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Acute Classroom Exercise Breaks Improve On-Task Behavior in 4th and 5th Grade Students: A Dose-Response
Abstract
This study was the first to directly compare the acute effects of 5, 10, and 20 minutes of classroom exercise breaks on on-task behavior.
Methods
In this within-subject experiment, 96 4th and 5th grade students, in 5 classroom groups, participated in each of four conditions: 10 minutes of sedentary classroom activity and 5, 10, 20 minutes of classroom exercise breaks led by research staff. On-task behavior was directly and systematically observed from videotapes before and after each condition. The post-test time-on-task scores were compared using a repeated measures mixed ANCOVA, adjusted for age, classroom, and the time-varying pre-test time-on-task.
Results
Time-on-task was significantly higher in students after 10 minutes of classroom exercise breaks compared to a sedentary attention control (87.6% vs 77.1%, d=0.45, p=.004).
Conclusions
Ten minutes of classroom exercise breaks improved on-task behavior in children.
... There is strong empirical evidence demonstrating that a brief burst of physical activity lasting 16-25 min at moderate intensity (e.g., breathing harder as if you are moving somewhere because you are late) improves components of self-regulation, including attention and inhibitory control across all ages (Pontifex et al., 2019). Providing greater opportunities to engage in movement throughout the school day-even in short burstsenhances academic achievement, improves on-task behavior, and increases attention Howie et al., 2014Howie et al., , 2015Mahar, 2011;Norris et al., 2020;Pontifex et al., 2013;Szabo-Reed et al., 2017, 2019Watson et al., 2017). ...
... Intervention research integrating physical activity with academic skills in classrooms indicates that children yield the highest gains in self-regulation and well-being following activities in which they are engaged in energetic play for at least 9-13 min of a 20 min lesson (McGowan et al., 2020(McGowan et al., , 2021b. In contrast, classroom lessons in which children were only active for 2-5 min demonstrated no improvement in self-regulation, although children indicated they enjoyed the lesson more than being seated (Howie et al., 2014(Howie et al., , 2015Mavilidi et al., 2015Mavilidi et al., , 2016Mavilidi et al., , 2017Mavilidi et al., , 2018. Interesting to note is evidence from small samples of kindergarten students with Autism Spectrum Disorder showing that brief (~ 5 min) bouts of physical activity embedded within the typical school day improve student engagement and on-task behavior in lessons immediately following such activity breaks (Harbin et al., 2022;Miramontez & Schwartz, 2016). ...
... Implementing short physical activity breaks (i.e., shorter than 10 min) as placeholder or transition activities within instructional contexts offers little to no benefits to children's physical and cognitive development, but is proven to increase enjoyment of learning. For instance, having children march while spelling words was not associated with improvements in academic learning or self-regulation relative to seated lessons (Howie et al., 2014). Instead, infusing physical activity into meaningful learning opportunities helps children regulate their emotions and behavior immediately after the lesson and supports improved retention of literacy, foreign languages, geography, science, and math concepts up to one month later (McGowan et al., 2020(McGowan et al., , 2021aMavilidi et al., 2015Mavilidi et al., , 2016Mavilidi et al., , 2017Mavilidi et al., , 2018. ...
Self-regulation is a critical emergent developmental competency that lays the foundation for children’s later psychosocial health and academic achievement. Recent work indicates that physical activity and energetic play opportunities support children’s self-regulation in the early childhood classroom. Many early childhood programs offer opportunities for children to engage in play, but teachers are rarely seen modeling physically active behaviors and face barriers to integrating opportunities for energetic play with early academic skills. Early childhood educational settings hoping to support children’s self-regulation development can provide multiple opportunities for children to observe teachers modeling physical activity, provide teacher support and scaffolding for physically active learning centers, and engage children in meaningful energetic play while promoting a range of academic skills. This article provides 10 research-based guidelines for supporting children’s self-regulation development through physical activity in early childhood classrooms.
... There is strong empirical evidence demonstrating that a brief burst of physical activity lasting 16-25 minutes at moderate intensity (i.e., breathing harder than daily activity) improves components of self-regulation, including attention and inhibitory control across all ages (Pontifex et al., 2019). Providing greater opportunities to engage in physical activity during the school day-even in short bursts-enhances academic achievement, improves ontask behavior, and increases attention (Howie, Beets, & Pate, 2014;Howie, Schatz, & Pate, 2015;Mahar, 2011;Pontifex et al., 2013). For young children, physical activity can help them regulate their emotions and behavioral self-regulation (McGowan et al., 2020(McGowan et al., , 2021aYang et al., 2020). ...
... Intervention research integrating physical activity with academic skills in classrooms indicates that children yield the highest gains in self-regulation and well-being following activities in which they are engaged in energetic play for at least 9-13 minutes of a 20 minute lesson (McGowan et al., 2020(McGowan et al., , 2021a. In contrast, classroom lessons in which children were only active for 2-5 minutes demonstrated no improvement in selfregulation, although children indicated they enjoyed the lesson more than being seated (Howie et al., 2014(Howie et al., , 2015Mavilidi et al., 2015Mavilidi et al., , 2016Mavilidi et al., , 2017Mavilidi et al., , 2018. To maximize the likelihood that children will get enough physical activity to reap the physical and cognitive benefits, planning active learning opportunities for at least 20 minutes will ensure children accrue the minimum 10 minutes being physically active. ...
... Implementing short physical activity breaks (i.e., shorter than 10 minutes) as placeholder or transition activities within instructional contexts offers little to no benefits to children's physical and cognitive development. For instance, having children march while spelling words was not associated with improvements in academic learning or self-regulation relative to seated lessons (Howie et al., 2014). Instead, infusing physical activity into meaningful learning opportunities helps children regulate their emotions and behavior immediately after the lesson and supports improved retention of literacy, foreign languages, geography, science, and math concepts up to one month later (McGowan et al. 2021a(McGowan et al. , 2020Mavilidi et al. 2017Mavilidi et al. , 2015Mavilidi et al. , 2016Mavilidi et al. , 2018. ...
Self-regulation is a critical emergent developmental competency that lays the foundation for children’s later psychosocial health and academic achievement. Recent work indicates that physical activity and energetic play opportunities support children’s self-regulation in the early childhood classroom. Many early childhood programs offer opportunities for children to engage in play, but teachers are rarely seen modeling physically active behaviors and face barriers to integrating opportunities for energetic play with early academic skills. Early childhood educational settings hoping to support children’s self-regulation development can provide multiple opportunities for children to observe teachers modeling physical activity, provide teacher support and scaffolding for physically active learning centers, and engage children in meaningful energetic play while promoting a range of academic skills. This article provides 10 research-based guidelines for supporting children’s self-regulation development through physical activity in early childhood classrooms.
... Bilirubin has been commonly considered to be simply the "final product" of heme catabolism [74]. The rise in bilirubin in rats exposed to high altitudes may be due to an increase in red blood cell counts [75]. Bilirubin is an endogenous antioxidant that plays an important role in the anti-oxidative stress and anti-inflammation of neurons [76,77]. ...
... Age has been shown to moderate the influence of exercise on executive functions, with the beneficial effects of aerobic exercise increasing with age in adulthood [71]. It has been suggested that cognitive functions are most sensitive to sensorimotor experiences in phases during which they undergo developmental changes, such as executive functions in childhood and old age [72][73][74][75]. Participants in the present study were between 18 and 50 years of age. ...
... Reason for Exclusion Adsiz et al. (2012) [61] No AB Amicone et al. (2018) [62] No AB Bartholomew et al. (2018) [63] No attention: Time on task Ben-Zeev et al. (2020) [64] No AB: PE lesson Blasche et al. (2018) [65] No attention Budde et al. (2008) [28] No proper CG: PE lesson Chou et al. (2020) [66] No AB: PE lesson Chrismas et al. (2019) [67] No AB Contreras et al. (2020) [68] Not written in English. [71] No AB Gonzalez et al. (2020) [72] Not written in English Grieco et al. (2016) [73] No attention: Time on task Howie et al. (2015) [74] No attention Howie et al. (2014) [75] No attention: Time on task Kubesch et al. (2009) [76] No AB: PE lesson Mahar (2011) [77] Review Mavilidi et al. (2020) [78] No attention: [85] Not written in English Owen et al. (2018) [86] No AB Pesce et al. (2013) [87] No AB Ruiz-Ariza et al. (2021) [88] Not written in English Sánchez-López et al. (2015) [89] Protocol Sugahara et al. (2018) [90] No AB Tan et al. (2016) [4] No attention: Time on task Vazou, et al. (2020) [91] No attention: Observation [92] Protocol Watson et al. (2019) [93] No attention: Classroom behavior Webster et al. (2015) [94] No attention: ...
Sports and exercise have been related to acute and chronic changes in brain health and function. Regular exercise has been used as a non-pharmacological approach for protecting brain health while improving some brain functions. With benefits observed in young and old individuals and healthy and clinical populations, sports and exercise seem to play an important role in contributing to brain health and function. Despite some evidence regarding the contributions of sports and exercise to brain health and function, there is an increasing number of original research papers and systematic reviews with or without meta-analysis that may help professionals to identify which types of sport and exercise are suitable for specific improvements and the adequate duration of carrying
out such activities. Additionally, there is space for further analysis of the contribution of sports and exercise to both the improvement of efficiency in work and to the mitigation of the effects of specific neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, the Special Issue “Brain Function and Health, Sports, and Exercise”welcomed contributions from different areas of knowledge that may assist in improving our understand ing of the relationships between sports and exercise and brain health and function. Original studies, systematic reviews, and meta-analysis on the following main topics were received: (i) role of exercise in neurodegenerative diseases; (ii) role of sport and exercise in cognitive performance; (iii) role of sport and exercise in brain health; (iv) effects of different sport and exercise
modes on brain function and health; and (v) dose–response relationships between exercise and brain health and function.
Filipe Manuel Clemente and Ana Filipa Silva (Editors)
... Latorre-Román et al. (2021), observed that some cognitive skills such creativity and cognitive flexibility, improved after 10 weeks of 30 min of active recess (three times per week) in schoolchildren (8-12 years old). Other worldwide studies have shown that active breaks improve students' behaviour in the classroom (Howie, Beets, and Pate 2014a), cognitive function (Ma, Le Mare, and Gurd 2015) and academic performance (Howie, Schatz, and Pate 2015). However, the last systematic review with a meta-analysis, carried out by Masini et al. (2020), showed how the effects of active breaks on cognitive variables are not yet conclusive. ...
... Furthermore, 5-minute active breaks of moderate-vigorous intensity (e.g. walking, jumping and running) were insufficient to improve academic results (Howie, Beets, and Pate 2014a;Howie, Schatz, and Pate 2015). Other authors have suggested using 4-minute vigorous intensity breaks (e.g. ...
... Moreover, in another study, active-break group showed significant positive effects in on-task behaviour in adolescents [p = 0.042, d = 0.43] (Mavilidi et al. 2021). On the other hand, as in the present study, sex differences in the results of active breaks interventions are rarely reported (Howie, Beets, and Pate 2014a;Howie, Schatz, and Pate 2015), but some studies have indicated important differences in task behaviour (better among girls) after 5-minute active breaks (Howie, Beets, and Pate 2014a), or in mathematical performance (improvements for girls but not for boys) after 10 and 20 minutes of active breaks (Howie, Schatz, and Pate 2015). Thus, future studies might find some differences between girls and boys. ...
The aim was to determine the effect of an 8-week programme of active breaks on memory, attention-concentration, mathematical calculation, linguistic reasoning and creativity in adolescent students. One-hundred-sixty-two adolescents (12.27 ± 0.47 years; range = 12 13 years) participated in this study. The intervention was based on four daily active breaks of 4 minutes each at moderate-high intensity (controlled with pulsometry). To analyse the effect of 8 weeks of active breaks, we utilised repeated measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), with two groups (control group and experimental group) × two times (pre and post). Each cognitive measure was used as a dependent variable, the group was the fixed factor and age, body mass index, hours of daily study and physical activity were covariates. The results showed that the programme increased attention by 11.7% (p < .001), concentration by 10.9% (p = .002) and mathematical calculation by 13.1% (p = .015). We suggest including 4 minutes of this kind of active breaks to improve important school variables.
... Bilirubin has been commonly considered to be simply the "final product" of heme catabolism [74]. The rise in bilirubin in rats exposed to high altitudes may be due to an increase in red blood cell counts [75]. Bilirubin is an endogenous antioxidant that plays an important role in the anti-oxidative stress and anti-inflammation of neurons [76,77]. ...
... Age has been shown to moderate the influence of exercise on executive functions, with the beneficial effects of aerobic exercise increasing with age in adulthood [71]. It has been suggested that cognitive functions are most sensitive to sensorimotor experiences in phases during which they undergo developmental changes, such as executive functions in childhood and old age [72][73][74][75]. Participants in the present study were between 18 and 50 years of age. ...
... Reason for Exclusion Adsiz et al. (2012) [61] No AB Amicone et al. (2018) [62] No AB Bartholomew et al. (2018) [63] No attention: Time on task Ben-Zeev et al. (2020) [64] No AB: PE lesson Blasche et al. (2018) [65] No attention Budde et al. (2008) [28] No proper CG: PE lesson Chou et al. (2020) [66] No AB: PE lesson Chrismas et al. (2019) [67] No AB Contreras et al. (2020) [68] Not written in English. [71] No AB Gonzalez et al. (2020) [72] Not written in English Grieco et al. (2016) [73] No attention: Time on task Howie et al. (2015) [74] No attention Howie et al. (2014) [75] No attention: Time on task Kubesch et al. (2009) [76] No AB: PE lesson Mahar (2011) [77] Review Mavilidi et al. (2020) [78] No attention: [85] Not written in English Owen et al. (2018) [86] No AB Pesce et al. (2013) [87] No AB Ruiz-Ariza et al. (2021) [88] Not written in English Sánchez-López et al. (2015) [89] Protocol Sugahara et al. (2018) [90] No AB Tan et al. (2016) [4] No attention: Time on task Vazou, et al. (2020) [91] No attention: Observation [92] Protocol Watson et al. (2019) [93] No attention: Classroom behavior Webster et al. (2015) [94] No attention: ...
