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Acute Classroom Exercise Breaks Improve On-Task Behavior in 4th and 5th Grade Students: A Dose-Response
Abstract
This study was the first to directly compare the acute effects of 5, 10, and 20 minutes of classroom exercise breaks on on-task behavior.
Methods
In this within-subject experiment, 96 4th and 5th grade students, in 5 classroom groups, participated in each of four conditions: 10 minutes of sedentary classroom activity and 5, 10, 20 minutes of classroom exercise breaks led by research staff. On-task behavior was directly and systematically observed from videotapes before and after each condition. The post-test time-on-task scores were compared using a repeated measures mixed ANCOVA, adjusted for age, classroom, and the time-varying pre-test time-on-task.
Results
Time-on-task was significantly higher in students after 10 minutes of classroom exercise breaks compared to a sedentary attention control (87.6% vs 77.1%, d=0.45, p=.004).
Conclusions
Ten minutes of classroom exercise breaks improved on-task behavior in children.
... Previous studies have shown that active breaks improved children's cognitive function, 12 classroom behaviour, 13 and academic achievement. 14 However, existing active break programs have limitations restricting their translation potential. ...
... 15 While active breaks of at least 10-min have been shown to be effective for improving academic-related outcomes, few studies have investigated the effect of shorter active breaks. [12][13][14] Fourminute vigorous-intensity breaks (e.g. jumping jacks) have been shown to be effective, 12,17 while 5-min moderate-to vigorousintensity active breaks (e.g. ...
... jumping jacks) have been shown to be effective, 12,17 while 5-min moderate-to vigorousintensity active breaks (e.g. marching, jumping and running in place) were not, for improving academic-related outcomes, 13,14 suggesting that short active breaks need to be of a vigorousintensity to elicit academic benefit. However, this approach may not be feasible. ...
Objectives:
To assess the feasibility and efficacy of a 6-week pilot active break program (ACTI-BREAK) on academic achievement, classroom behaviour and physical activity.
Design:
Pilot cluster randomised controlled trial.
Methods:
374 children in Year 3 and 4 (74% response) were recruited from six schools across Melbourne, Australia. Schools were randomised to the ACTI-BREAK intervention or usual teaching practice. The intervention involved teachers incorporating 3×5min active breaks into their classroom routine daily. Academic achievement was assessed using 1-min tests in reading and mathematics; classroom behaviour at the individual and whole class level was observed by teachers; and physical activity levels were assessed using accelerometers. Multilevel mixed effects linear regression models were conducted using intention to treat (ITT) and per protocol (PP) analyses.
Results:
Significant intervention effects were found for classroom behaviour at the individual level (ITT B=16.17; 95% CI: 6.58, 25.76); effects were stronger for boys (B=21.42; 95% CI: 10.34, 32.49) than girls (B=12.23; 95% CI: 1.52, 22.92). No effect was found for classroom behaviour at the whole class level, reading, math or physical activity. PP findings were similar.
Conclusions:
Implementing active breaks during class time may improve classroom behaviour, particularly for boys. There was no evidence to suggest that implementing active breaks had any adverse effect on academic achievement or classroom behaviour, which may encourage classroom teachers to incorporate active breaks into their routine.
... Figura 1. Proceso de selección de los artículos En este trabajo de revisión se han incluido nueve artículos, todos ellos con diseño de intervención (100%), asignando a los participantes de forma aleatoria en los diferentes grupos. Tres de ellos introducen contrabalanceo en su diseño (Howie et al., 2014;Janssen et al., 2014;Kubesch et al., 2009). Únicamente tres artículos (33%) informan del efecto de variables confusoras o covariables (Donnelly y Lambourne, 2011;Howie et al., 2014;Schmidt et al., 2016). ...
... Tres de ellos introducen contrabalanceo en su diseño (Howie et al., 2014;Janssen et al., 2014;Kubesch et al., 2009). Únicamente tres artículos (33%) informan del efecto de variables confusoras o covariables (Donnelly y Lambourne, 2011;Howie et al., 2014;Schmidt et al., 2016). De los estudios seleccionados, solo uno (11%) evalúa el efecto de la AF durante el recreo (Altenburg et al., 2016) los otros ocho (89%) evalúan el efecto de practicar AF en uno o más cambios de clases. ...
... Esta revisión incluye datos de 3150 participantes, siendo el tamaño muestral de los diferente estudios de entre 56 (Altenburg et al., 2016) y 1342 (Donnelly y Lambourne, 2011). Los estudios proceden de cinco países diferentes: cinco en USA (Donnelly y Lambourne, 2011;Howie et al., 2014;Katz et al., 2010;Ma et al., 2014;Schmidt et al., 2016), dos en los Países bajos (Altenburg et al., 2016;Janssen et al., 2014), uno en Alemania (Kubesch et al., 2009) y uno en Australia (Wilson et al., 2016). Toda la información detallada en la tabla 2. ...
El objetivo de esta revisión fue analizar los estudios que evalúan el efecto de la práctica de actividad física integrada en los descansos escolares, sobre la atención en niños y adolescentes. Para ello se hizo una búsqueda bibliográfica en tres bases de datos (búsqueda inicial n = 502: PubMed n = 121, SportDiscus n = 114, Web of Science n = 268), desde enero de 2000 hasta marzo de 2017. Un total de nueve estudios con intervención cumplieron los criterios de inclusión. Todos los estudios emplearon ejercicio físico a intensidad moderada-vigorosa de una duración entre 5-30 min. En siete estudios obtuvieron mejoras y en dos no obtuvieron cambios. Se encontraron diferencias atendiendo al sexo. Finalmente, se observó la influencia de la duración e intensidad de la intervención habiendo controversia entre los diferentes estudios. Motivo por el que consideramos que son necesarias más investigaciones para aclarar la influencia de los factores de confusión, tipo, duración e intensidad del ejercicio.
... Bilirubin has been commonly considered to be simply the "final product" of heme catabolism [74]. The rise in bilirubin in rats exposed to high altitudes may be due to an increase in red blood cell counts [75]. Bilirubin is an endogenous antioxidant that plays an important role in the anti-oxidative stress and anti-inflammation of neurons [76,77]. ...
... Age has been shown to moderate the influence of exercise on executive functions, with the beneficial effects of aerobic exercise increasing with age in adulthood [71]. It has been suggested that cognitive functions are most sensitive to sensorimotor experiences in phases during which they undergo developmental changes, such as executive functions in childhood and old age [72][73][74][75]. Participants in the present study were between 18 and 50 years of age. ...
