
the EPA study; the symptoms of VOCs-exposed
subjects included eye and upper respiratory irritation,
nasal congestion, headache, shortness of breath,
nausea, and vomiting. When subjects are exposed to
CO, symptoms may include fatigue, headache,
dizziness, nausea, vomitting, cognitive impairment and
tachycardia
(21)
. Yang et al (1997) studied the repiratory
and health effects of a population living in a
petrochemical-polluted area in Taiwan and found similar
acute symptoms including eye irritation, nausea, throat
irritation and chemical odor were reported at a
significantly higher rate in the exposed area than in the
control area
(9)
.
The results of the present study showed that
the petrochemical air pollutants were harmful to
populations in the close proximity of the industrial
estate. The health risk may be more serious in the
vulnarable groups such as children, elderly, pregnant
women and unborn child. This information will be
useful for decision-makers to plan to reduce the
emissions especially cancer causing agents from these
industries. The stack emission control for cancer
causing agents should help reduce the toxicity of
industrial polluted area.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank most cordially the
staff at the Pollution Control Department, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment, for providing
statistics on the monitored industrial air pollutants at
Map Ta Phut Health Center in the Wat So Phon
community for this research.
Potential conflicts of interest
None.
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S72 J Med Assoc Thai Vol. 96 Suppl. 5 2013
⌫
     
 ⌫ 
  
⌫ ⌫

 
   ⌫   
⌫ ⌫  
   
 ⌫⌫⌫   ⌫⌫⌫
    ⌫
⌫   
    

 
    
... It has been reported in the literature that the health risk of petrochemical air pollutants may be more serious to individuals in the close proximity especially among the vulnerable groups such as children, elderly, pregnant women, and their unborn children. 24 The results of the current study reported an elevated family history of abortion among Al-Hashimeya population compared to Bal'ma population (OR = 3.07; 95% CI: 2.05-4.60). This result is consistent with results from a previous study in Jordan which reported that exposure to air pollution was associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes including spontaneous abortion (OR = 1.95). ...
... 26 The results from this study are similar to findings from other studies that revealed an association between living near the petrochemical plant and having more respiratory symptoms, including cough and lower lung function. 24,[27][28][29][30] Additionally, an increase in wheezing symptoms was associated with children living in areas close to an oil refinery versus children living in the reference area in Italy. 31 Results of the current study show that participants from Al-Hashimeya have a higher asthma prevalence than participants from Bal'ma (OR = 5.20; 95%CI: 2.11-12.84). ...
... 27,29 The previous literature reported that populations living near an oil refinery had eyes, ears, nose, and throat irritations. 24,28 Participants in the current study reported significant statistical difference between residents from the 2 towns for having eye irritation (OR = 2.27; 95%CI: 1.57-3.28) and phlegm (OR = 2.03; 95%CI: 1.32-3.12). ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction Air pollution can adversely affect the health of communities and manifest as a variety of symptoms. Objective This study aimed at assessing health symptoms among populations living near an oil refinery in Jordan. Methods A cross-sectional survey study was conducted utilizing convenient random sampling at Al-Hashimeya town (where the refinery is located) and Bal’ma town (about 12 km further away from refinery). A total of 486 participants were recruited for the study. The data were checked, coded, and entered to excel sheet and exported to the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 20 for further analysis. Both bivariate and multivariate logistic regressions were used to identify associated factors. Variables having a P ⩽ 0.25 were fitted to multivariate logistic regression so as to assess the presence and strength of associations between socio-demographic characteristics and health symptoms and outcomes. A P value < 0.05 was considered for statistical significance. Results In the cross tabulation analysis, there were significant differences in the reported respiratory health problems and history of abortions in the family between residents in the 2 towns (P < 0.05). Only 4.7% of Al-Hashimeya residents were extremely enjoying their town compared to 32.9% among Bal’ma residents (P < 0.001). In addition, residents of Al-Hashimeya were at several folds higher risk to have phlegm and about 3 times more likely to have skin problems compared to participants from Bal’ma (P < 0.001). Furthermore, reporting asthma was substantially higher among Al-Hashimeya residents (odds ratio [OR] = 5.20; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.11-12.84), and they were more likely to perceive the neighboring oil refinery industry as the leading cause of their health problems than Bal’ma residents (OR = 86.40; 95%CI: 45.95-162.44). Conclusion Residents living close to the oil refinery industry in Jordan report adverse impacts on their health, including respiratory problems, skin diseases, and perception of poor health.