School physical activity breaks are currently being proposed as a way to improve students’
learning. However, there is no clear evidence of the effects of active school breaks on academic-related cognitive outcomes. The present systematic review with meta-analysis scrutinized and synthesized the literature related to the effects of active breaks on students’ attention. On January 12th, 2021, PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science were searched for published interventions with counterbalanced cross-over or parallel-groups designs with a control group, including school-based active breaks, objective attentional outcomes, and healthy students of any age. Studies’ results were qualitatively synthesized, and meta-analyses were performed if at least three study groups provided pre-post data for the same measure. Results showed some positive acute
and chronic effects of active breaks on attentional outcomes (i.e., accuracy, concentration, inhibition, and sustained attention), especially on selective attention. However, most of the results were not significant. The small number of included studies and their heterogeneous design are the primary limitations of the present study. Although the results do not clearly point out the positive effects of active breaks, they do not compromise students’ attention. The key roles of intensity and the leader of the active break are discussed.
... To date, most of the research has implemented physically active lessons, while fewer studies have examined the effects of CAB (Daly-Smith et al., 2018;Watson et al., 2017). However, of the few studies that have investigated CAB and on-task behavior, results consistently show that CAB are associated with improvements in on-task behavior, with an average improvement in on-task behavior of 16.5% (Howie et al., 2014;Ma et al., 2014;Webster et al., 2015). Some CAB were teacher led (Webster et al., 2015), whereas others were researcher led (Howie et al., 2014;Ma et al., 2014); however, the improvement in on-task behavior remained consistent, indicating that adequately trained teachers can successfully implement CAB. ...
... However, of the few studies that have investigated CAB and on-task behavior, results consistently show that CAB are associated with improvements in on-task behavior, with an average improvement in on-task behavior of 16.5% (Howie et al., 2014;Ma et al., 2014;Webster et al., 2015). Some CAB were teacher led (Webster et al., 2015), whereas others were researcher led (Howie et al., 2014;Ma et al., 2014); however, the improvement in on-task behavior remained consistent, indicating that adequately trained teachers can successfully implement CAB. ...
... On-and off-task behavior was measured via systematic time sampling observation performed by the primary researcher (AAB) for all data collection, as well as a secondary researcher that varied across classrooms. This method has been used previously in research (Howie et al., 2014;Ma et al., 2014;M. T. Mahar et al., 2006) and consists of a group no more than 6 students being observed in a systematic manner. ...
Classroom physical activity breaks (CAB) are beneficial for increasing children’s physical activity (PA) levels as well as the amount of time spent being on-task within the classroom. Purpose: To examine the effect of CAB at different times within the school day on on-task behavior and PA levels in primary school (grade 1–3) children. Methods: Thirty-five children (6 ± 1 y, 22 = male, 13 = female) participated in four conditions in a randomized order: morning (AM), afternoon (PM), morning and afternoon (BOTH), and no CAB (CTRL). CAB followed a traditional Tabata format of 20 s work and 10 s rest repeated 8 times for a total of 4 min. PA levels were monitored (accelerometry). On-task behavior and three types of off-task (motor, verbal, passive) were recorded following each CAB (mobile application). Results: When compared to control, AM, PM, and BOTH increased on-task behavior AM: Δ10.4%, PM: Δ10.5%, BOTH: Δ14%; p < .001). AM was most beneficial for reducing off-task motor (Δ-6.5%) and off-task verbal (Δ-3%) behavior, while PM was most beneficial for reducing off-task passive (Δ-9%) behavior. These effects were greatest in those students demonstrating higher amounts off-task behavior during CTRL (r > 0.67, p < .001). Students achieved an additional 8.4 (p = .070; d = 0.93), 12.2 (p < .001, d = 0.49), and 6.3 min (p = .09, d = 0.47) of moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) over 24 h following a CAB vs CTRL in AM, PM, and BOTH, respectively. Additionally, performing any of the CAB conditions increased the number of steps taken during the school day by an average of 2007 steps (p < .009). Conclusion: Overall, these results demonstrate that CAB improve both on-task behavior and PA levels, regardless of time of day. However, performing two CAB (BOTH) is recommended to derive the greatest improvements in on-task behavior across the school day.
... Of the few studies to use multiple durations of exercise, two were conducted by Howie and colleagues [26,27]. Both studies examined the effect of 5, 10, and 20 min of moderate-to-vigorous classroom-based exercise, compared to 10 min of sedentary activity, on the cognitive performance of children (aged 9-12 years) [26,27]. ...
... Of the few studies to use multiple durations of exercise, two were conducted by Howie and colleagues [26,27]. Both studies examined the effect of 5, 10, and 20 min of moderate-to-vigorous classroom-based exercise, compared to 10 min of sedentary activity, on the cognitive performance of children (aged 9-12 years) [26,27]. Children presented higher math fluency scores after 10 and 20 min of exercise when compared to 10 min of sedentary activity [27]. ...
... Children presented higher math fluency scores after 10 and 20 min of exercise when compared to 10 min of sedentary activity [27]. Moreover, on-task behaviour was improved after 10 min of exercise, and there was a trend towards improved on-task behaviour after 20 min of exercise, again when compared to the sedentary condition [26]. In contrast, no improvements in executive function or working memory were evident after any of the exercise bouts [27]. ...
Exercise duration may influence the acute effects on cognition. However, only one study to date has explored the dose-response relationship between exercise duration and cognition in adolescents. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of differing durations of high-intensity intermittent running on cognition in adolescents. Thirty-eight adolescents (23 girls) completed three trials separated by 7 d: 30 min exercise, 60 min exercise, and rest; in a randomised crossover design. The exercise was a modified version of the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST), which elicited high-intensity intermittent exercise. Cognitive function tests (Stroop test, Sternberg paradigm, Flanker task) were completed 30 min pre, immediately post, and 45 min post exercise. Response times on the incongruent level of the Flanker task improved to a greater extent 45 min following the 30 min LIST, compared to rest (p = 0.009). Moreover, response times improved to a greater extent on the three-item level of Sternberg paradigm 45 min following the 30 min LIST, compared to the 60 min LIST (p = 0.002) and rest (p = 0.013), as well as on the five-item level 45 min following the 30 min LIST, compared to the 60 min LIST (p = 0.002). In conclusion, acute exercise enhanced subsequent cognition in adolescents, but overall, 30 min of high-intensity intermittent running is more favourable to adolescents' cognition, compared to 60 min.
... Single bouts of physical activity enhance attention, cognitive control, academic achievement, and classroom behavior [4]. Indeed, physically active lessons have been shown to improve on-task behavior (i.e., behavior directed towards learning activities) and reduce off-task behavior (i.e., behavior directed towards unrelated activities) in children from preschool through fifth grade [5][6][7][8][9][10]. However, full integration of physical activity with instruction presents a dual-task environment, leading to a trade-off in task prioritization. ...
... Although substantial prior work has measured on-task behavior following physically active lessons [5,8,39,40], teachers have highlighted off-task behavior as a significant concern necessitating novel instructional activities to help students reduce such disruptive behavior [41]. Moreover, off-task behavior is an index of behavioral self-regulation and has been shown to be a valid and reliable method for assessing executive functioning in young children [42]. ...
... Understanding the relationship between these two inverse behaviors is important and off-task behavior is considered a significant concern for teachers [41]. Although prior work has measured on-task behavior following physically active lessons [5,8,39,40], the present study measured off-task behavior during performance of the computerized approximate number system task. ...
Background: Providing physical activity during the school day may mitigate increasingly sedentary lifestyles among children. Young children may be susceptible to interference during learning and consolidation when performing physical activity concurrently with academic instruction.
Methods: Preschoolers (N = 72, mean age 5.1 ± 0.8 years, 50% female) completed a quantity estimation task before, following, and one week after engaging in either a 20-min physically active or sedentary lesson. Physical activity intensity and volume were measured using heart rate and pedometer step counts, respectively. Off-task behavior was recorded prior to and following the lesson.
Results: Children exhibited similar learning and retention, but an added benefit of physically active lessons was a 1900% step increase and a 58% reduction in off-task behavior.
Conclusion: Providing physically active lessons instead of sitting for extended periods of time in early childhood classrooms reduces sedentary behavior and improves self-regulation while not interfering with educational outcomes.
... A 5-10 min MVPA session during the break between classes or during classes produced improvements in cognitive variables (Howie et al., 2015) and time on task (Howie et al., 2014) in the following hour. A 15 min ALB was found to improve selective attention (Janssen et al., 2014) and a 4 min ALB involving vigorous activity reduced the number of mistakes in post-test attention (Ma et al., 2014). ...
... However, 16 months of the Action Schools!BC programme (AS!BC®), which involves moderate-intensity ALBs (15 min/day x 5 days/week) did not affect academic performance (Ahamed et al., 2007). Ahamed et al. (2007) did not find differences between sexes, however, Howie et al. (2014Howie et al. ( , 2015 found differences in sex. Boys had lower attention after 5 min ALB than girls, and girls had higher improvements in Mathematics than boys, respectively. ...
... Although PA during school time is beneficial, the effects are variable. Howie et al. (2014) observed that ALB interventions based on brief MVPA sessions produced cognitive improvements in girls, but not in boys. Mullender-Wijnsma et al. (2015a) concluded that the cognitive benefits of PAAL were greater in students aged 6-7 years than in older children. ...
This review analyses educational intervention studies that have researched the effects of physical activity in school on schoolchildren’s cognition. Twenty-nine intervention studies carried out between January 2005 and the end of June 2019 were retrieved from five databases. Fourteen papers analysed the physically activity in academic lessons (PAAL) method, nine analysed the effects of active lesson breaks (ALB), two analysed active recess (AR) intervention, and three analysed combined physical activity (CPA) interventions consisting of two or more types of physical activity. Physical activity in school time has acute and chronic positive effects on cognition in children. In all the interventions (PAAL, ALB, AR, and CPA) short-term high-intensity physical activity sessions improved cognitive performance. Medium- to long-term moderate vigorous physical activity sessions also produced improvements in cognitive performance. The implications of including CPA programmes in the school timetable are discussed and practical guidelines with recommendations are offered.
... Moreover, several studies of school-age children suggest that exercise breaks can contribute to factors that promote effective learning (Chaddock et al., 2010;Reed et al., 2010). For example, an intervention in which school-age children were subjected to 5-20 minutes of physical activity yielded improvements in the students' ability to concentrate (Grieco et al., 2009;Howie et al., 2014a;Howie et al. 2014b;Carlson et al. 2015). ...
... The students also felt happier after doing the exercises. Prior studies of school-age children have demonstrated that exercise breaks can promote the skills needed for learning, and that 10-20-minute exercise sessions improve students' ability to maintain concentration relative to school days without exercise sessions (Grieco et al., 2009;Howie et al. 2014a;Howie et al. 2014b;Carlson et al. 2015). Studies in adults have yielded similar results; for example, exercise breaks reduced various painful symptoms, such as headache and neck pain, along with back pain, among office workers (Escriche-Escuder et al., 2020). ...
School exhaustion among upper secondary school students has increased at an alarming rate in recent years. There is evidence that this exhaustion affects students’ ability to study, and that students experience their studies as burdensome. Distance learning has further weakened students’ ability to study. This study aimed to describe upper secondary students' experiences of how exercise breaks affect their studying and well-being. The data were collected through thematic interviews with 15 first-year upper secondary students in the spring of 2021. The data were analyzed by inductive content analysis. The results indicate that exercise breaks positively influenced students’ subjective experiences of their studying ability and well-being. This insight could be relevant to planning secondary education, teacher training, and school health care, along with the development of services to support well-being among upper secondary students.
... De plus, si les analyses ne permettent pas de conclure avec certitude sur un effet positif des pauses actives sur les comportements liés à la tâche, elles semblent révéler une tendance positive via une potentielle augmentation de ce type de comportements à la suite du programme d'intervention. Ces effets positifs ont d'ailleurs été démontrés dans plusieurs études (Bartholomew et al., 2018;Goh et al., 2016;Howie, Beets, et al., 2014;Raney et al., 2017;Watson et al., 2019;, et notamment dans l'étude de Whitt-Glover et ses collaborateurs (2011) ...
... aux autres variables étudiées, la littérature scientifique portant sur les bénéfices comportementaux des pauses actives révèle un consensus dans le sens d'une amélioration des PAUSES ACTIVES À L'ECOLE PRIMAIRE : EFFETS SUR L'AUTOREGULATION DES ELEVES FOCUS SUR LES ELEVES PRESENTANT DES DIFFICULTES COMPORTEMENTALES.72 comportements liés à la tâche des élèves d'école primaire(Daly-Smith et al., 2018;Watson, Timperio, Brown, Best, et al., 2017). Cette amélioration peut se traduire à la fois par une augmentation des comportements d'engagement dans la tâche des élèves(Bartholomew et al., 2018;Goh et al., 2016;Howie, Beets, et al., 2014;Raney et al., 2017;Watson et al., 2019;Whitt-Glover et al., 2011), et par une diminution des comportements hors-tâche(Goh et al., 2016;Mahar et al., 2006;Raney et al., 2017;Whitt-Glover et al., 2011). Dans ces études, les comportements d'engagement dans la tâche sont généralement définis comme l'ensemble des comportements qui suivent les règles de la classe et qui sont appropriés à la situation d'apprentissage, tels que faire l'exercice, rester assis à sa table, être concentré etc. (E. ...
Les élèves présentant des difficultés comportementales (DC) manifestent des comportements inappropriés, inadaptés au contexte de l'école qui contraignent leurs apprentissages ainsi que leurs relations sociales et qui placent leurs enseignants dans des situations complexes et stressantes. Ces difficultés comportementales sont associées à de moindres capacités à s’autoréguler, c’est-à-dire à contrôler ses pensées, ses comportements et ses émotions. L'autorégulation peut être améliorée, notamment par le biais de programmes d’intervention mobilisant l’activité physique. Les pauses actives (PA) semblent particulièrement intéressantes au regard de leur faisabilité et de leurs bénéfices comportementaux sur les élèves. L’objectif de ce travail doctoral est de décrire et d’analyser les effets des PA sur l’autorégulation des élèves, en particulier chez les élèves DC. Cette recherche s’ancre dans la théorie socio-cognitive de Bandura (1986) et s’appuie sur le concept multidimensionnel de l’autorégulation (McClelland et al., 2010). Pour répondre à l’objectif, cinq études ont été réalisées selon un devis expérimental mixte simultané combinant des données quantitatives et qualitatives. Ainsi, une triangulation des données a été effectuée autour de données auto-rapportées par les élèves, de relevés d’observation réalisés par les chercheurs et de données rapportées par les enseignants. Les résultats obtenus soulignent l’intérêt des PA pour améliorer l’autorégulation comportementale et émotionnelle des élèves, en particulier chez les élèves DC. Cela ouvre sur des perspectives professionnelles en termes de gestion de classe et d’inclusion scolaire.