... Reason for Exclusion Adsiz et al. (2012) [61] No AB Amicone et al. (2018) [62] No AB Bartholomew et al. (2018) [63] No attention: Time on task Ben-Zeev et al. (2020) [64] No AB: PE lesson Blasche et al. (2018) [65] No attention Budde et al. (2008) [28] No proper CG: PE lesson Chou et al. (2020) [66] No AB: PE lesson Chrismas et al. (2019) [67] No AB Contreras et al. (2020) [68] Not written in English. [71] No AB Gonzalez et al. (2020) [72] Not written in English Grieco et al. (2016) [73] No attention: Time on task Howie et al. (2015) [74] No attention Howie et al. (2014) [75] No attention: Time on task Kubesch et al. (2009) [76] No AB: PE lesson Mahar (2011) [77] Review Mavilidi et al. (2020) [78] No attention: [85] Not written in English Owen et al. (2018) [86] No AB Pesce et al. (2013) [87] No AB Ruiz-Ariza et al. (2021) [88] Not written in English Sánchez-López et al. (2015) [89] Protocol Sugahara et al. (2018) [90] No AB Tan et al. (2016) [4] No attention: Time on task Vazou, et al. (2020) [91] No attention: Observation [92] Protocol Watson et al. (2019) [93] No attention: Classroom behavior Webster et al. (2015) [94] No attention: ...
School physical activity breaks are currently being proposed as a way to improve students’
learning. However, there is no clear evidence of the effects of active school breaks on academic-related cognitive outcomes. The present systematic review with meta-analysis scrutinized and synthesized the literature related to the effects of active breaks on students’ attention. On January 12th, 2021, PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science were searched for published interventions with counterbalanced cross-over or parallel-groups designs with a control group, including school-based active breaks, objective attentional outcomes, and healthy students of any age. Studies’ results were qualitatively synthesized, and meta-analyses were performed if at least three study groups provided pre-post data for the same measure. Results showed some positive acute
and chronic effects of active breaks on attentional outcomes (i.e., accuracy, concentration, inhibition, and sustained attention), especially on selective attention. However, most of the results were not significant. The small number of included studies and their heterogeneous design are the primary limitations of the present study. Although the results do not clearly point out the positive effects of active breaks, they do not compromise students’ attention. The key roles of intensity and the leader of the active break are discussed.
... Studies that have explored the acute effects of PA interventions on EF and AP provide inconsistent conclusions. Interventions on classroom exercise breaks identified 10 min of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) were sufficient for EF improvements (Howie, Beets, & Pate, 2014;Janssen et al., 2014). In contrast, a meta-analysis (Chang et al., 2012) suggests 20 min or more of quantitative PA is required to enhance cognition. ...
... Four paper-based tests were used to assess inhibitory control and working memory, adapted from previously valid and reliable tests used with children (Howie et al., 2014;Jager et al., 2015Jager et al., , 2014Szűcs, Devine, Soltesz, Nobes, & Gabriel, 2014). Tests were adapted to allow a class of children to complete the tests concurrently as well as providing greater ecological validity. ...
... The Trail Making Task (TMT) is a valid and feasible test (Howie et al., 2014;Lezak, Howieson, & Loring, 2004) assessing visual search, selective attention, psychomotor speed, working memory and cognitive flexibility (Schiff et al., 2016), providing an overall measure of EF. ...
Objectives
For schools to consider physical activity (PA) interventions, improvements must be shown in PA and additional educational benefits such as executive function (EF) and academic performance (AP). Over 8800 schools worldwide have implemented The Daily Mile™ (TDM), without any formal assessments of its impact. Rigorous and high-quality studies are needed to explore TDM’s contribution to moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) guidelines and potential impact on EFs and AP.
Methods
Children (14 classes, n = 303, age mean = 8.99 ± 0.5) from 11 primary schools already implementing TDM consented. At the individual level, children were randomly assigned using a 4-block process to either TDM or continued academic lessons (TDM n = 158, control n = 145). Children completed pre and post, EF tests (Trail Making Task; Digit Recall; Flanker; Animal Stroop) and a maths fluency test (Maths Addition and Subtraction, Speed and Accuracy Test). Accelerometers assessed MVPA using 15-s-epochs and Evenson cut-points.
Results
Using multi-level modelling, TDM revealed significantly greater MVPA (+10.23 min) and reduced sedentary time (−9.28 min) compared to control (p ≤ 0.001, d = 4.92, 3.61 retrospectively). Maths fluency interacted with condition and time (p = 0.031, d = 0.25); post hocs revealed no significances over time (p > 0.05). No differences in EFs (all p > 0.05).
Conclusions
This study is the first assessing the acute effects of TDM compared to continued academic lessons. TDM revealed no significant improvements in maths fluency or EF. These findings question justifying the widespread adoption of TDM based on enhanced cognition claims. Nonetheless, TDM may provide 10 min of MVPA, achieving a third of the daily in school recommendations to meet overall daily recommendations.
... A 5-10 min MVPA session during the break between classes or during classes produced improvements in cognitive variables (Howie et al., 2015) and time on task (Howie et al., 2014) in the following hour. A 15 min ALB was found to improve selective attention (Janssen et al., 2014) and a 4 min ALB involving vigorous activity reduced the number of mistakes in post-test attention (Ma et al., 2014). ...
... However, 16 months of the Action Schools!BC programme (AS!BC®), which involves moderate-intensity ALBs (15 min/day x 5 days/week) did not affect academic performance (Ahamed et al., 2007). Ahamed et al. (2007) did not find differences between sexes, however, Howie et al. (2014Howie et al. ( , 2015 found differences in sex. Boys had lower attention after 5 min ALB than girls, and girls had higher improvements in Mathematics than boys, respectively. ...
... Although PA during school time is beneficial, the effects are variable. Howie et al. (2014) observed that ALB interventions based on brief MVPA sessions produced cognitive improvements in girls, but not in boys. Mullender-Wijnsma et al. (2015a) concluded that the cognitive benefits of PAAL were greater in students aged 6-7 years than in older children. ...
... To date, most of the research has implemented physically active lessons, while fewer studies have examined the effects of CAB (Daly-Smith et al., 2018;Watson et al., 2017). However, of the few studies that have investigated CAB and on-task behavior, results consistently show that CAB are associated with improvements in on-task behavior, with an average improvement in on-task behavior of 16.5% (Howie et al., 2014;Ma et al., 2014;Webster et al., 2015). Some CAB were teacher led (Webster et al., 2015), whereas others were researcher led (Howie et al., 2014;Ma et al., 2014); however, the improvement in on-task behavior remained consistent, indicating that adequately trained teachers can successfully implement CAB. ...
... However, of the few studies that have investigated CAB and on-task behavior, results consistently show that CAB are associated with improvements in on-task behavior, with an average improvement in on-task behavior of 16.5% (Howie et al., 2014;Ma et al., 2014;Webster et al., 2015). Some CAB were teacher led (Webster et al., 2015), whereas others were researcher led (Howie et al., 2014;Ma et al., 2014); however, the improvement in on-task behavior remained consistent, indicating that adequately trained teachers can successfully implement CAB. ...
... On-and off-task behavior was measured via systematic time sampling observation performed by the primary researcher (AAB) for all data collection, as well as a secondary researcher that varied across classrooms. This method has been used previously in research (Howie et al., 2014;Ma et al., 2014;M. T. Mahar et al., 2006) and consists of a group no more than 6 students being observed in a systematic manner. ...