... The displayed results in Table 1 show high percentages of respiratory symptoms in the age group 45-65 years especially respiratory symptoms including cough, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing with percentage of 58% of participants. A study by Kongtip et al. (2013) was conducted on people living near petrochemical industrial estate in Thailand in 2012: the results showed that people had acute respiratory adverse health effects, shortness of breath, cough, nose congestion, and sore throat from exposure to petrochemical emissions. Similarly, another study was conducted in the same country, which is Thailand: the results showed that adults aged ≧ 40 years were more likely had respiratory health effects than those who aged <40 years (Tanyanont et al., 2012). ...
Article
Petroleum emissions from refineries include a variety of metals and many types of gases which are recognized as carcinogenic and which cause adverse health problems as well. For many years, residents of rural areas who live in proximity to petroleum plants in some countries have complained of adverse health problems, which linked with gas emissions from nearby natural gas refineries. The aim of the study to know the percentage of health complaints and acute symptoms among residents sample. The study made on a random simple sample of residents who live close to petroleum plants in El Brega city. The data were collected from members of residents by using self-administered questionnaire which including questions on demographic and generic health and the health problems they may have. The results showed a high percentage of acute respiratory symptoms in the age group 45-65 years especially respiratory symptoms including a cough, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing with a percentage of 58% of participants. Participants who aged from 30 to 44 years is most likely are suffering from dermal reactions with a moderately high percentage, which is 61.5%. Conclusion: Our study showed excess in the prevalence of many acute respiratory health problems and complaints from petroleum emissions among members of the samples of residents.
... The Map Ta Phut industrial estate in Rayong is an important source of pollution in the EEC. The Map Ta Phut industrial estate contains petrochemical and heavy industry plants and is a source of heavy metals and organophosphates to the environment [17]. Improving our understanding of the relationships between adverse health effects and exposure to air pollution will support the development of policies and strategies for decreasing such adverse health effects and protecting human health. ...
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The Eastern Economic Corridor in Thailand is undergoing development, but industrial activities are causing serious air pollution. This study aimed to examine the effects of particulate matter (PM10), fine particulate matter (PM2.5), SO2, NO2, O3, and CO on outpatient department (OPD) visits and mortality with various causes in the Eastern Economic Corridor, Thailand between 2013 and 2019 using a case-crossover design and conditional Poisson model. The corresponding burden of disease due to air pollution exposure was calculated. A 1 µg/m3 increase in the PM10 was associated with significant increases in OPD visits for circulatory diseases (0.22, 95% CI 0.01, 0.34), respiratory diseases (0.21, 95% CI 0.13, 0.28), and skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases (0.18, 95% CI 0.10, 0.26). By contrast, a 1 µg/m3 increase in the PM10 was associated with significant increases in mortality from skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases (0.79, 95% CI 0.04, 1.56). A 1 µg/m3 increase in PM2.5 was associated with significant increases in mortality from circulatory diseases (0.75, 95% CI 0.20, 1.34), respiratory diseases (0.82, 95% CI 0.02, 1.63), and skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases (2.91, 95% CI 0.99, 4.86). The highest OPD burden was for circulatory diseases. Respiratory effects were attributed to PM10 exceeding the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) of Thailand (120 μg/m3). The highest morbidity burden was for skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases attributed to PM2.5 concentrations that exceeded the NAAQs (50 μg/m3). PM pollution in the EEC could strongly contribute to OPD visits and morbidity from various diseases. Preventing PM10 concentrations from being higher than 60 µg/m3 could decrease OPD visits by more than 33,265 and 29,813 for circulatory and respiratory diseases, respectively. Our study suggests that such pollution increases the risks of OPD visits and mortality in various causes in the Thai EEC. Reducing the ambient air pollution concentration of NAAQSs in Thailand could reduce the health effect on the Thai population.