... [23][24][25] Notably, the positioning of before-school PA prior to class time may be conducive to acute cognitive and/ or learning benefits. 26 27 Research has shown enhanced attention in children and adolescents following single-bout (acute) PA, as well as significant effects of acute PA on executive functions such as inhibition, 4 5 important for success in school and life. 28 Notwithstanding potential benefits, in some contexts, the suitability of the before-school segment for hosting PA opportunities may also be constrained by barriers, including inadequate transportation for participants, and time and administrative burden associated with facilitating programmes. ...
... 23 This study reported positive findings, in line with studies showing improvements immediately following classroom PA breaks. 26 Given the positioning of the beforeschool period at the beginning of the day, further research on the effects of various PA programmes on classroom behaviours is warranted. Recognising that effects may last longer than 45 min, this research may consider examining effects at the start of the school day and in periods of instruction later in the day. ...
Objective
To review and evaluate the impact of school-based, before-school physical activity (PA) programmes on children’s PA levels, health and learning-related outcomes.
Design
Systematic review.
Data sources
PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Embase and ERIC were searched in January 2021.
Eligibility criteria for selecting studies
(1) Original research published in English, (2) sample included typically developing school-age children and/or adolescents, (3) examined school-based PA programmes delivered before school, (4) included a comparator and (5) reported associations with PA, physical health, learning-related and/or psychosocial outcomes. Studies examining before-school active transport or sport were excluded.
Results
Thirteen articles representing 10 studies were included (published 2012–2020); seven conducted in primary schools. Programmes ranged between 3 weeks and 6 months, primarily operating daily and for 25–40 min. One study examined a programme informed by theory; six incorporated fidelity measures. Data synthesis, considering consistency of findings, showed indeterminate associations for the domains of physical health, learning-related and psychosocial outcomes. Among subdomains, synthesis showed positive associations with before-school and daily PA, cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, readiness to learn and an inverse association with adiposity. Risk of bias was high/serious or insufficiently detailed across studies and outcome domains, except PA, which included moderate-risk studies.
Conclusion
There is limited available evidence on school-based, before-school PA programmes, with some positive associations at domain and subdomain levels. Continued research is justified to understand the role of before-school programmes for facilitating PA. Future research should follow recommended practice for intervention design and process evaluation, and address under-represented contexts, including secondary schools.
PROSPERO registration number
CRD42020181108.
... To change student's perceptions about math, teachers must implement new creative or renewed strategies during the educational process; for instance, educational games (EdGa), also known as academic games (Bragg, 2012;Giannakos, 2013). EdGa imply movement, thinking, enjoyment, decision making, and immediate feedback (Green & Seitz, 2015;Howie et al., 2014Howie et al., , 2015Howie & Pate, 2012). These features could improve self-esteem, curiosity, motivation, engagement, and passion for studying. ...
... One of the advantages of EdGa is that these can be used during classroom breaks. Indeed, 10-to 20-min of exposure to EdGa have shown to enhance academic performance (Hillman et al., 2009;Howie et al., 2014). For instance, Howie et al. (2015), reported that 10-and 20min EdGa improved math performance in 9 to 12 yr. ...
This study aimed to determine whether educational games improve mathematics performance in elementary school students. Volunteers were 47 Costa Rican students from a public school, who were assigned to an experimental (EXP: educational games) or a control (CTRL: traditional class) group. Twenty games were created and nine experienced teachers provided expert judge validity assessed by Kendall’s concordance coefficient (W). The EXP group completed 20 sessions (8 weeks) of 10-min games and following every game, students provided feedback. Before and after the treatment, students completed an official sixth-grade mathematics test. Two-way mixed ANOVA (assessments: pre-test, post-test by groups: EXP, CTRL) showed a significant main assessment effect. The W for teachers’ feedback allowed to use the games indoors, and student’s opinion following the games was considered ‘very good’. In conclusion, 20 educational games failed to improve mathematics academic performance in sixth-grade students; however, students enjoyed the games and there was a trend to improve performance compared to a CTRL group.
... This variable was converted to three categories representing low (≤25 min/week), medium (>25 to <50 min/week), and high (≥50 min/week) levels of engagement. These categories correspond to an average of less than 5 min per day for the low group, to greater than 10 min per day for the high group, and were selected based on recommended doses of physical activity in the scientific literature, whereby at least 10 min of movement integration per day is widely considered a meaningful dose [45][46][47]. Schools that reported no adoption of PA breaks were coded as dose of zero minutes. ...
... Therefore, a simple majority of teachers was considered for penetration. For dose of PA breaks, a threshold of ≥50 min/week was compared versus lower dose, based on 10 min per day (i.e., 50 min per week), being widely considered a meaningful dose in the previously published literature [45][46][47]. ...
The intentional integration of physical activity in elementary school classrooms-including brief instructional breaks for activity, or integration into lessons-can benefit children's physical activity and education outcomes. Teachers are key implementation agents, but despite physical activity in the classroom being an evidence-informed practice, many teachers do not regularly implement it. The aim of this study was to obtain updated nationally representative prevalence estimates in United States public elementary schools, regarding four key outcomes: (1) school adoption of physically active lessons (PA lessons); (2) school adoption of physical-activity breaks (PA breaks); (3) penetration in the classroom, defined as ≥50% of teachers using PA breaks; and (4) dose, defined as an average of at least 50 min per week of PA breaks. We examined variations in outcomes by school demographic characteristics, and by three factors hypothesized to be implementation facilitators (administrative support, financial resources, and presence of a wellness champion at the school). In the 2019-20 school year, surveys were distributed to a nationally representative sample of 1010 public elementary schools in the US; responses were obtained from 559 (55.3%). The weighted prevalence of schools reporting adoption of PA lessons was 77.9% (95% CI = 73.9% to 81.9%), and adoption of PA breaks was nearly universal at 91.2% (95% CI = 88.4% to 94.1%). Few demographic differences emerged, although adoption of PA lessons was less prevalent at higher-poverty schools (73.9%) and medium-poverty schools (77.0%) as compared to schools with lower poverty levels (87.1%; p < 0.01). Across all four outcomes, associations emerged with facilitators in multivariable logistic regression models. The prevalence of adoption of PA lessons, adoption of PA breaks, and dose of PA breaks were all significantly higher at schools where administrative encouragement occurred more frequently. Financial support was associated with implementation outcomes, including adoption of PA lessons, and penetration and dose of PA breaks. Presence of a champion was associated with higher prevalence of reporting adoption of PA lessons. School leaders can play a crucial role in supporting teachers' implementation of PA breaks and lessons in the classroom, through providing financial resources, encouragement, and supporting champions. Effective school-leadership practices have the potential to positively impact students at a large-scale population level by supporting implementation of PA lessons and breaks.
... 16 In line with such recommendations, the active break is a short mental and physical break which incorporates brief bouts of physical activity into daily routines. 8,17 Previous research has focused primarily on the effect of active breaks in schools and workplaces. 18,19 In schools, active breaks have been found to have positive effects on physical activity levels of children, increasing the time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, as well as step count. ...
... 20 Academic performance and classroom behavior, such as the time spent on task behavior during lessons, also improved. 17,20,21 Active breaks were found to be an acceptable intervention to children and feasible to implement for teachers. 22 Similarly, in adult populations active breaks in the workplace have been reported to be enjoyable, to enhance productivity and efficiency, as well as reducing absenteeism. ...
Objective
To assess the acceptability, appropriateness, and feasibility of an active break designed to disrupt prolonged sitting in university students. Participants: Students attending lectures in Trinity College Dublin, Ireland. Methods: Participants took part in an active break, which consisted of following a short exercise video lasting ∼4 min. They then completed a validated questionnaire consisting of 12 statements with two open-ended questions capturing likes/dislikes. Results: Overall 106 (response rate 96%) predominately female (83%, n = 87), health sciences students (91%, n = 96) participated. Percentage agreement ranged from 93.4% (n = 99) to 96.2% (n = 102) for acceptability, 84.9% (n = 90) to 93.4% (n = 99) for appropriateness, and 80.2% (n = 85) to 96.2% (n = 102) for feasibility. Space constraints and warm temperatures impacted negatively. Conclusion: An active break delivered during lectures is an acceptable and feasible intervention to disrupt sitting in students. Further investigation using a broader representation of the university population is needed prior to implementation.
... Conversely, Berg et al. (2019) [31], came to the conclusion that 10-minute active breaks once a day do not make a difference when it comes to attention, inhibition, and memory. Likewise, Wilson et al. (2015) [20] did not detect any improvement in behavior and attention after their experiment, which consisted in medium to high intensity 10-minute active breaks The study carried out by Howie et al. (2014; [10], which focused on medium to high intensity 5-, 10-, and 20-minute active breaks, highlighted a significant improvement in behavior during tasks after the 10-minute active break. The same researcher, a year later [16], carried out the same study, examining not only the behavior during tasks, but also mathematical abilities and executive functions. ...
Physical activity breaks in the classroom are an efficient way of promoting healthy behaviors in students, enhancing the development of their cognitive and academic abilities. The effects of active breaks, which are exclusive to the academic environment, are sometimes conflicting. This research was carried out to identify the properties and consequences of active breaks and physical activity during classes in school age. We have examined multiple databases, and we have selected 41 papers accounting for a time span of 15 years. Most papers revealed positive outcomes for improving skills related to mathematics, language, reading, comprehension, as well as cognitive and executive functions. Overall, the results of this review corroborate the theory that physical education in schools is positively associated with academic performance in children. Schools are suitable for promoting physical activity in developmental age, and research shows that there are instances in which increasing it could be beneficial. Physical activity in the classroom allows children to be active at school. To achieve these results, teachers can integrate physical activity into traditional classes, thus making them physically active. However, some teachers criticized this teaching method stating that physical activity during classes might have a negative effect on the children’s behavior during assignments. Education researchers keep investigating in order to fully assess the positive impact on academic performance, behavior during classes and cognitive functions.
... Los resultados de esta investigación contrastan con lo referido en otros trabajos, como el de Morton (2016) que reportó en cursos académicos de 80 min, la realización de un descanso activo con un baile tipo zumba de 5 min, hizo que los alumnos (edad promedio, 15.37 años) estuvieran más atentos durante la clase. En otro estudio, Howie et al. (2014) encontraron que un descanso activo con ejercicio físico por 10 min, aumentaba la dedicación en las tareas de alumnos de cuarto y quinto grado. También se ha reportado que el mindfulness y el ejercicio son beneficiosos para la atención y la comprensión lectora en alumnos de primaria, cuando son aplicados en lugar de un descanso convencional (Müller et al., 2021). ...
Resumen. Las dilatadas jornadas académicas, normalmente en sedestación entre los alumnos universitarios podrían generar estados de agotamiento, falta de atención, estrés y ansiedad. Una de las herramientas útiles para prevenir esta situación serían los descansos activos en el aula. El objetivo de esta investigación ha sido evaluar el impacto del descanso activo (DA) mediante la danza sobre los niveles de atención y estado emocional de alumnos universitarios. La muestra fue de 76 participantes (M = 24.4 años, SD = 8.0 años) que realizaron un descanso activo de 8 minutos tras una exposición de 40 min. Los instrumentos empleados fueron la escala de valora-ción del estado de ánimo (EVEA) y el test de concentración-atención d2. Se realizó un pretest antes de la sesión teórica y postest tras programa de intervención. Los resultados del ANOVA indican que el descanso activo mejoró el estado de ánimo y el nivel de atención de los participantes. Igualmente, se encontró una correlación positiva entre la alegría y el nivel de atención. Se concluye que los des-cansos activos mediante la danza son una manera de incorporar actividad física en el aula, mejorar el bienestar y la atención de los estudiantes. Palabras clave: atención, estado emocional, sedentarismo, desinterés, aburrimiento académico Abstract. The long academic days, usually in seated position, among university students could generate states of exhaustion, lack of attention, stress and anxiety. One of the useful tools to prevent this situation would be active breaks in the classroom. The aim of this research was to evaluate the impact of active breaks (AB) through dance, combining two tools that have shown a positive effect, AB and dance, on the levels of attention and emotional state of university students. The sample consisted of 76 participants (M = 24.4 years, SD = 8.0 years) who took an 8-minute active break after a 40-minute presentation. The instruments used were the mood rating scale (EVEA) and the d2 concentration-attention test. A pretest was performed before the theoretical session and a posttest after the intervention program. The ANOVA results indicate that active rest improved the mood and attention level of the participants. Likewise , a positive correlation was found between cheerfulness and attention level. It is concluded that active breaks through dance are a way to incorporate physical activity in the classroom, improve students' well-being and attention. Introducción La educación universitaria es una etapa importante en la vida de los jóvenes y también una fuente de estrés, que se genera desde el momento cuando tienen que superar las pruebas de ingreso, así como cumplir y mantener los están-dares académicos requeridos para culminar con éxito los es-tudios (Gustems-Carnicer et al., 2019; G. Wang et al., 2016). Diversas investigaciones realizadas en estudiantes universitarios durante la permanencia de los jóvenes en los estudios, han identificado algunos factores que afectan ne-gativamente la salud psicofísica de los alumnos, tales como problemas de sueño y fumar cigarrillos (Erol et al., 2022), el estrés académico (Wunsch et al., 2017), fatiga y dolores frecuentes de cabeza (Hussain et al., 2013), el uso excesivo de teléfonos inteligentes (Z. Wang & Zheng, 2020) y sole-dad (Lee, 2018). En ese sentido, los problemas más comu-nes que presentan los estudiantes universitarios son la de-presión, la ansiedad, el sedentarismo, los trastornos del sueño, el uso de sustancias psicoactivas y el estrés (Lee, 2018; Pascoe et al., 2020; Wynaden et al., 2013). Las consecuencias de algunos de estos problemas, como el estrés, la ansiedad, la depresión y el incremento en el tiempo del uso del teléfono, pueden obstaculizar el desem-peño académico de los estudiantes (Awadalla et al., 2020; Lepp et al., 2014; Vaez & Laflamme, 2008). En este con-texto, los profesores deben afrontar el reto de facilitar el aprendizaje significativo dentro del proceso educativo de sus estudiantes, siendo importante generar un clima en el aula que disminuya los niveles de estrés de los alumnos y donde se promueva la participación, el interés y el logro académico (Queiruga et al., 2018). El enfoque pedagógico del docente es un factor clave que afecta el clima del aula (Aksakalli, 2018; Shindler et al., 2004), siendo los enfoques expositivos, con un rol pasivo del estudiante y el uso excesivo de presentaciones con dia-positivas, los que propician la aparición del aburrimiento (Sharp et al., 2017). El aburrimiento es una emoción que actúa en detrimento del aprendizaje, el compromiso y el rendimiento de los estudiantes (Goetz & Hall, 2014; Sharp et al., 2017), asociándose con conductas y estados mentales negativos que pueden derivar en absentismo y abandono es-colar (Pekrun et al., 2010). Dentro de las estrategias que emplean los estudiantes para sobrellevar el aburrimiento está el soñar despierto, enviar mensajes de texto y revisar las redes sociales (Sharp et al., 2017). Ante esta situación, el docente tendría que ofrecer a través de su planificación y prácticas pedagógicas, la creación de un ambiente positivo en el aula que permita que los estudiantes permanezcan con niveles adecuados de atención e interés para producir un
... However, most studies have focused on younger students. For example, in elementary classrooms, short exercise breaks of 10 minutes or less has been shown to improve on-task behavior, focused attention, and even academic performance (Bedard et al., 2019;Howie, Beets & Pate, 2014;Ma, Le Mare & Gurd, 2015). Although this research is promising, it begs the question: ...