Classroom physical activity breaks (CAB) are beneficial for increasing children’s physical activity (PA) levels as well as the amount of time spent being on-task within the classroom. Purpose: To examine the effect of CAB at different times within the school day on on-task behavior and PA levels in primary school (grade 1–3) children. Methods: Thirty-five children (6 ± 1 y, 22 = male, 13 = female) participated in four conditions in a randomized order: morning (AM), afternoon (PM), morning and afternoon (BOTH), and no CAB (CTRL). CAB followed a traditional Tabata format of 20 s work and 10 s rest repeated 8 times for a total of 4 min. PA levels were monitored (accelerometry). On-task behavior and three types of off-task (motor, verbal, passive) were recorded following each CAB (mobile application). Results: When compared to control, AM, PM, and BOTH increased on-task behavior AM: Δ10.4%, PM: Δ10.5%, BOTH: Δ14%; p < .001). AM was most beneficial for reducing off-task motor (Δ-6.5%) and off-task verbal (Δ-3%) behavior, while PM was most beneficial for reducing off-task passive (Δ-9%) behavior. These effects were greatest in those students demonstrating higher amounts off-task behavior during CTRL (r > 0.67, p < .001). Students achieved an additional 8.4 (p = .070; d = 0.93), 12.2 (p < .001, d = 0.49), and 6.3 min (p = .09, d = 0.47) of moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) over 24 h following a CAB vs CTRL in AM, PM, and BOTH, respectively. Additionally, performing any of the CAB conditions increased the number of steps taken during the school day by an average of 2007 steps (p < .009). Conclusion: Overall, these results demonstrate that CAB improve both on-task behavior and PA levels, regardless of time of day. However, performing two CAB (BOTH) is recommended to derive the greatest improvements in on-task behavior across the school day.
... Of the few studies to use multiple durations of exercise, two were conducted by Howie and colleagues [26,27]. Both studies examined the effect of 5, 10, and 20 min of moderate-to-vigorous classroom-based exercise, compared to 10 min of sedentary activity, on the cognitive performance of children (aged 9-12 years) [26,27]. ...
... Of the few studies to use multiple durations of exercise, two were conducted by Howie and colleagues [26,27]. Both studies examined the effect of 5, 10, and 20 min of moderate-to-vigorous classroom-based exercise, compared to 10 min of sedentary activity, on the cognitive performance of children (aged 9-12 years) [26,27]. Children presented higher math fluency scores after 10 and 20 min of exercise when compared to 10 min of sedentary activity [27]. ...
... Children presented higher math fluency scores after 10 and 20 min of exercise when compared to 10 min of sedentary activity [27]. Moreover, on-task behaviour was improved after 10 min of exercise, and there was a trend towards improved on-task behaviour after 20 min of exercise, again when compared to the sedentary condition [26]. In contrast, no improvements in executive function or working memory were evident after any of the exercise bouts [27]. ...
Exercise duration may influence the acute effects on cognition. However, only one study to date has explored the dose-response relationship between exercise duration and cognition in adolescents. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of differing durations of high-intensity intermittent running on cognition in adolescents. Thirty-eight adolescents (23 girls) completed three trials separated by 7 d: 30 min exercise, 60 min exercise, and rest; in a randomised crossover design. The exercise was a modified version of the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST), which elicited high-intensity intermittent exercise. Cognitive function tests (Stroop test, Sternberg paradigm, Flanker task) were completed 30 min pre, immediately post, and 45 min post exercise. Response times on the incongruent level of the Flanker task improved to a greater extent 45 min following the 30 min LIST, compared to rest (p = 0.009). Moreover, response times improved to a greater extent on the three-item level of Sternberg paradigm 45 min following the 30 min LIST, compared to the 60 min LIST (p = 0.002) and rest (p = 0.013), as well as on the five-item level 45 min following the 30 min LIST, compared to the 60 min LIST (p = 0.002). In conclusion, acute exercise enhanced subsequent cognition in adolescents, but overall, 30 min of high-intensity intermittent running is more favourable to adolescents' cognition, compared to 60 min.
... Single bouts of physical activity enhance attention, cognitive control, academic achievement, and classroom behavior [4]. Indeed, physically active lessons have been shown to improve on-task behavior (i.e., behavior directed towards learning activities) and reduce off-task behavior (i.e., behavior directed towards unrelated activities) in children from preschool through fifth grade [5][6][7][8][9][10]. However, full integration of physical activity with instruction presents a dual-task environment, leading to a trade-off in task prioritization. ...
... Although substantial prior work has measured on-task behavior following physically active lessons [5,8,39,40], teachers have highlighted off-task behavior as a significant concern necessitating novel instructional activities to help students reduce such disruptive behavior [41]. Moreover, off-task behavior is an index of behavioral self-regulation and has been shown to be a valid and reliable method for assessing executive functioning in young children [42]. ...
... Understanding the relationship between these two inverse behaviors is important and off-task behavior is considered a significant concern for teachers [41]. Although prior work has measured on-task behavior following physically active lessons [5,8,39,40], the present study measured off-task behavior during performance of the computerized approximate number system task. ...
Background: Providing physical activity during the school day may mitigate increasingly sedentary lifestyles among children. Young children may be susceptible to interference during learning and consolidation when performing physical activity concurrently with academic instruction.
Methods: Preschoolers (N = 72, mean age 5.1 ± 0.8 years, 50% female) completed a quantity estimation task before, following, and one week after engaging in either a 20-min physically active or sedentary lesson. Physical activity intensity and volume were measured using heart rate and pedometer step counts, respectively. Off-task behavior was recorded prior to and following the lesson.
Results: Children exhibited similar learning and retention, but an added benefit of physically active lessons was a 1900% step increase and a 58% reduction in off-task behavior.
Conclusion: Providing physically active lessons instead of sitting for extended periods of time in early childhood classrooms reduces sedentary behavior and improves self-regulation while not interfering with educational outcomes.
... This variable was converted to three categories representing low (≤25 min/week), medium (>25 to <50 min/week), and high (≥50 min/week) levels of engagement. These categories correspond to an average of less than 5 min per day for the low group, to greater than 10 min per day for the high group, and were selected based on recommended doses of physical activity in the scientific literature, whereby at least 10 min of movement integration per day is widely considered a meaningful dose [45][46][47]. Schools that reported no adoption of PA breaks were coded as dose of zero minutes. ...
... Therefore, a simple majority of teachers was considered for penetration. For dose of PA breaks, a threshold of ≥50 min/week was compared versus lower dose, based on 10 min per day (i.e., 50 min per week), being widely considered a meaningful dose in the previously published literature [45][46][47]. ...