... Living near environmental hazards is associated with pregnancy complications, childhood cancer, cardiovascular illness, and diabetes [12]. Irritation of the eyes, headaches, and dizziness are also reported health complaints when living in proximity to a refinery [13]. Natural disasters such as flooding, and hurricanes can make living in proximity to industry even worse [14]. ...
Article
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Southeast Texas is home to some of the largest refineries in the United States. During Hurricane Harvey, emergency shutdowns took place. In this exploratory investigation, we examine how government air monitors performed in measuring air quality in Beaumont, Texas during and in the months following Hurricane Harvey. Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) data from two active air monitors in Beaumont, Texas were analyzed during the year 2017–2018. Concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitric oxide (NO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), ozone, benzene, and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) were investigated. The number of hours and days no data were reported by air monitors were also investigated. Yearly maximum values (MAX, all in parts per billion (ppb)) in 2017 for SO2, NO, and NOx (53.7, 113.4, 134, respectively) and their respective standard deviations (SD: 1.3, 3.4, and 14) were higher as compared to 2018 (MAX, all in ppb and (SD) = 40.9, (1.4); 103.9, (3.3); 123.8, (14), respectively). The data capture rate for these chemicals were between 88 and 97% in both years. During the months following Hurricane Harvey (August–December 2017) there was an increase in most maximum values. The yearly averages for H2S were 0.68 ppb (SD 1.02) in 2017 and 0.53 ppb (SD 1.07) in 2018. Missing days were observed for both the H2S and NOx air monitors, with the highest number observed in 2017 (213 missing days) for the air monitor measuring H2S. We identified that residents of Beaumont, Texas are exposed daily to low-level concentrations of air pollutants. H2S is released each day at a level high enough to be smelled. Data capture rates for air monitors are not always above 90%. Improved air quality data and disaster preparations are needed in Beaumont, Texas.
... Our nding that risk of any respiratory symptom was elevated among the exposed group, is in line with other studies in petroleum and gas re nery workers (14,65). We also found signi cant increases in reported mucus hypersecretion and shortness of breath among petrochemical workers, which accord with the results of a study in residents near petro-re nery plants where symptoms such as shortness of breath, cough, phlegm and weakness were reported (66). ...
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Background Petrochemical workers are exposed to a variety of airborne toxic compounds which have been associated with increased risk for respiratory outcomes. However, long-term exposure to SO2, NO2, O3, H2S and NH3 in relation to spirometric parameters and self-reported respiratory problems is largely unknown. Methods Airborne concentration levels of SO2, NO2, O3, H2S and NH3 were collected from two fixed stations over a 3-year period in a petrochemical complex. We assessed spirometric parameters and respiratory symptoms in the petrochemical workers (n = 200) and in an unexposed group (n = 200). We calculated β-coefficients (β) and odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) before and after adjustment for covariates. Results The mean airborne pollution levels were 159 µg/m³ for SO2, 43 µg/m³ for NO2, 66 µg/m³ for O3, 6 µg/m³ for H2S, and 24 µg/m³ for NH3. We found a significant reduction in spirometric parameters among petrochemical workers compared to the unexposed: FEV1 (forced expiratory volume in 1s) (adjusted β -12; 95%CI -16, -7.64), FEV1/ FVC (forced vital capacity) (β -7.26; 95%CI -9.23, -5.28), and PEF (peak expiratory flow) (β -6.61; 95%CI -12, -0.76). Additionally, we observed higher adjusted risks for any respiratory symptom (OR 4.69; 95%CI 1.76, 12), mucus (OR 4.36; 95%CI 1.70, 11) and shortness of breath (OR 15; 4.95, 46) among petrochemical workers compared to the unexposed group. Conclusions Most measured airborne pollution levels were within the ambient recommendation levels. Still, long-term exposure to low level airborne pollutants, reduced FEV1, FEV1/FVC and PEF, and increased respiratory symptoms in Iranian petrochemical workers compared to unexposed controls.
... These toxic pollutants (particulate matter and PAHs) are suspected to cause health effects in the employees as well as the residents who live around this industrial area. In addition, the health problems of these people are expected to increase the chances of respiratory diseases and cancer [4]. Thus, concerned for air pollutants in this area due to the industrial processes along with the transportation sectors is warranted. ...