Students regularly ask, “How can I do well in your course?” They are surprised when I provide a simple answer: Take advantage of the quizzes. Quizzes are not a silver bullet, but they improve students’ recollection of course information and, importantly to students, increase performance on exams. Pre-lecture reading quizzes encourage students to arrive prepared (pre-training), ongoing quizzes promote
regular studying (spacing), and review quizzes help students revisit material from previous topics (interleaving). Central to the present discussion, all of these types of quizzes require students to retrieve information to answer items, which improves performance on later exams (testing effect, retrieval practice). Still, questions remain about how to use quizzes most effectively. In particular, should we use
harder application quizzes or easier factual quizzes to help students do well in the course? That is to say, should we throw students in the deep end early in the learning process or not?
... In this regard, several studies have explored the duration, frequency, and optimal intensity of active breaks. Comparing the duration of active breaks has found better results on classroom behavior in 10-minute sessions (Howie et al., 2014), applied to physical activity from a moderate to vigorous intensity (Daly-Smith et al., 2018). In this review, precisely 10-minute sessions and moderate to vigorous intensities were most frequently used, although few studies (4/16) reported the intensity to which the interventions were applied. ...
This scoping review synthesizes the evidence of the psychological outcomes of physical activity interventions in the classroom in children aged 6 to 12 years and describes the characteristics of the physical activity interventions implemented. We systematically searched in databases MEDLINE, SCOPUS, PsycINFO, ScienceDirect, Web of Science and SciELO, of randomized control trials published up to July 2020 of classroom-based physical activity interventions with children´s psychological health variables as outcomes. Sixteen trials (14,877 participants) with children aged 6 to 12 years were included. There were significant effects on several indicators of: a) psychological health outcomes: well-being, self-esteem, body image satisfaction b) self-efficacy and motivation to physical activity and c) behavior inside the classroom: self-regulation, bullying and disruptive behavior. The most effective interventions are those that included physical activity integrated into the curriculum 2-5 times a week, in sessions between 4' to 10', implemented mainly by the classroom teacher and with audiovisual support. However, the heterogeneity in program designs did not allow definitive conclusions. While psychological outcomes are mainly primary outcomes in the interventions studied, more evidence is required on other indicators of psychological health such as mental health symptoms. In addition, studies need to employ objective measures of physical activity to a better comprehension of their effects on psychological health of schoolchildren.
... Not only does the component of inhibition control in self-regulation can be improved, but also movement activities are associated with positive development of attention. The experiment conducted by Howie et al. [21] illustrated that children's ability to stay on task and their arousal level improved when they took 10-15 -minute movement breaks during the learning process. Furthermore, movement activities in particular with music and beat synchronization have been suggested to have better performance in improving self-regulation. ...
In this paper, a thorough review is provided of how different aspects of self-regulation are affecting a child's development and the manner in which they are influenced by various components of self-regulation in the process of development. The ability to self-regulation has been recognized to be one of the most essential components in the development of cognitive, behavioral, and academic abilities. It is noteworthy that there have been only a few studies that have specifically focused on preschoolers, who are proved to be at the perfect age to learn self-regulation. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to critically comment a number of recent studies on how to improve self-regulated skills in preschool children following a systematic review of recent research and gives some constructive opinions. It presents an analysis of three different types of interventions: physical activities, mindfulness practices, and game-based interventions. In spite of the strengths and weaknesses of each form of self-regulation learning, the paper concludes that both physical and game-based activities are more practical and acceptable to preschoolers, while mindfulness is suggested to apply among special groups. Additionally, at the end of the paper, two common disabilities which suffer from hard-wired deficiencies in the ability to self-regulate their development are also mentioned and discussed in order to encourage future research on these special groups. This paper provides some reference for follow-up research.
... Algunos estudios se han centrado en la satisfacción del alumnado por las intervenciones de DDAA. Howie et al. (2014) mostraron que los niños que recibieron un programa Brain BITES disfrutaron de la intervención más que haciendo actividades sedentarias. Sin embargo, poco sabemos sobre el tipo de regulación motivacional que desencadenan los DDAA entre los estudiantes. ...
Introducción/objetivo: La realización de actividad física (AF) es considerada una manera muy rentable de mejorar la función neurocognitiva. Tanto la actividad física de intensidad moderada como la vigorosa de corta duración tienen efectos positivos en la función cerebral, la cognición y el rendimiento académico durante la infancia. El objetivo del presente estudio fue analizar el efecto de los descansos activos (DDAA) en la atención y motivación de los estudiantes, así como examinar posibles diferencias en cuanto a sexo y curso. Métodos: Participaron 215 estudiantes (119 niñas) de 2.º a 6.º de primaria, con edades comprendidas entre 7 y 13 años (M = 9.18; DE = 1.55), distribuidos en grupo experimental (n = 108; 62 niñas) y grupo control (n = 107; 57 niñas). Se realizó un diseño cuasi experimental con medidas pre-post y metodología cuantitativa. El grupo experimental recibió un programa de DDAA (20-30/semana; 2-5 minutos cada descanso activo). Se utilizó el Test de caras-R y el PLOC adaptado. Resultados: Los resultados en atención mostraron diferencias significativas entre grupos solo en 3.º, cuyo programa se basó en DDAA de intensidad vigorosa protagonizados por los estudiantes. El grupo experimental reportó niveles elevados de motivación autodeterminada. Los cursos de menor edad se mostraron más autodeterminados. Conclusiones: Los DDAA de intensidad vigorosa pueden provocar efectos positivos sobre la atención y motivación autodeterminada de los estudiantes.
... Studies related to CB-PA have reported benefits in cognitive [14][15][16] and academic performance [17][18][19], and students' health [20][21][22] associated with increasing PA and reducing sedentary behaviours [23,24]. CB-PA has a positive influence on the children's cognitive processes [25,26] and, more precisely, on the performance of executive functions [27,28], young students' life satisfaction and well-being [29,30] and increase motor participation and interaction [31]. ...
The main objective of this study was to implement an educational program named ACTIVE VALUES and to analyse the psychosocial and cognitive effects of its application. It is a quasi-experimental repeated measures research with a non-randomised experimental group (EG) and a control group (CG). The sample consisted of 102 students in the 6th grade of primary school, aged between 11 and 13 years (M = 11.59; SD = 0.60), and 4 teachers aged between 27 and 52 years (M = 38.5). The intervention program lasted 4 months, in which the EG implemented a teaching methodology based on the incorporation of classroom-based physical activity (CB-PA) in the structure of the Teaching for Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model to develop personal and social values in students, as well as to reduce children’s sedentary behaviour in the classroom in different educational areas (e.g., mathematics, Spanish language, social sciences and natural sciences), while the CG used a conventional methodology based on direct instruction. The main results found show significant improvements in intrinsic motivation variables (including intrinsic motivation for achievement, stimulating experiences and knowledge), self-determination index, autonomy, relatedness, psychological mediators index, personal and social responsibility, teacher climate, intention to be physically active and executive functions in the EG, while amotivation values increased in the CG. In conclusion, interdisciplinary educational programs based on the combination of pedagogical models and active methodologies are postulated as methodological alternatives to achieve an integral and multilateral development of children and adolescents, as well as to improve the different learning domains of physical education, such as cognitive, social and motor. It is recommended that future research should consider longitudinal designs with mixed methods and follow-up data to assess learning retention, as well as larger samples and the measurement of a greater number of executive functions (e.g., inhibitory control and attention).
... There has been a growing interest in the relationship between physical activity (PA) and executive functioning (EF), an aspect of cognitive capability. EF is usually categorised into three main sub-domains: inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory [1], and these domains have been positively associated with academic performance [2,3]. Seeking ways to improve EF in school-aged children, investigators have linked short-duration PA of about 10-20 min to improved EF from 1 to 30 min post-PA [4,5]. ...
Background:
This study investigated the acute effects of two physical activity (PA) bouts on children's cognitive and affective responses.
Methods:
Twenty-nine participants (16 boys and 13 girls; Mage = 9.34 years, SD = 0.48), using a within-subjects crossover design, performed three 15-min conditions: (a) TDM-The Daily Mile™; (b) 12 repeated 30-45-s shuttle runs at ≥ 85% HRMAX; and (c) a sedentary control condition. Cognitive performance (i.e., Stroop, Digit Span, and Corsi blocks) was measured before PA and 1 and 30 min post-PA. Felt Arousal and Feeling Scale self-report scales were administered before, during, and after PA.
Results:
The results show no changes following the TDM condition relative to the sedentary control condition in cognitive responses. However, when comparing the shuttle runs condition to the sedentary control condition, participants showed higher arousal, an improved reaction time, and lower self-reported pleasure at 1 min post-PA. Nevertheless, at 30 min post-PA, participants' pleasure values were higher in the shuttle runs condition than they were before PA.
Conclusions:
When comparing PA conditions, shuttle runs enhanced reaction time and might thus be seen as an option to implement or modify PA opportunities in school settings.
... Focusing on small breaks over a period of 7 hours can be challenging for younger students. A randomized controlled trial was conducted to assess the Korkmaz and Demir 475 effect of class activity breaks, and after a 10-minute exercise break, a significantly higher incidence was observed in students compared to a non-stationary control group (Howie et al., 2014). Cognitive functions are related to taking, storing, processing, and using information such as attention, perception, memory, and thinking. ...
... In this context, it is important to refer to active breaks as a strategy to prevent the previously mentioned challenges. Briefly, active breaks consist of short bursts of physical activity performed in the school as a break from learning tasks [17], the main aim of which is to activate students cognitively, with special emphasis on improving executive functions. Thus, active breaks may provide an attractive strategy for teachers to incrementally increase children's daily physical activity during school hours [18,19] while simultaneously improving classroom behaviour outcomes. ...
Several studies have shown that active breaks (AB) lead to improvements in physical fitness, daily steps taken and participants' health. However, there are no studies that have evaluated how they affect physical literacy (PL).
Aims:
Therefore, this study examined the effects of a 4-week recreational AB program based on games whose main objective was to improve motivation and motor skills' improvement in PL in schoolchildren.
Method:
A quasi-experimental pilot study was conducted with PL assessments before and after a 4-week recreational AB program.
Results:
Fifty-seven schoolchildren (10.28 ± 0.43 years) participated in the study, 29 in the control group and 28 in the experimental group. An improvement in PL was found between the experimental and control groups after the intervention (p = 0.017). Moreover, the experimental group also improved (p < 0.001) PL after the intervention. More specifically, within the domain of PL, improvements were found after the intervention in the experimental group in the domains of physical competence (p < 0.001), motivation and confidence (p < 0.001) and knowledge (p < 0.001) but not in the domain of daily activity (p = 0.051).
Conclusion:
The application of an AB program based on playful games, during four weeks, produced an increase in scores in the general PL level, as well as in the domains of physical competence, motivation, and knowledge and understanding in schoolchildren.
... Correlated outcomes arise in several data settings including (a) longitudinal studies in which subjects are followed over time and outcomes are repeatedly measured (see, e.g., Du Toit et al. 2015), (b) clustered studies in which outcomes on groups of related subjects are measured (e.g., Henao-Restrepo et al. 2015), and (c) repeated measures studies in which subjects are measured under multiple conditions (e.g., Howie, Beets, and Pate 2014). There are a number of reasons that study designs involving correlated outcomes may be used, which include (a) convenience: measuring subjects multiple times can be more feasible than recruiting additional subjects, (b) the effect of interest: estimating effects over time or within subjects requires these designs, and (c) statistical efficiency: some effects can be estimated more precisely using these designs as each subject acts as their own "control. ...
While correlated data methods (like random effect models and generalized estimating equations) are commonly applied in practice, students may struggle with understanding the reasons that standard regression techniques fail if applied to correlated outcomes. To this end, this article presents an in-class activity using results from Monte Carlo simulations to introduce the impact of ignoring the correlation between outcomes by applying standard regression techniques. This activity is used at the beginning of a graduate course on statistical methods for analyzing correlated data taken by students with limited mathematical backgrounds. Students gain the intuition that analyzing correlated outcomes using methods for independent data produces invalid inference (i.e., confidence intervals and p-values) due to underestimated or overestimated standard errors of the effect estimates, even though the effect estimates themselves are still valid. While this standalone 90-minute in-class activity can be added at the beginning of an existing course on statistical methods for correlated data without any further changes, techniques for reinforcing students’ intuition throughout the course and applying this intuition to teach sample size and power calculations for correlated outcomes are also discussed. Supplementary materials for this article are available online.