The intentional integration of physical activity in elementary school classrooms-including brief instructional breaks for activity, or integration into lessons-can benefit children's physical activity and education outcomes. Teachers are key implementation agents, but despite physical activity in the classroom being an evidence-informed practice, many teachers do not regularly implement it. The aim of this study was to obtain updated nationally representative prevalence estimates in United States public elementary schools, regarding four key outcomes: (1) school adoption of physically active lessons (PA lessons); (2) school adoption of physical-activity breaks (PA breaks); (3) penetration in the classroom, defined as ≥50% of teachers using PA breaks; and (4) dose, defined as an average of at least 50 min per week of PA breaks. We examined variations in outcomes by school demographic characteristics, and by three factors hypothesized to be implementation facilitators (administrative support, financial resources, and presence of a wellness champion at the school). In the 2019-20 school year, surveys were distributed to a nationally representative sample of 1010 public elementary schools in the US; responses were obtained from 559 (55.3%). The weighted prevalence of schools reporting adoption of PA lessons was 77.9% (95% CI = 73.9% to 81.9%), and adoption of PA breaks was nearly universal at 91.2% (95% CI = 88.4% to 94.1%). Few demographic differences emerged, although adoption of PA lessons was less prevalent at higher-poverty schools (73.9%) and medium-poverty schools (77.0%) as compared to schools with lower poverty levels (87.1%; p < 0.01). Across all four outcomes, associations emerged with facilitators in multivariable logistic regression models. The prevalence of adoption of PA lessons, adoption of PA breaks, and dose of PA breaks were all significantly higher at schools where administrative encouragement occurred more frequently. Financial support was associated with implementation outcomes, including adoption of PA lessons, and penetration and dose of PA breaks. Presence of a champion was associated with higher prevalence of reporting adoption of PA lessons. School leaders can play a crucial role in supporting teachers' implementation of PA breaks and lessons in the classroom, through providing financial resources, encouragement, and supporting champions. Effective school-leadership practices have the potential to positively impact students at a large-scale population level by supporting implementation of PA lessons and breaks.
... However, physical activity interventions targeting the school environment can be difficult to implement, often due to competing time demands associated with academic accountability [4]. Active breaks are short bursts of physical activity performed in the classroom as a break from learning tasks [5]. Meta-analyses and systematic reviews show children's classroom behaviour improves following participation in such sessions [6][7][8]. ...
... For example, active breaks as short as 4-min have been shown to have a positive effect on classroom behaviour immediately following participation [5,9,10]. Thus, active breaks may provide an attractive strategy for teachers to incrementally increase children's daily physical activity during school hours [9,11], while simultaneously improving classroom behaviour outcomes. ...
Background
Active breaks in the classroom have been shown to be effective for increasing children’s physical activity, while simultaneously improving classroom behaviour outcomes. However, there is limited evidence on the feasibility and fidelity of these programs outside of the research context. The purpose of this study was to conduct a process evaluation to explore factors associated with feasibility and fidelity of a classroom active break (ACTI-BREAK) program designed to improve classroom behaviour and physical activity outcomes for children in primary (elementary) school Years 3 and 4.
Methods
Six schools (3 intervention; 3 control) and 374 children (74% response) were included in the ACTI-BREAK pilot cluster randomised controlled trial. The intervention involved teachers implementing 3 × 5-minute moderate-intensity ACTI-BREAKS into their classroom routines, daily. This study focuses on the responses of students (n = 138) and their teachers (n = 7) who participated in the ACTI-BREAK intervention group. Intervention fidelity was assessed by number of ACTI-BREAKS completed per class per day; minutes spent in moderate-intensity physical activity (accelerometry) per ACTI-BREAK; change in physical activity from baseline to mid- and end- intervention. Intervention feasibility was explored through telephone interviews (teachers), questionnaires and focus groups (students), and teacher observations of acute effects on classroom behaviour. Qualitative data were analysed using thematic analyses; acute effects on classroom behaviour and change in physical activity were explored using paired t-tests; questionnaire data were described as frequencies.
Results
Teachers implemented two ACTI-BREAKS/day on average, mostly of light-intensity physical activity. Physical activity increased from baseline to mid-, but not baseline to end-intervention; classroom behaviour improved immediately following ACTI-BREAKS. Barriers to implementation included ability for students to return to task and scheduling. Facilitators included ease of implementation, flexible delivery options and student enjoyment. Students were largely satisfied with the program and enjoyed ACTI-BREAKS that incorporated choice, imagination and challenge but did not enjoy ACTI-BREAKS that evoked silliness or were perceived as too difficult and some did not like doing ACTI-BREAKS in the confined space of their classroom.
Conclusions
Results indicated the ACTI-BREAK program was acceptable for students and feasible for teachers, however, some minor modifications in terms of required frequency and intensity could improve fidelity.
Trial registration
Australia New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12617000602325). Retrospectively registered on 27 April 2017.
... Providing greater opportunities to engage in physical activity during the school day-even in short bouts-enhances scholastic outcomes, on-task behavior, and attentional control. [5][6][7][8] In contrast to concerns regarding difficulty getting students to re-engage with academics following physical activity, children exhibit improved on-task behavior and complete more arithmetic problems following 10-and 20min classroom activity breaks relative to a 10-min sedentary break. 6 Similarly, enhancements in reading, arithmetic, and neural indices of attention have been observed following a 20-min bout of physical activity. ...
... [5][6][7][8] In contrast to concerns regarding difficulty getting students to re-engage with academics following physical activity, children exhibit improved on-task behavior and complete more arithmetic problems following 10-and 20min classroom activity breaks relative to a 10-min sedentary break. 6 Similarly, enhancements in reading, arithmetic, and neural indices of attention have been observed following a 20-min bout of physical activity. 8 Given that these acute physical activity interventions have observed improvements in attention and academic achievement in school-aged children, recommendations to implement physical activity breaks during the school day to increase overall levels of physical activity appear to be well-justified. ...
Objective
To determine how the dual‐task nature of incorporating physical activity with instructional activities immediately impacts acuity of the approximate number system and on‐task behavior in preschoolers.
Methods
Using a randomized within‐participants repeated‐measures crossover design, 51 children completed an approximate number system task before and after either 20‐min of physically active instruction corresponding to 38% heart rate reserve (light‐to‐moderate intensity) or conventional sedentary instruction at corresponding to 21% heart rate reserve (very light intensity).
Results
Findings revealed that preschool‐aged children exhibited similar learning and greater on‐task behavior following a single bout of physically active instruction relative to conventional sedentary instruction. Overall, preschoolers accrued 931.3 ± 8.2 more steps and an additional 9 minutes at or above light intensity activity during the physically active instruction.
Conclusion
Accordingly, these findings suggest that the dual‐task nature of physically active learning does not compromise learning, reduces the need for redirecting off‐task behavior, and ultimately allows children to avoid sedentary behavior in educational contexts.
... 16 In line with such recommendations, the active break is a short mental and physical break which incorporates brief bouts of physical activity into daily routines. 8,17 Previous research has focused primarily on the effect of active breaks in schools and workplaces. 18,19 In schools, active breaks have been found to have positive effects on physical activity levels of children, increasing the time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, as well as step count. ...