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The ambient and indoor air concentrations of PM10 and PM10-bound PAHs (16 priority PAHs) were investigated in Rayong Province, Thailand. The locations of the selected study areas were Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate and its vicinity comprising six sampling sites (four industrial areas and two vicinity areas). The indoor and ambient air samples of were collected in March 2017. The sampling sites located close to the road were detected the greatest ambient average concentrations of PM10, with an average value of 56.06 µg m-3 (Map Chalut Area or MC). The levels of indoor PM10 were mostly dependent on the resident activities and the highest mean level of PM10 was 31.29 µg m-3 detected at Huai Pong. The Benzo(b)fluoranthene and acenaphthylene were the major PAHs found to have the highest 24-h average concentrations for both indoor and ambient air. The highest mean ambient and indoor air levels of benzo(b)fluoranthene were 49.18 and 30.88 ng m-3, respectively, found at MC. In terms of 16 total PAHs, MC was found to have the greatest level. Analysis of the diagnostic ratios determined that the traffic density was the major source of influence on particle-bound PAH concentrations for both ambient and indoor air samples, which indicated that the greater the traffic volume, the higher the level of PAHs.
... and discharge (OR = 6.0, 95% CI: 2.3-15.9). In another study performed on 111 individuals living near a petrochemical industrial estate in Thailand, VOC data were obtained from an ambient air monitoring station of the Pollution Control Department of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, located at the primary care unit in one of the communities in the study area [49]. Individuals were interviewed daily for 63 days about the presence of twelve symptoms, categorized into respiratory symptoms and other health symptoms (headache, shortness of breath, fever, eye irritation, dizziness, and weakness). ...
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Air pollution has broad effects on human health involving many organ systems. The ocular surface is an excellent model with which to study the effects of air pollution on human health as it is in constant contact with the environment, and it is directly accessible, facilitating disease monitoring. Effects of air pollutants on the ocular surface typically manifest as dry eye (DE) symptoms and signs. In this review, we break down air pollution into particulate matter (organic and inorganic) and gaseous compounds and summarize the literature regarding effects of various exposures on DE. Additionally, we examine the effects of weather (relative humidity, temperature) on DE symptoms and signs. To do so, we conducted a PubMed search using key terms to summarize the existing literature on the effects of air pollution and weather on DE. While we tried to focus on the effect of specific exposures on specific aspects of DE, environmental conditions are often studied concomitantly, and thus, there are unavoidable interactions between our variables of interest. Overall, we found that air pollution and weather conditions have differential adverse effects on DE symptoms and signs. We discuss these findings and potential mitigation strategies, such as air purifiers, air humidifiers, and plants, that may be instituted as treatments at an individual level to address environmental contributors to DE.
... Adverse health effects were observed in nearby residents due to exposure to petrochemical-derived chemicals in ambient air (Pasetto et al. 2012;Yuan et al. 2016b). For example, residents who lived in the vicinity of petrochemical industrial sites had higher risks of overall cancers, brain cancer, and respiratory disorders (Kongtip et al. 2013;Liu et al. 2008;Rovira et al. 2014). However, contributions of the physicochemical characteristics of particulate matter (PM) to disease development remain unclear. ...
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Adverse health effects have been observed in nearby residents due to exposure to petrochemical-derived chemicals. The objective of this study was to examine associations of soluble metals with lung and liver toxicity in fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the vicinity of a petrochemical complex. PM2.5 was collected in the vicinity of a petrochemical complex of Mailiao Township (Yunlin County, Taiwan) to investigate lung and liver toxicity in BALB/c mice. The PM2.5 concentration was 30.2 ± 11.2 μg/m3, and the PM2.5 was clustered in major local emissions (19.1 μg/m3) and minor local emissions (14.1 μg/m3) using a k-means clustering model. The PM2.5 (50 and 150 μg/kg) and PM2.5-equivalent soluble nickel (Ni), vanadium (V), and lead (Pb) concentrations were intratracheally instilled into BALB/c mice. PM2.5 and V significantly decreased the tidal volume after exposure (p < 0.05). The peak expiratory flow (PEF) and peak inspiratory flow (PIF)/PEF ratio were significantly altered by 150 μg/kg V (p < 0.05). V and Pb significantly increased total protein and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) (p < 0.05). Interleukin (IL)-6 in BALF significantly increased after exposure to Pb (p < 0.05) accompanied by lung inflammatory infiltration. PM2.5 and Pb significantly increased levels of 8-isoprostane (p < 0.05). The level of caspase-3 activity significantly increased after exposure to Pb (p < 0.05). LDH in the liver was significantly increased by PM2.5 (p < 0.05). 8-Isoprostane in the liver was significantly increased by PM2.5 and Pb (p < 0.05). IL-6 in the liver was significantly increased by PM2.5, Ni, V, and Pb after exposure (p < 0.05), accompanied by liver inflammatory infiltration. Our results demonstrated that V in PM2.5 was associated with an increase in 8-isoprostane for all emissions and major local petrochemical emissions. In conclusion, V contributes to in vivo liver toxicity induced by PM2.5 in the vicinity of a petrochemical complex.