... One study asserted poor academic results deriving from active beaks [66], while only Schmidt and colleagues [69] found that active breaks do not affect physical activity levels. Details can be found in Table 2. Aadland, 2017 [36] Activities increase executive functions and academic performance Bershwinger, 2013 [37] AB increased children's daily PA Broad, 2021 [38] Improvement in task behavior Brusseau, 2018 [39] Increased gross motor skills/cardiorespiratory endurance Brusseau, 2016 [40] Increased PA level Burns, 2017 [41] Improved motor skills Burns, 2015 [42] Increased PA level Carlson, 2015 [43] AB improved PA level Centineo, 2021 [44] Improved health and academic achievement Cradock, 2014 [45] Increased PA level Egan, 2018 [46] Effectiveness of the intervention Emeljanovas, 2018 [47] Effectiveness of the exercise program Erwin, 2011 [48] Effectiveness of the exercise program Fu, 2016 [49] Greater improvements Groffik, 2012 [50] Increased PA level Howie 2015 [51] Improvement in task behavior Howie, 2014 [52] Improved math performance Janssen, 2014 [53] Improved selective attention Leng Goh, 2016 [54] Increased on-task behavior Ma, 2014 [55] AB increased attention Mattson, 2020 [56] Improved PA knowledge Mavilidi, 2020 [57] AB improved on-task behavior/learning scores Mavilidi, 2020 [58] AB can be used before examinations Mazzoli, 2021 [59] Improved cognitive functioning McLoughlin, 2020 [60] Importance of PA Mok, 2020 [61] Exercise videos are ideal as a PA solution Muüller, 2019 [62] Decreased body fat Mullins, 2019 [63] Positive intervention Munoz-Parreno, 2021 [64] Improved cognitive functioning Murtagh, 2013 [65] Increased PA level Popeska, 2018 [66] Positive effects of AB video exercises Resaland, 2016 [67] Increased PA level. Poor academic increase Resaland, 2018 [68] Increased academic scores Schmidt, 2016 [69] No effect of PA intervention Sneck, 2022 [70] Increased math performance Somers, 2019 [71] Increase in academic achievement Watson, 2019 [72] Improved classroom behavior Weaver, 2018 [73] Increased PA level Webster, 2020 [74] Increased PA level Webster 2015 [75] AB improved time on-task behavior Zhou, 2021 [76] The intervention is useful Note: Active Break: AB; Physical Activity: PA. ...
(1) Background: Children spend an ever-increasing amount of time performing sedentary behaviors, and an important part of their daily life is at school. Learning in an outdoor environment improves children’s physical activity levels, and their cognitive and social spheres. Furthermore, physically active breaks are a solution to reduce sedentary behaviors and improve well-being and academic performance. The study evaluated the published literature on physically active breaks during school hours and explored (a) if the interventions were proposed in an outdoor context and (b) the outcomes of these interventions. (2) Methods: This review collected 31,559 articles from different electronic databases. After the screening, the results were analyzed narratively. (3) Results: 41 studies have been included in the analysis. As reported by the results, most of the interventions took place in the classroom, and only three studies were performed outside. A common aspect of all studies is the feasibility of active breaks, assessing positive outcomes. (4) Conclusions: Physically active outdoor breaks are poorly adopted, highlighting the necessity for deeper study on this topic. Although the protocols considered present differences, generally breaks increase physical activity levels, present positive learning outcomes, and improve social well-being. Furthermore, they are sustainable in terms of time, cost, and effort of the teacher. © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
... Few studies have examined interventions for individuals exhibiting SCT (Ludwig et al., 2009;Pfiffner et al., 2007). Previous research regarding physical activity suggests that engaging in exercise may increase on-task behaviors for individuals with developmental disabilities (Luke et al., 2014), an autism spectrum disorder ( AQ2 Neely et al., 2011;Nicholson et al., 2011;Tan, et al., 2013), and for individuals who are typically developing (Howie et al., 2014). However, research has yet to investigate the effects of physical activity on on-task behavior as an intervention for individuals with attention problems related to SCT. ...
Individuals with attention problems often exhibit more off-task behaviors and less engagement in classroom settings, and exercising has demonstrated positive effects in decreasing disruptive behaviors and increasing on-task behaviors. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of physical activity on academic engaged time for individuals with attention problems in a classroom setting. Results indicate that the average percentage of on-task behaviors were higher on days of exercise compared to days without exercise, though visual inspection of the data suggests physical activity has no effect on on-task behavior.
... immediate) effects of active breaks, children's behavior appears positively affected when the physical activity intensity was moderate-to-vigorous and sustained for more than 10 minutes or when the physical activity bouts were shorter (~5 minutes) and more intense. Unlike evidence for active lessons, there is agreement between previous studies that children's time on-task improves following non-curriculum-linked active breaks, compared to traditional class time activity (Carlson et al., 2015;Howie, Beets, & Pate, 2014;Ma, Le Mare, & Gurd, 2014;Whitt-Glover, Ham, & Yancey, 2011). ...
... However, some children noted that having to engage in active breaks or perform activities within the confined space of their classroom served as a limitation. This finding is in line with previous process evaluations exploring children's perceptions of active breaks, where some participants did not like taking part in active breaks due to lack of space (Howie et al., 2014;Watson et al., 2019). Overall, this finding suggests that researchers should consider the classroom space when adapting the Transform-Us! ...
In Northern Ireland (NI), many children do not meet the recommended levels of physical activity (PA). To reduce the prevalence of physical inactivity and associated health conditions, it is important to understand the influences on children's PA, which in turn has the potential to inform future intervention design. The purpose of this formative study was to examine the current views, barriers, facilitators, experiences, and perceptions of children in relation to PA in the classroom, school, and home environments, and to assess the acceptability of components for a school-based intervention. Write and draw tasks and semi-structured focus groups (n = 10) were conducted with 50 children aged 7–9 years (22 boys, 28 girls) from six primary schools. Focus groups were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed thematically. Pen profiles were constructed from the transcripts in a deductive manner and represent key emergent themes. Results indicated that children's perception and knowledge of PA was mainly structured and sport-based, while some referred to fun, play and health. Fun, social support and outdoor activity were identified as key facilitators. Barriers included parental restrictions, lack of time and space in the different environments. The acceptability of intervention components was examined, children recognized the potential benefits of additional movement in the classroom, but opinions differed on the sit-to-stand desks. Findings contribute to a more detailed understanding of children's perceptions of context specific PA, the barriers they face, in addition to factors that support them to lead a physically active lifestyle, which may inform future PA promotion strategies.
... Several authors [17][18][19][20] showed how acute active bouts of PA during the breaks between periods of academic instruction influence students' on-task behavior. The acute effects include short moderate-to-vigorous intensity bouts of PA, increasing plasma catecholamines, improving activation and arousal, or restoring cognitive resources after challenging lessons [21]. ...
Background:
The increasing need to face the problem of sedentarism, especially in the COVID-19 era, induced teachers and researchers to find new intervention methodologies in school context. Active breaks (ABs) include brief periods of physical activity as a part of the curriculum. This study aimed to investigate the AB acute responses on attentive skills and mathematical performance and attention in a primary school.
Methods:
A total of 141 children (aged 9.61 ± 0.82), divided into six classes, participated in this study. Each class was randomly assigned to three groups on the basis of the type of protocol performed during the three ABs scheduled in a school day: fitness (FIT), creativity (CREAT), and control group (CON). At baseline and at the end of interventions, all participants underwent the Stroop Color and Word test (SCWT) and the math test (MATH) to assess the level of attention and mathematical performance, respectively. The degree of enjoyment was evaluated through the modified Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale.
Results:
The factorial ANOVA showed significant differences between the FIT and CON in MATH test (p = 0.023) and SCWT (p = 0.034). CREAT and FIT groups showed higher degree of enjoyment than the CON (both ps < 0.001).
Conclusions:
This study showed a positive acute impact of AB interventions. FIT positively influenced attentive and math performances more than the CREAT, probably due to the correct work/rest ratio and executive rhythm that allowed children to reach a good level of exertion. This report showed that ABs can be a useful and productive activity to be performed between curricular lessons.
... Future studies should explore if a 1hour program is the optimal length for BASPs to effectively increase PA as this has been done with other types of schoolbased PA programs. 45,46 Finally, results from the DCE show that parents prefer BASPs that offer a balanced mix of PA opportunities and academic time. Those involved with the planning and designing of BASPs specifically should allow for academic time alongside PA opportunities. ...
Background:
The purpose of this study was to examine and compare parent preferences of before and after school physical activity program components in rural and suburban elementary schools.
Methods:
A discrete choice experiment was conducted to measure parent preferences for components of before/after school programs. A total of 183 parents (age = 37.2 [8.2] y, 155 females) sampled from 15 elementary schools (K-6 grades) in the Western United States took part in the study, half of which were from a rural community (n = 93, 50.8%). Results from the discrete choice experiment were analyzed using hierarchic Bayesian methodology, which estimated utility scores and was used to calculate important scores for program components.
Results:
The specific goal of the before/after school program was the strongest determinant of parents' stated choice overall, followed by leaders, time of day, length, and main focus. Learning sports as the physical activity goal was the top-rated attribute. Subgroup analyses revealed discrepancies between suburban and rural parents and parents of boys and girls.
Conclusion:
This study extends the application of discrete choice experiments to school-based programming, providing a unique way to design empirically based, stakeholder informed school programs, specifically within before and after school settings.
... Commonly, the interventions targeting PA in academic lessons have focused on specific types of PA, such as short energizers and brain breaks (Bobe et al., 2014;Erin Kaye Howie et al., 2014;Mahar et al., 2006), integrating high intensity PA with academic content with an emphasis on acquired MVPA (Martin & Murtagh, 2017a;Mullender-Wijnsma et al., 2016) or mixing these two approaches (Resaland et al., 2015). However, these kinds of interventions, even when proven to be effective, may remain short-lived because they often fail to become embedded after the specific intervention (Reis et al., 2016). ...
Engaging key stakeholders, including students into the process of school-based physical activity (PA) intervention planning is considered important. The present study was part of the preparatory phase of the Estonian Schools in Motion pilot programme and aimed to examine students’ perspective of PA opportunities in the classroom. Based on 17 focus group interviews with 92 Estonian children aged 8–15, the results demonstrate that although PA is not yet a natural part of academic lessons in Estonia, students are eager and motivated to practise more PA. Even though they do not associate PA and academic lessons in general, they can come up with a wide range of activities that could make learning process more physically active. Students could identify several activities from incidental and content-related movement to games and energy breaks which helps to broaden the scope of classroom PA.
... Therefore, the dose-response relationship between activity duration and cognitive effects may need to be shifted to shorter durations of activity. This hypothesis is supported by the results of Howie et al. (2014) which found significant improvement in academic outcomes in a classroombased PA session of 15 min, and no improvement after 20 min. Egger et al. (2018) also argues for a shorter duration of activity as their 20-min classroom-based cognitively engaging PA session also showed no significant effect on inhibition and actually led to worse performance on a shifting task. ...
Cognitively engaging physical activity (PA) has been suggested to have superior effects on cognition compared to PA with low cognitive demands; however, there have been few studies directly comparing these different types of activities. The aim of this study is to compare the cognitive effects of a combined physically and cognitively engaging bout of PA to a physical or cognitive activity alone in children. Children were randomized in pairs to one of three 20-min conditions: (1) a cognitive sedentary activity; (2) a non-cognitively engaging PA; and a (3) cognitively engaging PA. Executive function (EF) was assessed using a modified Eriksen flanker task immediately before and 10–15 min following the experimental condition. Children ages 6–8 years (n = 48, Mage = 7.04, SD = 1.37; 40% girls) were included in the study. A repeated measures ANOVA found no significant difference between groups with respect to scores on the flanker task. The results do not support the hypotheses that a cognitively engaging bout of PA enhances cognitive performance over non-cognitively engaging PA or sedentary activities. Possible explanations for our findings include overexertion during the acute bout of PA and depletion of positive affect prior to performing the post-intervention EF tasks.
... Reason for Exclusion Adsiz et al. (2012) [61] No AB Amicone et al. (2018) [62] No AB Bartholomew et al. (2018) [63] No attention: Time on task Ben-Zeev et al. (2020) [64] No AB: PE lesson Blasche et al. (2018) [65] No attention Budde et al. (2008) [28] No proper CG: PE lesson Chou et al. (2020) [66] No AB: PE lesson Chrismas et al. (2019) [67] No AB Contreras et al. (2020) [68] Not written in English. [71] No AB Gonzalez et al. (2020) [72] Not written in English Grieco et al. (2016) [73] No attention: Time on task Howie et al. (2015) [74] No attention Howie et al. (2014) [75] No attention: Time on task Kubesch et al. (2009) [76] No AB: PE lesson Mahar (2011) [77] Review Mavilidi et al. (2020) [78] No attention: [85] Not written in English Owen et al. (2018) [86] No AB Pesce et al. (2013) [87] No AB Ruiz-Ariza et al. (2021) [88] Not written in English Sánchez-López et al. (2015) [89] Protocol Sugahara et al. (2018) [90] No AB Tan et al. (2016) [4] No attention: Time on task Vazou, et al. (2020) [91] No attention: Observation [92] Protocol Watson et al. (2019) [93] No attention: Classroom behavior Webster et al. (2015) [94] No attention: Time on task AB: active break, CG: control group, PE: physical education. ...
School physical activity breaks are currently being proposed as a way to improve students’ learning. However, there is no clear evidence of the effects of active school breaks on academic-related cognitive outcomes. The present systematic review with meta-analysis scrutinized and synthesized the literature related to the effects of active breaks on students’ attention. On January 12th, 2021, PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science were searched for published interventions with counterbalanced cross-over or parallel-groups designs with a con-trol group, including school-based active breaks, objective attentional outcomes, and healthy students of any age. Studies’ results were qualitatively synthesized, and meta-analyses were performed if at least three study groups provided pre-post data for the same measure. Results showed some positive acute and chronic effects of active breaks on attentional outcomes (i.e., accuracy, concentration, inhibition, and sustained attention), especially on selective attention. However, most of the results were not significant. The small number of included studies and their heterogeneous design are the primary limitations of the present study. Although the results do not clearly point out the positive effects of active breaks, they do not compromise stu-dents’ attention. The key roles of intensity and the leader of the active break are discussed.