... 20 Academic performance and classroom behavior, such as the time spent on task behavior during lessons, also improved. 17,20,21 Active breaks were found to be an acceptable intervention to children and feasible to implement for teachers. 22 Similarly, in adult populations active breaks in the workplace have been reported to be enjoyable, to enhance productivity and efficiency, as well as reducing absenteeism. ...
Objective
To assess the acceptability, appropriateness, and feasibility of an active break designed to disrupt prolonged sitting in university students. Participants: Students attending lectures in Trinity College Dublin, Ireland. Methods: Participants took part in an active break, which consisted of following a short exercise video lasting ∼4 min. They then completed a validated questionnaire consisting of 12 statements with two open-ended questions capturing likes/dislikes. Results: Overall 106 (response rate 96%) predominately female (83%, n = 87), health sciences students (91%, n = 96) participated. Percentage agreement ranged from 93.4% (n = 99) to 96.2% (n = 102) for acceptability, 84.9% (n = 90) to 93.4% (n = 99) for appropriateness, and 80.2% (n = 85) to 96.2% (n = 102) for feasibility. Space constraints and warm temperatures impacted negatively. Conclusion: An active break delivered during lectures is an acceptable and feasible intervention to disrupt sitting in students. Further investigation using a broader representation of the university population is needed prior to implementation.
... [23][24][25] Notably, the positioning of before-school PA prior to class time may be conducive to acute cognitive and/ or learning benefits. 26 27 Research has shown enhanced attention in children and adolescents following single-bout (acute) PA, as well as significant effects of acute PA on executive functions such as inhibition, 4 5 important for success in school and life. 28 Notwithstanding potential benefits, in some contexts, the suitability of the before-school segment for hosting PA opportunities may also be constrained by barriers, including inadequate transportation for participants, and time and administrative burden associated with facilitating programmes. ...
... 23 This study reported positive findings, in line with studies showing improvements immediately following classroom PA breaks. 26 Given the positioning of the beforeschool period at the beginning of the day, further research on the effects of various PA programmes on classroom behaviours is warranted. Recognising that effects may last longer than 45 min, this research may consider examining effects at the start of the school day and in periods of instruction later in the day. ...
Objective
To review and evaluate the impact of school-based, before-school physical activity (PA) programmes on children’s PA levels, health and learning-related outcomes.
Design
Systematic review.
Data sources
PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Embase and ERIC were searched in January 2021.
Eligibility criteria for selecting studies
(1) Original research published in English, (2) sample included typically developing school-age children and/or adolescents, (3) examined school-based PA programmes delivered before school, (4) included a comparator and (5) reported associations with PA, physical health, learning-related and/or psychosocial outcomes. Studies examining before-school active transport or sport were excluded.
Results
Thirteen articles representing 10 studies were included (published 2012–2020); seven conducted in primary schools. Programmes ranged between 3 weeks and 6 months, primarily operating daily and for 25–40 min. One study examined a programme informed by theory; six incorporated fidelity measures. Data synthesis, considering consistency of findings, showed indeterminate associations for the domains of physical health, learning-related and psychosocial outcomes. Among subdomains, synthesis showed positive associations with before-school and daily PA, cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, readiness to learn and an inverse association with adiposity. Risk of bias was high/serious or insufficiently detailed across studies and outcome domains, except PA, which included moderate-risk studies.
Conclusion
There is limited available evidence on school-based, before-school PA programmes, with some positive associations at domain and subdomain levels. Continued research is justified to understand the role of before-school programmes for facilitating PA. Future research should follow recommended practice for intervention design and process evaluation, and address under-represented contexts, including secondary schools.
PROSPERO registration number
CRD42020181108.
... To change student's perceptions about math, teachers must implement new creative or renewed strategies during the educational process; for instance, educational games (EdGa), also known as academic games (Bragg, 2012;Giannakos, 2013). EdGa imply movement, thinking, enjoyment, decision making, and immediate feedback (Green & Seitz, 2015;Howie et al., 2014Howie et al., , 2015Howie & Pate, 2012). These features could improve self-esteem, curiosity, motivation, engagement, and passion for studying. ...
... One of the advantages of EdGa is that these can be used during classroom breaks. Indeed, 10-to 20-min of exposure to EdGa have shown to enhance academic performance (Hillman et al., 2009;Howie et al., 2014). For instance, Howie et al. (2015), reported that 10-and 20min EdGa improved math performance in 9 to 12 yr. ...
This study aimed to determine whether educational games improve mathematics performance in elementary school students. Volunteers were 47 Costa Rican students from a public school, who were assigned to an experimental (EXP: educational games) or a control (CTRL: traditional class) group. Twenty games were created and nine experienced teachers provided expert judge validity assessed by Kendall’s concordance coefficient (W). The EXP group completed 20 sessions (8 weeks) of 10-min games and following every game, students provided feedback. Before and after the treatment, students completed an official sixth-grade mathematics test. Two-way mixed ANOVA (assessments: pre-test, post-test by groups: EXP, CTRL) showed a significant main assessment effect. The W for teachers’ feedback allowed to use the games indoors, and student’s opinion following the games was considered ‘very good’. In conclusion, 20 educational games failed to improve mathematics academic performance in sixth-grade students; however, students enjoyed the games and there was a trend to improve performance compared to a CTRL group.
... In this context, it is important to refer to active breaks as a strategy to prevent the previously mentioned challenges. Briefly, active breaks consist of short bursts of physical activity performed in the school as a break from learning tasks [17], the main aim of which is to activate students cognitively, with special emphasis on improving executive functions. Thus, active breaks may provide an attractive strategy for teachers to incrementally increase children's daily physical activity during school hours [18,19] while simultaneously improving classroom behaviour outcomes. ...
Citation: Mendoza-Muñoz, M.; Calle-Guisado, V.; Pastor-Cisneros, R.; Barrios-Fernandez, S.; Rojo-Ramos, J.; Vega-Muñoz, A.; Contreras-Barraza, N.; Carlos-Vivas, J. Effects of Active Breaks on Physical Literacy: A Cross-Sectional Pilot Study in a Region of Spain. Int. J. Environ. Res.
... Movement activities can also improve attention. Incorporating 10-15-min movement breaks into classroom routines increased children's arousal level and their ability to stay on task (Howie et al. 2014;Janssen et al. 2014). Students with attentional difficulties especially benefited from movement breaks (Mahar et al. 2006). ...
This paper provides a comprehensive review of the role of self-regulation for academic achievement and behavior in the early childhood education classroom. It discusses neurocognitive processes involved in self-regulation including response inhibition, voluntary attention, and working memory. Response inhibition creates a delay in responding which makes it possible to override habitual behavior, thus providing students with an opportunity to master new skills. Voluntary attention is involved in selecting relevant information and combating distractors, while working memory is essential for maintaining internal representations that guide students’ behavior and task performance. The paper identifies classroom demands for these processes. It further discusses environmental, instructional, and behavioral interventions to foster self-regulation skills in the classroom.