... A larger scale study involving children living close to heavy industry in Kemaman, Malaysia also found a similar health outcome with significant associations between air pollutants exposure, in schools and homes, and respiratory symptoms (18). A study conducted in Thailand and Taiwan disclosed that people living near petrochemical industrial area experienced multiple acute respiratory symptoms from exposure to polluted air (19,20). These indicate that proximity to industrial sites, especially petrochemical plants, plays a vital role in worsening the respiratory health of the residents nearby. ...
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Introduction: Air pollutants that possessed genotoxic properties have the potential to induce genetic damage. Micro-nuclei (MN) frequency is used as an indicator for identifying potential genotoxic exposures. A comparative cross-sectional study was carried out among primary school children in a petrochemical industrial area (N=111, Kemaman) and a rural (N=65, Dungun) area in Terengganu. Methods: Validated questionnaires were distributed to obtain the respondents' socio-demographic data, previous exposure and reported respiratory illness. The frequency of micronu-clei was assessed in collected buccal mucosa samples of children. The air monitoring was also carried out at 6 selected schools. Results: Results from the statistical analysis carried out showed significant differences with p=0.001 for all parameters assessed between areas, which included ultrafine particles, UFP (z =-4.842), PM 2.5 (z =-10.392), PM 10 (z=-11.074) NO 2 (z =-11.868), SO 2 (z =-5.667), relative humidity (z =-5.587). The MN frequency was statistically significant with PM 2.5 (χ 2 = 17.78, p=0.001) and PM 10 (χ 2 = 15.429, p =0.001). The statistical analysis also showed a significant association between UFP and coughing (PR=2.965, 95% CI=1.069-8.225). The multiple logistic regression analysis showed that the main pollutants influencing MN frequencies were UFP and NO 2 with UFP (PR=1.877, 95%CI= 1.174-3.002) and NO 2 (PR=1.008, 95%CI= 1.001-1.015). Conclusion: This study demonstrated that exposure to air pollutants may increase the risk of respiratory illness and may induce MN formation among children.
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The present literature review was aimed at assessing whether living in the vicinity of petrochemical industries complexes – including oil refineries – is associated with a higher incidence of adverse health effects other than cancer. The available scientific literature on this potential association was reviewed by means of PubMed and Scopus databases. It is known that air pollutants such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and dioxide, volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and various metals are commonly detected in the surroundings of these complexes. Most of the reviewed studies report increases in the prevalence of asthma and other respiratory problems for children and adults living in the surroundings of the petrochemical complexes, as well as reproductive outcomes in pregnant women. Based on this, as well as on similar conclusions also found for cancer incidence and mortality, we do recommend to conduct all the necessary studies for each specific complex in order -if necessary- to take the appropriate measurements to significantly reduce the levels of air pollutants can be achieved.
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The TEAM Study measured exposures to 20-25 volatile organic compounds in the air, drinking water, and exhaled breath of 650 persons in 4 states. Volume I is a summary and overview of the entire study. Volume II deals with studies in New Jersey, North Carolina, and North Dakota. Volume III deals with studies in California. Volume IV presents the Standard Operations Procedures employed in the study. Major findings include: (1) personal monitors and breath spirometers employing Tenax adsorbents are sensitive and adequately precise instruments to determine normal daily exposures of the general public; (2) personal and indoor exposures generally exceeded outdoor concentrations; (3) major sources of exposure include occupations, smoking, visiting dry cleaners, and filling gas tanks.