... Focusing on small breaks over a period of 7 hours can be challenging for younger students. A randomized controlled trial was conducted to assess the Korkmaz and Demir 475 effect of class activity breaks, and after a 10-minute exercise break, a significantly higher incidence was observed in students compared to a non-stationary control group (Howie et al., 2014). Cognitive functions are related to taking, storing, processing, and using information such as attention, perception, memory, and thinking. ...
The goal of this study is to investigate whether or not the attention level of middle school students’ changes depends on their physical activity. Fourty middle-school students who have been taking education in Yalova province joined the study as a volunteer. Fifty percent of the participants are male and the others are female. The experimental and the control groups have been formed and each of these groups consisted of 10 male and 10 female students. International physical activity questionnaire short form and Burdon concentration test were used as the information gathering instruments. To compare the experimental groups with the control groups, a T-test was used for independent groups. To compare one to another participant in each group, also T-test was used for dependent groups. Using the international physical activity questionnaire short form, preliminary and final tests were applied to each participant. According to the results of the questionnaire, weekly MET values of each participant were calculated. At the beginning of the study, the Burdon concentration test applied to each participant. Our study has finished in eight weeks. The physical activity levels of the control group were kept constant and no information was given. Twenty pieces of Xiaomi-mi-band-3 smart bracelets were supplied to the experimental group and they were informed about the features of these devices. At the end of 8 weeks period, the international physical activity questionnaire short form and Burdon concentration test were applied to each participant again. According to the physical activity levels of the control group, no significant difference has been found between the results of the Burdon concentration test (p > 0.05). But according to the physical activity levels of the experimental group, a significant difference has been found between the results of the Burdon concentration test (p < 0.05). As a result, it has been observed that an increase in levels of physical activity provides an increase in concentration. In conclusion, it is seen that many students and young people have low levels of physical activity due to both lifestyle and virtual world dependence. Although there are many factors, the decrease in physical activity causes low levels of attention. The better the attention levels of our students and young people, the more successful they will be in their lives. Our study and most of the mentioned studies reveal that attention is a developable skill and a situational factor that is open to influence. Therefore, attention development in children who are directed to recreational activities should be emphasized, especially during periods of rapid physical growth. If we want our students and young people to be more successful, they should be encouraged and supported more about physical activity.
... Por contra, existen más trabajos que analizan la relación entre la implicación del estudiante y la práctica físico-deportiva (Bailey 2006;Barros, Silver, y Stein, 2009;Fedewa y Ahn, 2011;Fredricks y Eccles, 2006;Howie, Beets, y Pate, 2014;Vazou, Gavrilou, Mamalaki, Papanastasiou, y Sioumala, 2012;Yu, Chan, Cheng, Sung, y Hau, 2006) vinculan la participación en actividades extraescolares deportivas con una mejora de los rendimientos académicos y una mayor implicación de los estudiantes con la escuela. El trabajo más reciente es el meta-análisis realizado por Owen et al. (2016), en el que se analizan 38 estudios previos y se concluye que los resultados sugieren un aumento de la implicación con la práctica de la actividad físico-deportiva. ...
The purpose of this study is the engagement of students with the practice of physical activity (AFD). Three dimensions are observed: emotional (identification), behavioural (participation) and cognitive (investment in the task). Attention is given to groups related to physical education and they are compared with similar age and degrees groups. It is considered that his engagement with the AFD will affect his classes and the involvement of their students. The general objective is to describe the engagement with the AFD, and observe differences regarding gender, age and groups. Ex post facto type quantitative methodology is used by passing the questionnaire of engagement with physical activity (IMAF) of 22 items. The total sample is 321 students, 87 women (27.1%) and 234 men (72.9%), between 19 and 45 years old, with an average age of 23.15 years (SD= 3.07). The results show that the students are very engaged with the AFD, especially in the affective dimension. Regarding gender, the involvement of men is greater and the participation of women is lower. The AFD increases until the 24 years, decreasing later. The engagement of CAFYD students is higher. The results obtained are adjusted to the theoretical framework and will allow intervention programs for each group.
... Like teachers and students, the principal also expressed her belief that PA at school is advantageous for student learning and behavior. Indeed, evidence has supported a positive association between classroom PA and elementary student behavior, including time spent on-task (Howie, Beets, and Pate, 2014;Szabo-Reed et al., 2017). Further, the teachers' and the principal in this study both valued the connection between PA in the classroom and academic-related outcomes, which is consistent with previous research (Brown and Elliott, 2015). ...
Student engagement in class is the time during class when students are actively and productively learning in regard to specific scholastic content. Educational scientists agree that student engagement is a substantial predictor of academic performance. Nevertheless, factors influencing student engagement in elementary school have not been investigated systematically. Accordingly, this dissertation examines factors which might affect elementary students’ engagement during class. Based on a synthesis of theoretical models and a systematic literature review of studies that empirically examine observable student engagement in elementary schools, a working model is presented. The model proposes that student engagement is affected by personal, social, and instructional factors relating to internal and external regulatory processes. It is assumed that in a classroom context, internal and external regulatory processes might interact with each other and jointly contribute to student engagement during class.
The sample used consists of 34 fifth grade elementary school classes in Switzerland. The data used in this dissertation was collected using three instruments: First, a longer questionnaire about attributes of the students which are conceptualized as more stable. Second, a standardized observation of students’ on-task engagement employing a 15-second time-sampling approach. Third, a short student questionnaire after each observed lesson capturing the student’s self-perception during the lesson.
The data analysis strategy follows a quantitative approach, taking into account dependencies between students from the same classroom. Research question 1 investigated a triangulation of student engagement in class. The analysis revealed that a comparison referent effect, similar to the 'Big-Fish-Little-Pond'-Effect, can be observed regarding student engagement. Research question 2 examined the relationship between motivation, self-control, and student engagement. The results indicate that self-control as well as different types of internal and external motivation significantly impacted student engagement at both the individual and class levels. Research question 3 examined the relationship between social connectedness within a class and student engagement. The data suggests that students with slightly lower engagement levels than the class average were more likely to be chosen as best friends by their classmates.
Overall, the results of the dissertation support the significance of social factors related to classmates in influencing student engagement in class. Therefore, it is important to consider not only individual and instructional factors, but also social factors when promoting student engagement in the classroom.
Physical activity is known to have several cognitive benefits. As a result, many teachers introduce short bouts of physical activity (active breaks) during their lessons. However, active breaks are less common in the university context, where students tend to remain passive during lessons. Therefore, there is a paucity of literature on active breaks and their benefits for undergraduate students. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a 10-min active break at moderate intensity on vigilance in undergraduate students by using a psychomotor vigilance task. Twenty-six undergraduate students (Mage = 23.36, SD = 1.98; 53.8% females) participated in this study and performed two conditions: control condition (passive condition) and experimental condition (active break). Results revealed that after receiving 10 min of moderate-intensity physical activity, the students improved their attention, as they responded faster to the psychomotor vigilance task than in the control condition. Considering these results, it seems that students can benefit from physical activity breaks by improving their vigilance. However, as this conclusion is based on a pilot study, we should be cautious in interpreting these results. Further research into this finding is needed.
Purpose: This paper explores the effect of active break on the distinguishability of autonomic nervous patterns of learning states through machine learning.
Method: First, we collected electrocardiogram (ECG) data of 77 subjects before and after active break, and accurately located the R-wave peaks from the ECG signal to calculate the RR interval series. Second, the RR interval samples were segmented according to the inclusion criteria of certain learning states. The initial 39 ECG features were empirically calculated, and the optimal feature combination for learning states recognition was selected through sequential backward selection and leave-one-subject-out cross test. Finally, we established binary-classification models of pairs of learning states and compared their performance of learning states recognition before and after active break.
Discussion: Active break can promote or inhibit the students’ academic performance. Besides statistical analysis shows the stability of the cognitive ability. What’s more active break increases the physiological response to fatigue
Conclusion: (1) The autonomic nervous patterns of knowledge input-processing and retrieval-processing and those of cognitive load matching and mismatching in knowledge retrieval processing became less distinguishable with the effect of active break. (2) The autonomic nervous patterns of mental fatigue and no fatigue states became more distinguishable with the effect of active break. (3) Stronger parasympathetic nervous activities make students achieve better academic performance during using new knowledge to solve problem stage.
Lab-based experiments and randomized controlled trials consistently demonstrate improvements in youth cognition following physical activity (PA), while cross-sectional studies suggest that sedentary behavior (especially recreational screen time [RST]) and poor sleep are inversely related to cognition. However, little is known about how these 24-h movement behaviors—sleep, PA, and sedentary behavior—converge to affect youth cognition. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to test the associations between childhood 24-h movement behaviors and adolescent cognition using a longitudinal design and examine moderating effects of each behavior. This study utilized structural equation modeling with data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development ( N = 1,364, 52% female, 80% White). Independent variables—sleep, RST, and PA—were collected in grade 5. Dependent variables of cognitive and academic performance were collected at grade 9, including the Stroop task, Woodcock-Johnson, and Tower of London. Grade 5 PA was inversely associated with grade 9 cognition, but this relationship was no longer significant once grade 5 cognition was controlled for in analyses. Grade 5 sleep was positively related to grade 9 cognition, whether baseline cognition was controlled for or not. Finally, grade 5 RST was inversely related to cognition and academic performance, regardless of whether baseline values were controlled. Moderation analyses showed the relationship between grade 5 RST and grade 9 cognition was moderated by grade 5 PA, while the relationship between grade 5 PA and grade 9 cognition was moderated by grade 5 sleep. In each case, more PA and sleep blunted the negative relationships. These findings extend evidence that greater sleep promotes cognition and greater RST impairs cognition, by affirming these relationships over a longer period. They extend the evidence by demonstrating that the longitudinal relationship between individual 24-h movement behavior and cognition is moderated by other behaviors.
Schools are valuable locations to promote physical activity because most children are in school for large portions of the day and year. However, the main objective of most schools is to teach academic skills. For school personnel to implement classroom-based physical activity programs, they need to be convinced that these programs will help the students learn better. Teachers understand and value the concept of on-task behavior or paying attention. Without attentional focus, students do not learn. Thus, if research demonstrates that participation in classroom-based physical activity programs enhances on-task behavior, teachers may be more likely to implement these programs. Although on-task behavior in the authentic classroom setting is difficult to measure, the accumulated evidence about the effect of classroom-based physical activity on on-task behavior is convincing. This article presents an overview of measurement issues associated with directly observed on-task behavior in schools and a summary of the key studies that have made a substantial contribution to the literature in this field. Various research designs and statistical comparisons have been used to examine these relationships. Several research studies have included examination of the effect of physical activity on on-task behavior within subgroups of students (e.g., level of attention, sex, fitness, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status). In summary, research demonstrates that classroom-based physical activity enhances on-task behavior compared with traditional sedentary learning environments, and this benefit appears to hold for all subgroups of students that have been examined. Specific suggestions to enhance the implementation of classroom-based physical activity and to further develop the research base are provided.
Giriş ve Amaç: Hareketsizlik, sağlıksız beslenme ve teknoloji bağımlılığı ile ilişkilendirilen obezite, diyabet, kalp-damar hastalıkları ve psikolojik problemler çocuklar arasında giderek artış göstermektedir. Bu bağlamda, zamanlarının büyük bir bölümünü okulda geçiren çocukların ilgili sağlık problemlerine karşı korunması adına okullarda yapılacak düzenlemeler önem kazanmaktadır. Nitekim, son yıllarda, sınıflarda gerçekleştirilen fiziksel aktivite uygulamalarına yönelik çok sayıda bilimsel araştırmanın yanı sıra, uygulamalı projelerin sayısındaki artış dikkat çekmektedir. İlgili çalışmalarda, fiziksel aktivite, vücut kitle endeksi ve harcanan kalori gibi fizyolojik parametrelerin yanı sıra, dikkat, görev davranışı, motivasyon, akademik performans gibi bilişsel ve psikolojik parametreler de incelenmiştir. Bu araştırmanın amacı, uluslararası perspektifte literatürde yer alan bilgi kaynaklarının değerlendirilmesi ve konuya bütünsel bir bakış açısı sağlanması, ulusal perspektifte ise Türkiye’de gerçekleştirilecek fiziksel aktiviteye dayalı öğrenme uygulamalarına yönelik gelecek araştırma ve projelere ışık tutulmasıdır. Yöntem: Bu araştırmada, nitel araştırma yaklaşımı temel alınarak doküman analizi tekniği kullanılmıştır. Araştırmaya dahil edilen makaleler (n=44) ölçüt örnekleme yöntemi ile belirlenmiştir. Bu doğrultuda, dergilerin tarandığı indeksler-veri tabanları (WoS, Pubmed, Scopus, PsycINFO vb.), dergilerin etki faktörleri, güncellik ve özgünlük gibi nitel ve nicel ölçütler dikkate alınmıştır. İlgili makaleler araştırmacılar tarafından incelendikten sonra araştırmacı notları ortak bir toplantı ile çözümlenerek değerlendirilmiştir. Bulgular: Fiziksel aktiviteye dayalı öğrenme ortamlarının öğrencilerin fizyolojik, bilişsel ve psikolojik parametreleri üzerinde olumlu etkileri olduğu, buna karşın etki büyüklüklerinin farklılaştığı gözlenmiştir. Uygulamaların dezavantajlı gruplar üzerindeki olumlu etkileri daha belirgindir. Aktivitenin şiddeti, süresi, türü gibi bağımsız değişkenler bağımlı değişkenler üzerinde farklı sonuçlar doğurabilmektedir. Uygulama öncesi eğitim, motivasyon ve destek öğretmenlerin uygulamalardaki bilgisi, becerisi ve pozisyonu açısından önem taşımaktadır. Araştırmalarda kullanılan yöntem ve veri toplama araçlarına göre elde edilen sonuçlar soru işareti uyandıracak düzeyde farklılaşmaktadır. Sonuç: Araştırmaların büyük bir çoğunluğu, fiziksel aktiviteye dayalı öğrenme ortamlarının fizyolojik, bilişsel ve psikolojik parametreler üzerinde olumlu etkileri olduğunu raporlamaktadır. Çocukluk obezitesinin hızla arttığı ülkemizde eğitim, sağlık ve spor alanında faaliyet yürüten kurum ve kuruluşlar vakit kaybetmeden örnek araştırma ve uygulamalar gerçekleştirilmelidir.