... Our choice for Just Dance videos and the exercise duration of 10 min was based on the acute exercise literature combined with the preferences of Dutch teachers and children in the upper grades of primary school. The exercise literature indicates that moderate-to-vigorous exercise bouts need to have a duration of at least 10 min to exert acute cognitive improvements (Howie et al., 2014a(Howie et al., , 2015Daly-Smith et al., 2018). Teachers have indicated that they prefer additional PA in school to be classroom-based, easy to implement (i.e., requiring little preparation time) and up to a maximum of 10 min (van den Berg et al., 2017). ...
Exercise is assumed to have positive effects on children’s cognitive performance. However, given the inconclusive evidence for the long-term effects of exercise, it is difficult to advice schools on what specific exercise programs can improve children’s cognitive performance. In particular, little is known about the effects of small exercise programs that may be feasible in daily school practice. Therefore, we assessed the effects of a 9-weeks program consisting of daily exercise breaks on children’s cognitive performance, aerobic fitness and physical activity levels. We conducted a cluster-randomized controlled trial in 21 classes of eight Dutch primary schools. A total of 512 children aged 9–12 years participated. The exercise intervention had a duration of 9 weeks and consisted of a daily 10-min classroom-based exercise break of moderate to vigorous intensity. Before and after the intervention, we used four cognitive tasks (i.e., the Attention Network Test, Stroop test, d2 test of attention and Fluency task) to measure children’s cognitive performance in domains of selective attention, inhibition and memory retrieval. In addition, we measured aerobic fitness with a Shuttle Run test and physical activity during school hours by accelerometers. We analyzed data using mixed models, adjusting for baseline scores, class and school. After 9 weeks, there were no intervention effects on children’s cognitive performance or aerobic fitness. Children in the intervention group spent 2.9 min more of their school hours in moderate to vigorous physical activity as compared to the children in the control group. In conclusion, daily 10-min exercise breaks in the classroom did not improve, nor deteriorate cognitive performance in children. The exercise breaks had no effect on children’s fitness, and resulted in 2.9 min more time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity during school hours. Daily exercise breaks can be implemented in the classroom to promote children’s physical activity during school time, without adverse effect on their cognitive performance.
... immediate) effects of active breaks, children's behavior appears positively affected when the physical activity intensity was moderate-to-vigorous and sustained for more than 10 minutes or when the physical activity bouts were shorter (~5 minutes) and more intense. Unlike evidence for active lessons, there is agreement between previous studies that children's time on-task improves following non-curriculum-linked active breaks, compared to traditional class time activity (Carlson et al., 2015;Howie, Beets, & Pate, 2014;Ma, Le Mare, & Gurd, 2014;Whitt-Glover, Ham, & Yancey, 2011). ...
... Fortunately, a few studies have investigated effects of PA breaks on classroom behavior. An informative study tested impacts of classroom PA breaks of different durations (i.e., 5-minutes, 10-minutes, and 20-minutes), relative to sedentary breaks, on subsequent classroom behavior of 4 th and 5 th grade students (Howie, Beets, & Pate, 2014). The greatest improvements (10%) in ontask behavior followed bouts of 10-minutes, with even greater improvement (30%) for students who were least on-task initially. ...
THE PROBLEM: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), the most common childhood mental health disorder in the United States, is the behavioral manifestation of neurodevelopmental delays. Physical activity (PA) is broadly accessible, culturally acceptable, and influences many of the same neurocognitive systems delayed in ADHD. These factors make PA a potential tool in treatment and management plans. This selective qualitative review synthesizes findings from studies investigating PA, fitness, and motor coordination in ADHD. INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA: Studies of PA [and related constructs] in youth on the spectrum for ADHD. MAIN RESULTS: Cross-sectional studies suggest children with ADHD evidence similar or higher PA levels than typically developing peers in childhood—a period when most PA is free play—but any advantages dissipate by adolescence, as PA programs become increasingly structured and selective. In adulthood, individuals with ADHD are more likely to be obese and less likely to meet healthy lifestyle guidelines. Longitudinal studies suggest that PA at earlier life stages predicts symptom severity in subsequent stages. Acute bout experiments suggest transient benefits on neurocognitive function following moderate-intensity activity of limited duration. Multi-week intervention studies have tested diverse formats with results that differ based upon the chosen outcome and comparison group utilized. CONCLUSION AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Existing research suggests youth with ADHD may benefit most from PA interventions that challenge cognition and fundamental movement skills in childhood, empower youth to participate in structured programs and meet PA guidelines in adolescence, and strategically time PA bouts to maximize focus during difficult periods of daily routines.
... However, some children noted that having to engage in active breaks or perform activities within the confined space of their classroom served as a limitation. This finding is in line with previous process evaluations exploring children's perceptions of active breaks, where some participants did not like taking part in active breaks due to lack of space (Howie et al., 2014;Watson et al., 2019). Overall, this finding suggests that researchers should consider the classroom space when adapting the Transform-Us! ...
In Northern Ireland (NI), many children do not meet the recommended levels of physical activity (PA). To reduce the prevalence of physical inactivity and associated health conditions, it is important to understand the influences on children's PA, which in turn has the potential to inform future intervention design. The purpose of this formative study was to examine the current views, barriers, facilitators, experiences, and perceptions of children in relation to PA in the classroom, school, and home environments, and to assess the acceptability of components for a school-based intervention. Write and draw tasks and semi-structured focus groups (n = 10) were conducted with 50 children aged 7–9 years (22 boys, 28 girls) from six primary schools. Focus groups were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed thematically. Pen profiles were constructed from the transcripts in a deductive manner and represent key emergent themes. Results indicated that children's perception and knowledge of PA was mainly structured and sport-based, while some referred to fun, play and health. Fun, social support and outdoor activity were identified as key facilitators. Barriers included parental restrictions, lack of time and space in the different environments. The acceptability of intervention components was examined, children recognized the potential benefits of additional movement in the classroom, but opinions differed on the sit-to-stand desks. Findings contribute to a more detailed understanding of children's perceptions of context specific PA, the barriers they face, in addition to factors that support them to lead a physically active lifestyle, which may inform future PA promotion strategies.
... Afortunadamente, algunos estudios han investigado el efecto de pausas activas en la conducta dentro del salón de clases. Un estudio examinó el efecto de las pausas activas de diferentes duraciones (5, 10 y 20 minutos) en el salón de clase en infantes del cuarto y quinto grado en comparación con pausas pasivas (Howie, Beets y Pate, 2014). El mejoramiento más evidente (10%) en el comportamiento relacionado a las tareas que debían realizar durante la clase (comportamiento esperado) se observó después de las pausas activas de 10 minutos y un mayor mejoramiento (30%) para quienes inicialmente obtuvieron una puntuación más baja en el comportamiento esperado. ...