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Reported herewith are the results from an ongoing study of outdoor air pollution and the health of persons living in the communities in close proximity to petrochemical industrial complexes. To determine if there is an excess of adverse health outcomes in the population exposed to petrochemical industrial emissions, a health survey was undertaken in 1996 in this area and in one reference area which has no local industrial emissions. The subjects were 436 adults (30-64 years of age) living in the Sanwei area (exposed area) and 488 in Taicei (reference area). For several indicators of respiratory health, including cough, wheezing, and chronic bronchitis, the prevalence rates were not significantly different between the study and the control populations. Acute irritative symptoms (eye irritation, nausea, throat irritation, and chemical odor perception) were significantly more common in the exposed area, particularly perception of chemical odors (84.6% vs 2.1%). It is concluded that exposure to petrochemical air emissions may be associated with increased rates of acute irritative symptoms. Future studies are needed to identify the potential role of petrochemical industrial emissions (particularly volatile organic compounds) in the genesis of acute irritative symptoms in a nearby petrochemical industrial area.
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In 1994-1995 a cross-sectional epidemiological study investigating the respiratory health of school children in two Taiwan areas was conducted; one area was located in a region with petrochemical manufacturing complexes (Linyuan), and the other was situated in a reference area with no local industrial emissions (Taihsi). All primary school children residing in the two areas were involved in the study. Four hundred seventy children were studied in the area with high exposure to industrial emissions, and 611 children lived in the reference area. Respiratory health was assessed by evaluation of the children's respiratory symptoms and illnesses, using a parent-completed questionnaire. Particulates, sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and acid aerosols levels were significantly higher in the exposed area than in the reference area. The school children in the petrochemical area had significantly more upper respiratory symptoms and asthma compared with the children living in the control area. Although the association with known petrochemical air pollution is suggestive, this cross-sectional study cannot confirm a causal relation and further studies are needed. (C) 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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This paper presents the measurements of gaseous SO2, NO2, HNO3 and NH3 and particulate NH4+, NO3−and SO42− at Rampur, a rural site of semi-arid region of India and annual mean concentrations are 3.7±2.2, 7.3±3.7, 0.7±0.6 and 6.7±4.2 and 1.0±0.4, 1.1±1.3 and 2.6±1.6 μg m−3, respectively. Seasonal variation with higher concentration in winter is observed for gaseous SO2, NO2, and NH3 and particulate NH4+. The concentration of HNO3 and particulate NO3−and SO42− are higher in summer. Summer to winter ratio of HNO3 and particulate NO3− are 3.8 and 1.8, respectively, showing seasonal variation is more pronounced in case of HNO3 than particulate NO3−. The ratio of gaseous NH3 to particulate NH4+ (NH3/NH4+) is more than 1 probably due to basic nature of aerosol. Examination of equilibrium between gaseous NH3 and HNO3 and particulate NH4NO3 shows observed equilibrium constant is lower than theoretical equilibrium constant in summer and vice versa in winter.
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Traffic-related air pollutants are a commonly important source of air pollution. Research on the effects of multiple traffic-related air pollutants on street vendors is scarce. This study evaluated the health effect of traffic-related air pollutants in street vendors. It was designed as a panel study, covering 61 d of data collection, on the daily concentration of air pollutants and daily percentage of respiratory and other health symptoms reported. An adjusted odds ratio was used to estimate the risk of developing respiratory and other adverse health symptoms for street vendors exposed to multiple air pollutants, fine particulate (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO) and total volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), after controlling for confounding factors. In the first model, significant associations were found with the adjusted odds ratios of 1.022 and 1.027 for eye irritation and dizziness for PM2.5 respectively. The adjusted odds ratio of total VOCs was 1.381 for phlegm, 4.840 for chest tightness and 1.429 for upper respiratory symptoms, and the adjusted odds ratio for CO was 1.748 for a sore throat and 1.880 for a cold and 1.655 for a cough. In the second model, the effect of PM2.5, total VOCs and CO gave a slightly lower effect with the symptoms. The results clearly show the health effects of traffic-related air pollutants on street vendors, and imply suggestions about how to reduce exposure of street vendors.