The present study aimed to investigate international literature regarding to physical activity integrated learning environments. Document analysis technique was used on basis of qualitative research approach. The articles covered by the study (n=44) were selected using criterion sampling method. In this regard, indexes-data bases for journals (WoS, Pubmed, Scopus, PsycINFO etc.), journals’ effect factors, actuality and authenticity criterias were considered. It is obvious that physical activity based learning environments have positive effects on physiological, cognitive and psychological parameters, however, effect sizes varies. Additionally, type, duration and volume of physical activity and research designs causes changeable results. Positive effects seems more apparent on disadvantaged groups. Practical training and motivation are critical for teacher’s knowledge, skills and position. It was observed that limitations in studies may effect results. According to many studies, physical activity based learning environments have positive effects on pupils and learning environments, however future studies must enhance and carefully constitute parameters concerning to research designs. Additionally, In Turkey, where childhood obesity is rapidly increasing, institutions operating in the field of health and sport have to carry out sample research and practices without any delay.
Physical activity in children is associated with several cognitive benefits. Since children and adolescents spend an increasing amount of time engaged in sedentary behavior both at school and in their free time, movement breaks during class hours, in which students are physically active, may be beneficial for effective learning. The aim of this systematic research is to provide an overview of prospective studies investigating the influence of classroom-based physical activity (CB-PA) interventions on attention and on-task behavior in school-aged children and adolescents aged between 4 and 18 years. A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, Science Direct, PsycINFO, Ovid), according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement, was performed from July 2020 to March 2021. Study characteristics data were analyzed and a methodological quality assessment, using a modified Downs and Black checklist, of both randomized and non-randomized studies was conducted. Overall, the available evidence points to a beneficial effect of exercise on attention and on-task behavior in a classroom setting. However, methodological differences concerning participants and duration and type of physical activity should be considered when comparing the results. Further studies with more comparable methodology are needed to provide a better understanding of the effect of CB-PA on attention and on-task behavior.
BACKGROUND
High volumes of school-based sedentary time may impact academic achievement and executive function negatively. This study evaluated a multimodal classroom program's (POWER) effect on fifth graders' physical activity (PA) and executive function.
METHODS
Six 5th grade classes (3 = intervention [POW]; 3 = waitlist control [CONT]) in 2 diverse New Jersey schools participated. Data were collected before, during, and post-intervention. PA was assessed via accelerometer, executive function by NIH Toolbox, and academic achievement via standardized math tests. The POW principal, teachers, and select students participated in follow-up interviews. Group comparisons were made by multivariate repeated-measures ANOVA and linear regression.
RESULTS
PA decreased in both groups over time, but POW's post-intervention class-time PA was significantly higher than CONT's. POW's NIH Toolbox score increased 3 percentiles more than CONT's. Intervention fidelity was associated with significantly higher scores for one NIH Toolbox test. Student math test scores increased significantly for both schools, but there was no significant main effect for group. POW's feedback was positive, with the principal reporting fewer disciplinary referrals and teachers and students conveying positive growth.
CONCLUSIONS
Overall, POW's positive changes and the favorable reception of POWER support POWER'S ability to improve children's socioemotional and physical health.
Active breaks have received great attention both among teachers and researchers and are used by those who pursuit to take advantage of all its benefits. Because of these benefits, many teachers or schools have incorporated active breaks into their daily classroom routines. However, to the authors' knowledge, there is not any program aimed entirely at preschool age. Also, the type of activities proposed in these programs are mostly mechanic with low cognitive engagement while some authors argue that cognitively engaging physical activity is more beneficial for cognitive and academic performance than mechanic activities. For these reasons, this chapter proposes a new active break program aimed at preschool children. This program, entitled “Move Your Brain,” will be composed of physical activities with inherent cognitive demands to challenge the children's brains.
The physical activity has been shown to be beneficial to indicators of physical, mental, and psychosocial health in child and adolescent populations. In this way, there is a growing interest in the effect of physical activity on cognitive outcomes, because there are some evidences about the influence of physical activity and his efficacious and low-cost health behavior on cognitive and brain development in children and adolescents. However, the effects of regular physical activity on cognitive performance in children have been inconsistent in the literature and not enough study in childhood education. For this reason, the aim of this chapter will be focused in many aspects to take into account to create a proposal to increase the physical activity levels to improve the attentional and concentration levels in children from 3 to 6 years old.
The increasing prominence of standardized testing to assess student learning motivated the current investigation. We propose that standardized achievement test scores assess competencies determined more by intelligence than by self-control, whereas report card grades assess competencies determined more by self-control than by intelligence. In particular, we suggest that intelligence helps students learn and solve problems independent of formal instruction, whereas self-control helps students study, complete homework, and behave positively in the classroom. Two longitudinal, prospective studies of middle school students support predictions from this model. In both samples, IQ predicted changes in standardized achievement test scores over time better than did self-control, whereas self-control predicted changes in report card grades over time better than did IQ. As expected, the effect of self-control on changes in report card grades was mediated in Study 2 by teacher ratings of homework completion and classroom conduct. In a third study, ratings of middle school teachers about the content and purpose of standardized achievement tests and report card grades were consistent with the proposed model. Implications for pedagogy and public policy are discussed.
Three field experiments were conducted to determine the effects of different recess timing regimens on children’s classroom and recess behaviors. Experiment 1 involved children in Grades K, 2, and 4. The timing of their recess was experimentally varied by 30 minutes. Students’ classroom behavior before and after recess was observed as was their outdoor recess behavior. Children’s prerecess inattention varied as a function of deprivation duration. Further, children, but especially boys, were more socially interactive on the playground following the long deprivation, compared to the short deprivation. Recess behaviors did not relate significantly to postrecess inattention. However, inattention rates were higher before recess than after. Experiment 2 utilized a similar paradigm with a sample of second and fourth graders from the same school. Experiment 2, generally, replicated results from Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, which utilized a replication sample design, children s recess was also manipulated, but the recess period was indoors. Results of the two samples replicated each other and the preceding experiments. Results are discussed in terms of play deprivation theory and massed versus distributed practice.
This study investigated the predictive power of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) Full Scale IQ (FSIQ), the General Ability Index (GAI), and the WISC-IV index score composites on subsequent reading and math standardized test scores among high-achieving students. The sample consisted of 84 elementary-age students who received an individual cognitive assessment with the WISC-IV in the previous year as part of the application process for gifted and talented programming through their schools. Although there were no significant differences among the mean WISC-IV index scores, 77% of the individual students evidenced statistically significant WISC-IV index score variability. Thus, intraindividual test score variability appears to be the norm among high-achieving students. In spite of this variability, regression analyses indicated that the FSIQ predicted reading comprehension and mathematics achievement better than, or as well as, the GAI or individual scores for verbal comprehension and perceptual reasoning. None of the cognitive variables correlated significantly with achievement scores for Word Reading or Pseudoword Decoding scores, but the FSIQ, GAI, Verbal Comprehension, and Perceptual Reasoning scores predicted reading comprehension. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
This paper reports an analysis of videotape and interview data from four Year 8 mathematics lessons from the perspective of
student cognitive engagement. The study extends our understanding of cognitive engagement by locating empirical evidence for
its occurrence within the classroom. On the basis of the data we have examined, it appears that cognitive engagement can be
consistently recognised by specific linguistic and behavioural indicators and is promoted by particular aspects of the classroom
situation, the task, and the individual.
The effectiveness of fixed-time delivery of attention to increase the on-task behavior of 2 students in general education
was examined. The teacher in this study provided attention to students on a 5-min fixed-time schedule and responded to students
in her typical manner between cued intervals. An ABAB withdrawal design was used to test the effects of the intervention.
The results of this study indicate that a fixed-time schedule of attention was effective in increasing students’ on-task behavior
and decreasing their off-task behavior. Implications of the study for research and practice are discussed.
KeywordsFixed-time schedule–Reinforcement–Teacher attention–Intervention–On-task behavior
Most youth are not meeting physical activity guidelines, and schools are a key venue for providing physical activity. School districts can provide physical activity opportunities through the adoption, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies. This paper reports results of a 2009 survey of California school governance leaders on the barriers and opportunities to providing school-based physical activity and strategies to promote adoption of evidence-based policies.
California school board members (n = 339) completed an 83 item online survey about policy options, perceptions, and barriers to improving physical activity in schools.
Board members' highest rated barriers to providing physical activity were budget concerns, limited time in a school day, and competing priorities. The key policy opportunities to increase physical activity were improving the quantity and quality of physical education, integrating physical activity throughout the school day, supporting active transportation to/from school, providing access to physical activity facilities during nonschool hours, and integrating physical activity into before/after school programs.
Survey findings were used to develop policy resources and trainings for school governance leaders that provide a comprehensive approach to improving physical activity in schools.
Priority health-risk behaviors, which are behaviors that contribute to the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among youth and adults, often are established during childhood and adolescence, extend into adulthood, and are interrelated and preventable.
September 2008- December 2009.
The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) monitors six categories of priority health-risk behaviors among youth and young adults: 1) behaviors that contribute to unintentional injuries and violence; 2) tobacco use; 3) alcohol and other drug use; 4) sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection; 5) unhealthy dietary behaviors; and 6) physical inactivity. In addition, YRBSS monitors the prevalence of obesity and asthma. YRBSS includes a national school-based Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) conducted by CDC and state and local school-based YRBSs conducted by state and local education and health agencies. This report summarizes results from the 2009 national survey, 42 state surveys, and 20 local surveys conducted among students in grades 9-12.
Results from the 2009 national YRBS indicated that many high school students are engaged in behaviors that increase their likelihood for the leading causes of death among persons aged 10-24 years in the United States. Among high school students nationwide, 9.7% rarely or never wore a seat belt when riding in a car driven by someone else. During the 30 days before the survey, 28.3% of high school students rode in a car or other vehicle driven by someone who had been drinking alcohol, 17.5% had carried a weapon, 41.8% had drunk alcohol, and 20.8% had used marijuana. During the 12 months before the survey, 31.5% of high school students had been in a physical fight and 6.3% had attempted suicide. Substantial morbidity and social problems among youth also result from unintended pregnancies and STDs, including HIV infection. Among high school students nationwide, 34.2% were currently sexually active, 38.9% of currently sexually active students had not used a condom during their last sexual intercourse, and 2.1% of students had ever injected an illegal drug. Results from the 2009 YRBS also indicated that many high school students are engaged in behaviors associated with the leading causes of death among adults aged >or=25 years in the United States. During 2009, 19.5% of high school students smoked cigarettes during the 30 days before the survey. During the 7 days before the survey, 77.7% of high school students had not eaten fruits and vegetables five or more times per day, 29.2% had drunk soda or pop at least one time per day, and 81.6% were not physically active for at least 60 minutes per day on all 7 days. One-third of high school students attended physical education classes daily, and 12.0% were obese.
Since 1991, the prevalence of many health-risk behaviors among high school students nationwide has decreased. However, many high school students continue to engage in behaviors that place them at risk for the leading causes of morbidity and mortality. The prevalence of most risk behaviors does not vary substantially among cities and states.
YRBS data are used to measure progress toward achieving 15 national health objectives for Healthy People 2010 and three of the 10 leading health indicators, to assess trends in priority health-risk behaviors among high school students, and to evaluate the impact of broad school and community interventions at the national, state, and local levels. More effective school health programs and other policy and programmatic interventions are needed to reduce risk and improve health outcomes among youth.
The purpose of this study is to examine the interplay of children's temperamental attention and activity (assessed when children were 4-and-a-half years old) and classroom emotional support as they relate to children's academic achievement in third grade. Particular focus is placed on the moderating role of classroom emotional support on the relationship between temperament (attention and activity level) and academic achievement. Regression analyses indicated that children's attention and activity level were associated with children's third grade reading and mathematics achievement, and classroom emotional support was associated with children's third grade reading and mathematics achievement. In addition, classroom emotional support moderated the relation between children's attention and reading and mathematics achievement, such that attention mattered most for reading and mathematics achievement for children in classrooms with lower emotional support. Findings point to the importance of understanding how children's temperament and classroom emotional support may work together to promote or inhibit children's academic achievement.
The effect of an acute bout of moderate treadmill walking on behavioral and neuroelectric indexes of the cognitive control of attention and applied aspects of cognition involved in school-based academic performance were assessed. A within-subjects design included 20 preadolescent participants (age=9.5+/-0.5 years; eight female) to assess exercise-induced changes in performance during a modified flanker task and the Wide Range Achievement Test 3. The resting session consisted of cognitive testing followed by a cardiorespiratory fitness assessment to determine aerobic fitness. The exercise session consisted of 20 min of walking on a motor-driven treadmill at 60% of estimated maximum heart rate followed by cognitive testing once heart rate returned to within 10% of pre-exercise levels. Results indicated an improvement in response accuracy, larger P3 amplitude, and better performance on the academic achievement test following aerobic exercise relative to the resting session. Collectively, these findings indicate that single, acute bouts of moderately-intense aerobic exercise (i.e. walking) may improve the cognitive control of attention in preadolescent children, and further support the use of moderate acute exercise as a contributing factor for increasing attention and academic performance. These data suggest that single bouts of exercise affect specific underlying processes that support cognitive health and may be necessary for effective functioning across the lifespan.
The relationship between aerobic fitness and executive control was assessed in 38 higher- and lower-fit children (M-sub(age) = 9.4 years), grouped according to their performance on a field test of aerobic capacity. Participants performed a flanker task requiring variable amounts of executive control while event-related brain potential responses and task performance were assessed. Results indicated that higher-fit children performed more accurately across conditions of the flanker task and following commission errors when compared to lower-fit children, whereas no group differences were observed for reaction time. Neuroelectric data indicated that P3 amplitude was larger for higher- compared to lower-fit children across conditions of the flanker task, and higher-fit children exhibited reduced error-related negativity amplitude and increased error positivity amplitude compared to lower-fit children. The data suggest that fitness is associated with better cognitive performance on an executive control task through increased cognitive control, resulting in greater allocation of attentional resources during stimulus encoding and a subsequent reduction in conflict during response selection. The findings differ from those observed in adult populations by indicating a general rather than a selective relationship between aerobic fitness and cognition.
This study examines the amount of recess that children 8 to 9 years of age receive in the United States and compares the group classroom behavior of children receiving daily recess with that of children not receiving daily recess.