PROBLEMA: El trastorno por Déficit de Atención e Hiperactividad (TDAH) está caracterizado por retrasos en el desarrollo neurobiológico. La actividad física (AF) puede influir en varios de los mecanismos neurocognitivos que también son afectados por el TDAH, por lo tanto, puede considerarse parte del tratamiento y manejo del TDAH. Esta revisión sobre TDAH resumirá estudios que evaluaron AF, aptitud física y coordinación motora. CRITERIOS DE INCLUSIÓN/EXCLUSIÓN: Fueron incluidos artículos sobre AF en la niñez en el espectro de TDAH. RESULTADOS: Estudios transversales: los niños con TDAH presentan niveles de AF más altos que aquellos niños aparentemente saludables. La niñez coincide con oportunidades para participar en juego libre, pero esta ventaja es reducida durante la adolescencia, en la cual la AF es estructurada y menos inclusiva. Durante la adultez, las personas con TDAH están más propensas a ser obesas y a no adoptar las recomendaciones de estilos de vida saludables. Estudios longitudinales: AF durante etapas tempranas predice la severidad de los síntomas del TDAH en etapas subsecuentes. Otros estudios: la AF moderada de corta duración brinda beneficios neurocognitivos. Los resultados sobre intervenciones de varias semanas difieren según la variable de interés y el grupo con el cual es comparada la intervención. CONCLUSIÓN/IMPLICACIONES: Las intervenciones de AF que retan las habilidades cognitivas y destrezas de movimientos brindan beneficios a los niños con TDAH. Además, estimulan a niños, niñas y adolescentes a participar en AF estructurada, a cumplir con la recomendación de AF y a incluir AF de corta duración como parte de las rutinas diarias.
... Study on performance of students has been observed during a lesson with 5, 10 and 20 min sedentary breaks. The results have been assessed using Analysis of covariance or ANCOVA on posttest time-on-task scores and pre-test time-on-task results [8]. It has proved that optimal results were obtained during the 10 min break experiments. ...
Naturally, a human can maintain focus on study for 45-55 minutes. However, many previous research works also have stated that student can only pay attention to study for 10-15 minutes, approximately. Students who study over this period may have reduced learning performance. Also, taking a break for a short period or mental break can refresh the brain in order to increase learning efficiency for those who want to continuous study. Therefore, this study performs two different methods of class conductance; 15 minutes study with 5 minutes mental break and 45 minutes study without a mental break for evaluating the Learning Performance of the student. It is related to eSense meter, which is indicated to attention and relaxation in which alterable performance. It also performs the subject test to observe the variations. It applies a statistical method, ANOVA and analysis of gain for a different demonstration between pre-test and post-test score for each group. As a result, the gain of the first group (0.3788) is higher than the second group (-0.6794). In conclusion, a short study with mental break method is better than a long study without mental break method in this study.
... In a randomized controlled study designed to evaluate the influence of classroom physical activity breaks, time-on-task was significantly higher in students after a 10-minute classroom physical activity break, compared to a sedentary control group. 6 Physical activity breaks taken throughout the school day may improve children's ability to focus on classroom tasks, possibly leading to better learning outcomes. ...
... In addition, research on active breaks mainly focusing on chronic school-based interventions found improvements on children's on-task behaviour but conflicting results on students' academic achievement and cognitive function [39,40]. In particular, some studies found positive [36,[41][42][43], as well as adverse or negative effects [35,44]. ...
(1) Background: Test anxiety has been found to negatively affect students’ mental health and academic performance. A primary explanation for this is that anxiety-related thoughts occupy working memory resources during testing that cannot be used for test-related processes (such as information retrieval and problem-solving). The present intervention study investigated whether physical activity could decrease anxiety levels and improve math test performance in sixth-grade children. (2) Methods: Sixty-eight children of 11–12 years from two primary schools in New South Wales, Australia were categorised as low or high anxious from their scores on a trait-anxiety questionnaire. After this assessment, they were randomly assigned to the activity break condition, in which they had to do several physical activities of moderate intensity (e.g., star jumps) for 10 min, or the control condition, in which they played a vocabulary game for 10 min. The outcome measures were children’s anxiety levels at the beginning, during, and at the end of the test, invested mental effort, perceived task difficulty and math test performance. (3) Results: Results showed that regardless of the condition, low anxious students performed better on the maths test than high anxious children. No differences were found for any of the variables between the activity break condition and the control condition. (4) Conclusions: Although test anxiety was not reduced as expected, this study showed that short physical activity breaks can be used before examinations without impeding academic performance.
... La literatura demuestra que la AF está positivamente relacionada con el rendimiento académico. Algunos estudios han demostrado que la práctica habitual o incrementada de AF en los colegios se asocia con el rendimiento cognitivo (Méndez-Giménez, 2019;Donnelly et al., 2016), ya que influye positivamente en diferente procesos de la cognición de los niños en general (Chaddock, Pontifex, Hillman y Kramer, 2011;Howie, Beets y Pate, 2014), y en la atención en particular (Ma, Le Mare y Gurd, 2015;Mahar, 2011;Rudasill, Gallagher y White, 2010). ...
RESUMEN Los descansos activos en entornos educativos se presentan como una propuesta para lograr un aumento de la actividad física diaria que acerque a los más jóvenes a las recomendaciones de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (2010). Más allá de los conocidos beneficios de la actividad física en la salud y el bienestar de niños y adolescentes, en numerosas ocasiones también se han observado beneficios a nivel cognitivo. Por ello, el objetivo del presente estudio fue conocer la influencia que tiene un período de descansos activos en la atención y concentración de niños de Educación Primaria. Para ello, participaron un total de 73 niños de entre 9 y 11 años, de los cuales 29 pertenecían al género masculino y 44 al femenino. Se llevó a cabo un programa de descansos activos en horario escolar compuesto de 10 sesiones. Los resultados del estudio muestran un incremento en la atención y concentración de los niños tras la implementación del programa. Estos resultados sugieren que 15 minutos diarios de actividad física cognitivamente involucrada podrían ayudan a mejorar considerablemente la cognición de los niños, lo cual podría beneficiar a su rendimiento académico. Por tanto, se recomienda incluir los descansos activos como actividad rutinaria en los centros educativos.
... Several authors [17][18][19][20] showed how acute active bouts of PA during the breaks between periods of academic instruction influence students' on-task behavior. The acute effects include short moderate-to-vigorous intensity bouts of PA, increasing plasma catecholamines, improving activation and arousal, or restoring cognitive resources after challenging lessons [21]. ...
Background:
The increasing need to face the problem of sedentarism, especially in the COVID-19 era, induced teachers and researchers to find new intervention methodologies in school context. Active breaks (ABs) include brief periods of physical activity as a part of the curriculum. This study aimed to investigate the AB acute responses on attentive skills and mathematical performance and attention in a primary school.
Methods:
A total of 141 children (aged 9.61 ± 0.82), divided into six classes, participated in this study. Each class was randomly assigned to three groups on the basis of the type of protocol performed during the three ABs scheduled in a school day: fitness (FIT), creativity (CREAT), and control group (CON). At baseline and at the end of interventions, all participants underwent the Stroop Color and Word test (SCWT) and the math test (MATH) to assess the level of attention and mathematical performance, respectively. The degree of enjoyment was evaluated through the modified Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale.