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A group of 62 human subjects were exposed for 2.75 h to a mixture of 22 volatile organic compounds known to be indoor air pollutants. Three total concentrations of 0, 5 and 25 mg/m3 of the same 22 compounds were used. The subjects were all healthy and without asthma, allergy, or chronic bronchitis but claimed often to suffer from dry mucous membranes in eyes, nose, or upper airways. By using a questionnaire on 26 different air quality aspects, a significant effect of exposure was found for questions related to general air quality, odour, ability to concentrate, and/or mucous membrane irritation. Continuous evaluation of irritation in eyes, nose, and throat showed significant correlation to exposure both at 5 and 25 mg/m3. The effect was acute and showed no signs of adaptation. A digit span performance test showed decreased scores during exposure.
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Transport first became a significant source of air pollution after the problems of sooty smog from coal combustion had largely been solved in western European and North American cities. Since then, emissions from road, air, rail and water transport have been partly responsible for acid deposition, stratospheric ozone depletion and climate change. Most recently, road traffic exhaust emissions have been the cause of much concern about the effects of urban air quality on human health and tropospheric ozone production. This article considers the variety of transport impacts on the atmospheric environment by reviewing three examples: urban road traffic and human health, aircraft emissions and global atmospheric change, and the contribution of sulphur emissions from ships to acid deposition. Each example has associated with it a different level of uncertainty, such that a variety of policy responses to the problems are appropriate, from adaptation through precautionary emissions abatement to cost–benefit analysis and optimised abatement. There is some evidence that the current concern for road transport contribution to urban air pollution is justified, but aircraft emissions should also give cause for concern given that air traffic is projected to continue to increase. Emissions from road traffic are being reduced substantially by the introduction of technology especially three-way catalysts and also, most recently, by local traffic reduction measures especially in western European cities. In developing countries and Eastern Europe, however, there remains the possibility of great increase in car ownership and use, and it remains to be seen whether these countries will adopt measures now to prevent transport-related air pollution problems becoming severe later in the 21st Century.
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Kanawha County, West Virginia, is one of the largest chemical manufacturing centers in the United States. In 1988, a survey of respiratory and irritant symptoms was administered to all third grade to fifth grade children attending 74 elementary schools in Kanawha County, and concentrations of 15 volatile organic compounds were measured at each school. Exposures were characterized by school location, by the sum of the concentrations of five petroleum-related compounds, and by the sum of the concentrations of 10 compounds more specific to industrial processes. Children enrolled in schools within the valley had higher rates of doctor-diagnosed asthma (odds ratio (OR) = 1.27, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.09-1.48) and a higher score on a composite indicator of five chronic lower respiratory symptoms (OR = 1.13, 95% CI 1.02-1.26) than children who were enrolled in schools outside of the valley. The incidence of chronic respiratory symptoms was also positively associated with the concentrations of volatile organic compounds. The estimated change in the odds ratio for chronic lower respiratory symptoms associated with a 2-micrograms/m3 change in process-related compounds was 1.08 (95% CI 1.02-1.14). No consistent pattern was found between acute irritant symptoms in the 2 weeks preceding questionnaire administration and either proximity to industry or exposure to volatile organic compounds. The authors conclude that exposure to volatile organic compounds, including emissions from chemical manufacturing plants, is associated with increased rates of chronic respiratory symptoms characteristic of reactive airways.
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In 1994-1995 a cross-sectional epidemiological study investigating the respiratory health of school children in two Taiwan areas was conducted; one area was located in a region with petrochemical manufacturing complexes (Linyuan), and the other was situated in a reference area with no local industrial emissions (Taihsi). All primary school children residing in the two areas were involved in the study. Four hundred seventy children were studied in the area with high exposure to industrial emissions, and 611 children lived in the reference area. Respiratory health was assessed by evaluation of the children's respiratory symptoms and illnesses, using a parent-completed questionnaire. Particulates, sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and acid aerosols levels were significantly higher in the exposed area than in the reference area. The school children in the petrochemical area had significantly more upper respiratory symptoms and asthma compared with the children living in the control area. Although the association with known petrochemical air pollution is suggestive, this cross-sectional study cannot confirm a causal relation and further studies are needed.