This is a secondary analysis of a public-use data set, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999, third-grade data set. Children were categorized into 2 levels of recess exposure, that is, none/minimal break (<1 break of 15 minutes/day) or some recess. Some recess was further categorized into 5 levels on the basis of frequency and duration of recess. Child, parent, school, and classroom characteristics of those with and without recess were compared. The group classroom behavior was assessed by using the teacher's rating of class behavior.
Complete data were available for 10301 to 11624 children 8 to 9 years of age. There were equal numbers of boys and girls (boys: 50.3%). Children exposed to none/minimal break (30%) were much more likely to be black, to be from families with lower incomes and lower levels of education, to live in large cities, to be from the Northeast or South, and to attend public school, compared with those with recess. Teacher's rating of classroom behavior scores were better for children with some recess than for those with none/minimal break. This finding was maintained in multivariate regression analysis. However, among children receiving daily recess, the teacher's rating of class behavior scores did not differ significantly according to the level of exposure.
These results indicated that, among 8- to 9-year-old children, having > or =1 daily recess period of >15 minutes in length was associated with better teacher's rating of class behavior scores. This study suggests that schoolchildren in this age group should be provided with daily recess.
Problem:
Priority health-risk behaviors, which contribute to the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among youth and adults, often are established during childhood and adolescence, extend into adulthood, are interrelated, and are preventable.
Reporting period covered:
October 2004-January 2006.
Description of the system:
The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) monitors six categories of priority health-risk behaviors among youth and young adults, including behaviors that contribute to unintentional injuries and violence; tobacco use; alcohol and other drug use; sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections; unhealthy dietary behaviors; and physical inactivity. In addition, the YRBSS monitors general health status and the prevalence of overweight and asthma. YRBSS includes a national school-based survey conducted by CDC and state and local school-based surveys conducted by state and local education and health agencies. This report summarizes results from the national survey, 40 state surveys, and 21 local surveys conducted among students in grades 9-12 during October 2004-January 2006.
Results:
In the United States, 71% of all deaths among persons aged 10-24 years result from four causes: motor-vehicle crashes, other unintentional injuries, homicide, and suicide. Results from the 2005 national Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) indicated that, during the 30 days preceding the survey, many high school students engaged in behaviors that increased their likelihood of death from these four causes: 9.9% had driven a car or other vehicle when they had been drinking alcohol; 18.5% had carried a weapon; 43.3% had drunk alcohol; and 20.2% had used marijuana. In addition, during the 12 months preceding the survey, 35.9% of high school students had been in a physical fight and 8.4% had attempted suicide. Substantial morbidity and social problems among youth also result from unintended pregnancies and STDs, including HIV infection. During 2005, a total of 46.8% of high school students had ever had sexual intercourse; 37.2% of sexually active high school students had not used a condom at last sexual intercourse; and 2.1% had ever injected an illegal drug. Among adults aged >/=25 years, 61% of all deaths result from two causes: cardiovascular disease and cancer. Results from the 2005 national YRBS indicated that risk behaviors associated with these two causes of death were initiated during adolescence. During 2005, a total of 23.0% of high school students had smoked cigarettes during the 30 days preceding the survey; 79.9% had not eaten >/=5 times/day of fruits and vegetables during the 7 days preceding the survey; 67.0% did not attend physical education classes daily; and 13.1% were overweight.
Interpretation:
Since 1991, the prevalence of many health-risk behaviors among high school students nationwide has decreased. However, many high school students continue to engage in behaviors that place them at risk for the leading causes of mortality and morbidity. The prevalence of many health-risk behaviors varies across cities and states.
Public health action:
YRBS data are used to measure progress toward achieving 15 national health objectives for Healthy People 2010 and three of the 10 leading health indicators, to assess trends in priority health-risk behaviors among high school students, and to evaluate the impact of broad school and community interventions at the national, state, and local levels. More effective school health programs and other policy and programmatic interventions are needed to reduce risk and improve health outcomes among youth.
This study evaluated the effects of a classroom-based physical activity program on children's in-school physical activity levels and on-task behavior during academic instruction.
Physical activity of 243 students was assessed during school hours. Intervention-group students (N = 135) received a classroom-based program (i.e., Energizers). The control group (N = 108) did not receive Energizers. On-task behavior during academic instruction time was observed for 62 third-grade (N = 37) and fourth-grade students (N = 25) before and after Energizers activities. An independent groups t-test compared in-school physical activity levels between intervention and control classes. A multiple-baseline across-classrooms design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the Energizers on on-task behavior. Additionally, a two-way (time [pre- vs postobservation] x period [baseline vs intervention]) repeated-measures analysis of variance compared on-task behavior between observation periods. Magnitudes of mean differences were evaluated with Cohen's delta (ES).
Students in the intervention group took significantly (P < 0.05) more in-school steps (5587 +/- 1633) than control-group students (4805 +/- 1543), and the size of this difference was moderate (ES = 0.49). The intervention was effective in improving on-task behavior; after the Energizers were systematically implemented, on-task behavior systematically improved. The improvement in on-task behavior of 8% between the pre-Energizers and post-Energizers observations was statistically significant (P < 0.017), and the difference was moderate (ES = 0.60). Likewise, the least on-task students improved on-task behavior by 20% after Energizers activities. This improvement was statistically significant (P < 0.001) and meaningful (ES = 2.20).
A classroom-based physical activity program was effective for increasing daily in-school physical activity and improving on-task behavior during academic instruction.
This article presents results from two interrelated studies. The first study conducted a meta-analysis of the published literature since 1990 to determine the magnitude of achievement problems associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Effect sizes were significantly different between participants with and without ADHD (sample weighted r = .32, sample weighted d = . 71; p = .001). Effects were also examined according to the moderators of age, gender, achievement domain (reading, math, spelling), measurement method (standardized tests vs. grades, parent/teacher ratings, etc.), sample type (clinical vs. nonclinical), and system used to identify ADHD (DSM-III-R vs. DSM-IV). Significant differences emerged from the moderator comparisons. The second study, using averaged effect sizes from the first study as a baseline for comparison, investigated achievement levels for an understudied age group with ADHD, namely, college students. Unlike previous studies at the college level, the sample incorporated both student and parent ratings (N = 380 dyads). The results were comparable to outcomes from the meta-analysis for college students and adults. Analyses demonstrated modest (R = .21) but meaningful predictive validity across 1 year to end-of-first-year grades. However, unlike earlier studies with children and adolescents, student ratings were as predictive as parent ratings. Findings are discussed in terms of the impact of moderator variables on ADHD and achievement.
Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) is a 3-year elementary school-based intervention to determine if increased amounts of moderate intensity physical activity performed in the classroom will diminish gains in body mass index (BMI). It is a cluster-randomized, controlled trial, involving 4905 children (2505 intervention, 2400 control).
We collected both qualitative and quantitative process evaluation data from 24 schools (14 intervention and 10 control), which included tracking teacher training issues, challenges and barriers to effective implementation of PAAC lessons, initial and continual use of program specified activities, and potential competing factors, which might contaminate or lessen program effects.
Overall teacher attendance at training sessions showed exceptional reach. Teachers incorporated active lessons on most days, resulting in significantly greater student physical activity levels compared to controls (p < 0.0001). Enjoyment ratings for classroom-based lessons were also higher for intervention students. Competing factors, which might influence program results, were not carried out at intervention or control schools or were judged to be minimal.
In the first year of the PAAC intervention, process evaluation results were instrumental in identifying successes and challenges faced by teachers when trying to modify existing academic lessons to incorporate physical activity.
... of becoming obese increase 1.6 times for each can of a sugar - sweetened beverage consumed every ... and 93% of high schools allowed students to purchase such beverages in vending ... social fac- tors can independently affect both academic achievement and levels of obesity ...
Since Hirschi’s (1969) seminal work with delinquent youths, researchers have included school bonding and related constructs in analyses of delinquency, school dropout, student motivation, risk and resiliency, and academic achievement. In addition to school bonding, researchers have studied school engagement, school attachment, school connectedness, and other constructs as they relate to various student outcomes. At times, these constructs are measured and defined quite similarly, if not identically. However, in other instances, identical terms have been used to describe a construct that is measured in vastly different ways. These redundancies and discrepancies make it difficult to draw conclusions and build upon the summative knowledge gleaned from the extant school bonding research. In this article, research studies that use school bonding or a related construct (e.g., school engagement) are reviewed, with a specific focus on definition and measurement. A factor analysis was conducted using selected survey items from various school bonding and related measures, yielding five factors. The unique and shared aspects of these factors are discussed as well as implications for school practice and future research.
Objectives: To determine the subjective responses of teachers and students to classroom exercise breaks, and how responses varied by duration. Methods: This mixed-methods experimental study included focus groups with teachers (N = 8) and 4th- and 5th-grade
students (N = 96). Students participated in 5-, 10-, and 20-minute exercise breaks and 10 minutes of sedentary activity. In an additional exploratory analysis, video-tapes of each condition were coded and compared for positive affect. Results: Students and teachers discussed multiple
benefits, but teachers discussed barriers to implementing regular breaks of 5-minutes or more. Students exhibited higher positive affect during each exercise condition. Conclusions: Classroom exercise breaks are an enjoyable way to increase physical activity, but additional support
may be needed to encourage teachers to implement breaks of 5 minutes or longer.
The issue of race differences in standardized test scores and academic achievement continues to be a vexing one for behavioral scientists and society at large. Ellis and Ryan (2003) suggested that a portion of the cognitive-ability test performance differences between White/Caucasian-American and Black/African-American college students could be attributed to the greater use of ineffective test-taking strategies by the latter group. We replicated and extended their findings by using three outcomes—exam scores in a single academic course, self-reported GPA, and a measure of verbal abilities. Ellis and Ryan reported that the variance in cognitive-ability test performance explained by race dropped by 48% (i.e., from 21% originally to 11%) when controlling for the mediator, ineffective test-taking strategies. Our results were less dramatic, but also indicated that ineffective test-taking strategies accounted for 19% to 25% of the variance originally explained by race. In addition, reminiscent of the disidentification effect, supplementary analyses showed that academic/intellectual self-perceptions correlated with the criterion measures but only for White participants. These results suggest that a portion of the race difference on test scores might be accounted for by test-taking strategies.
The purpose of this research was to determine the effect of a recess break on classroom behavior, specifically working, fidgeting, and listlessness. A southern urban school district with a policy against recess granted permission for 2 Grade 4 classes to have recess once a week so that subsequent behavior on recess and nonrecess days could be compared. A multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measures and subsequent analyses of variance indicated that the 43 children, who were used as their own controls, differed on recess and nonrecess days, becoming more on task and less fidgety when they had recess. Sixty percent of the children, including all 5 of those with attention deficit disorder, and a balance of boys and girls benefited considerably. They worked more or fidgeted less (or both) on recess days.
This paper describes SOFIT (System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time), an observation instrument designed to assess variables associated with students’ activity levels and opportunities to become physically fit in physical education. SOFIT involves the direct observation of classes while simultaneously recording student physical activity levels, curriculum context variables, and teacher behavior. The paper reports the reliability, validity, and feasibility of using the instrument, as well as data from using SOFIT to assess 88 third- and fourth-grade classes.
Background:
Obesity rates are rising in the United States, especially among low-income and racial/ethnic minority individuals. Exploring motivators and barriers relative to engaging in physical activity is imperative.
Purpose:
The purpose of this study was to identify motivators and barriers relative to engagement in physical activity as reported by culturally diverse low-income adolescents and adults.
Methods:
A total of 91 adolescent (11 to 15 years of age) and adult (18 years of age or older) participants who self-identified as African American, Hispanic, or non-Hispanic White engaged in age group-, race/ethnicity-, and gender-concordant focus groups.
Results:
Qualitative data analysis indicated that the motivators and barriers most commonly identified among the adolescent and adult focus groups were: social influence; time and priorities; physical environment; fun and enjoyment; inherently physical activities; weight concerns; fatigue, physical discomfort and current fitness level; and immediate positive feelings.
Discussion:
Findings were generally similar across age group, gender and race/ethnicity. Age group-specific, gender-specific and race/ethnicity-specific motivators and barriers were related to how commonly the motivators and barriers were identified among each group.
Translation to health education practice:
Implications for increasing physical activity among low-income culturally diverse adolescents and adults are discussed.
We examined the effectiveness of a tactile self-monitoring prompt to increase on-task behaviors among 3 elementary-aged students in a special education classroom. Students were taught to self-monitor their attention by using the MotivAider (MotivAider, 2000), an electronic beeper that vibrates to provide a tactile cue to self-monitor. An ABAB reversal design was used for each participant. Results indicated that upon implementation of the self-monitoring intervention, students increased on-task behavior from a mean of 55% to more than 90% of the intervals observed. Additionally, teachers and students provided high ratings of treatment acceptability of this self-monitoring intervention. Limitations, implications, and future directions of these findings are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 43: 211–221, 2006.
Physical activity is not only beneficial to physical health but also to cognitive functions. In particular, executive functions that are closely related to learning achievement can be improved by acute and recurring physical activity. We examined the effects of a single 30-min physical education program in contrast to a 5-min movement break on working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition of attention and behavioral tendencies of eighty-one 13- to 14-year-old students in grade 7 in Germany. Results indicate that the maintenance of on-task attention in the face of distraction was improved by an aerobic endurance exercise-based physical education program but not by a short aerobic movement break. This suggests that the duration of a school sports program is decisive for improving students' executive attention.
The present study evaluated the effects of an acute bout of moderate-intensity treadmill walking on aspects of cognitive control underlying successful academic achievement.
The study used a within-subjects counterbalanced design with a sample of 36 preadolescent children. Cognitive performance was assessed using a modified flanker task and a modified spatial n-back task to assess inhibition and working memory, respectively.
No changes in task performance were observed while individuals were actively walking or at seated rest across both tasks. However, during the flanker task, increased response accuracy was observed after exercise relative to post-seated rest. Further observation revealed decrements to response accuracy after seated rest relative to baseline. No such effect was observed for the n-back task.
These findings suggest selective exercise-induced changes to cognitive control for aspects of inhibitory control and attention but not for working memory. Furthermore, the findings suggest that short bouts of exercise may be efficacious for maintaining cognitive performance, which may have implications for scholastic achievement.