Results:
The factorial ANOVA showed significant differences between the FIT and CON in MATH test (p = 0.023) and SCWT (p = 0.034). CREAT and FIT groups showed higher degree of enjoyment than the CON (both ps < 0.001).
Conclusions:
This study showed a positive acute impact of AB interventions. FIT positively influenced attentive and math performances more than the CREAT, probably due to the correct work/rest ratio and executive rhythm that allowed children to reach a good level of exertion. This report showed that ABs can be a useful and productive activity to be performed between curricular lessons.
... Children who engaged in the highest levels of physical activity enjoyed the greatest increases in on-task classroom behavior. This finding is consistent with studies showing that the duration and intensity of adultdirected physical activity programs for older children and adolescents is related to on-task behavior (Bartholomew et al. 2018;Hillman and Pontifex 2009;Howie et al. 2014). Too, it supports the implementation of strategies to increase preschool children's activity level on the playground through adult guidance Wadsworth et al. 2020). ...
Physical activity—including outdoor motor play—has been associated with learning and brain-related functions and abilities in elementary school children and adolescence. Few studies have been conducted on the relationships between active play and these cognitive processes in preschool aged children. Several investigations have revealed that adult-directed physical activity can enhance preschoolers’ performance on measures of executive functions, such as inhibitory control or attention. In the present investigation we sought to determine if naturalistic playground play would have a similar effect to adult-guided exercise on a classroom indicator of young children’s cognitive control—on-task behavior during a whole group learning experience. The on-task behavior of 21 three-, four-, and five-year-olds was compared under two conditions—one in which children played outdoors immediately prior to the experience and one in which they did not. Too, the relationship between the level of physical activity on the playground of children and their on-task behavior directly following it was examined. Findings indicate that outdoor play prior to learning resulted in greater on-task behavior for boys and children of low socioeconomic status. Level of activity in play prior to a learning time was positively related to on-task behavior. Implications for scheduling of outdoor play and the role of teachers’ in facilitating more active motor play are discussed. Future research on a larger, more diverse sample of children is recommended.
... Despite these limitations, this pilot and feasibility study was useful to test how to implement this type of intervention in the school setting. The results encourage us to implement the protocol with a structured study involving a larger sample of children and teachers, and investigating other aspects, in particular the effects of ABs on cognitive functions and quality of life [47,48]. ...
Background: The school gives access to children, regardless of age, ethnicity, gender and socio-economic class and can be identified as the key environment in which to promote children’s physical activity (PA). The guidelines of the European Union recommend accumulating at least 10-min bouts of PA to reach the daily 60 min. Active breaks (ABs) led by teachers inside the classroom represent a good strategy to promote PA. The aim of this pilot and feasibility study was to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness in terms of PA level of an AB programme in children aged 8−9 years attending primary school. Methods: A pre-post quasi-experimental pilot and feasibility study was performed in two primary school classes, one of which was assigned to a 14-week AB intervention (AB group) and the other to the control group (CG). At baseline and at follow-up, children were monitored for sedentary and motor activity during an entire week using ActiGraph Accelerometer (ActiLife6 wGT3X-BT). The satisfaction of children and teachers was assessed by self-administered questionnaires. Results: In the pre-post comparison, AB group (n = 16) showed a reduction in the minutes spent in weekly sedentary activity (-168.7 min, p > 0.05), an increase in the number of step counts (+ 14,026.9, p
... La literatura demuestra que la AF está positivamente relacionada con el rendimiento académico. Algunos estudios han demostrado que la práctica habitual o incrementada de AF en los colegios se asocia con el rendimiento cognitivo (Méndez-Giménez, 2019;Donnelly et al., 2016), ya que influye positivamente en diferente procesos de la cognición de los niños en general (Chaddock, Pontifex, Hillman y Kramer, 2011;Howie, Beets y Pate, 2014), y en la atención en particular (Ma, Le Mare y Gurd, 2015;Mahar, 2011;Rudasill, Gallagher y White, 2010). ...
Los descansos activos en entornos educativos se presentan como una propuesta para lograr un aumento de la actividad física diaria que acerque a los más jóvenes a las recomendaciones de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (2010). Más allá de los conocidos beneficios de la actividad física en la salud y el bienestar de niños y adolescentes, en numerosas ocasiones también se han observado beneficios a nivel cognitivo. Por ello, el objetivo del presente estudio fue conocer la influencia que tiene un período de descansos activos en la atención y concentración de niños de Educación Primaria. Para ello, participaron un total de 73 niños de entre 9 y 11 años, de los cuales 29 pertenecían al género masculino y 44 al femenino. Se llevó a cabo un programa de descansos activos en horario escolar compuesto de 10 sesiones. Los resultados del estudio muestran un incremento en la atención y concentración de los niños tras la implementación del programa. Estos resultados sugieren que 15 minutos diarios de actividad física cognitivamente involucrada podrían ayudan a mejorar considerablemente la cognición de los niños, lo cual podría beneficiar a su rendimiento académico. Por tanto, se recomienda incluir los descansos activos como actividad rutinaria en los centros educativos.
... Por contra, existen más trabajos que analizan la relación entre la implicación del estudiante y la práctica físico-deportiva (Bailey 2006;Barros, Silver, y Stein, 2009;Fedewa y Ahn, 2011;Fredricks y Eccles, 2006;Howie, Beets, y Pate, 2014;Vazou, Gavrilou, Mamalaki, Papanastasiou, y Sioumala, 2012;Yu, Chan, Cheng, Sung, y Hau, 2006) vinculan la participación en actividades extraescolares deportivas con una mejora de los rendimientos académicos y una mayor implicación de los estudiantes con la escuela. El trabajo más reciente es el meta-análisis realizado por Owen et al. (2016), en el que se analizan 38 estudios previos y se concluye que los resultados sugieren un aumento de la implicación con la práctica de la actividad físico-deportiva. ...
The purpose of this study is the engagement of students with the practice of physical activity (AFD). Three dimensions are observed: emotional (identification), behavioural (participation) and cognitive (investment in the task). Attention is given to groups related to physical education and they are compared with similar age and degrees groups. It is considered that his engagement with the AFD will affect his classes and the involvement of their students. The general objective is to describe the engagement with the AFD, and observe differences regarding gender, age and groups. Ex post facto type quantitative methodology is used by passing the questionnaire of engagement with physical activity (IMAF) of 22 items. The total sample is 321 students, 87 women (27.1%) and 234 men (72.9%), between 19 and 45 years old, with an average age of 23.15 years (SD= 3.07). The results show that the students are very engaged with the AFD, especially in the affective dimension. Regarding gender, the involvement of men is greater and the participation of women is lower. The AFD increases until the 24 years, decreasing later. The engagement of CAFYD students is higher. The results obtained are adjusted to the theoretical framework and will allow intervention programs for each group.
... Commonly, the interventions targeting PA in academic lessons have focused on specific types of PA, such as short energizers and brain breaks (Bobe et al., 2014;Erin Kaye Howie et al., 2014;Mahar et al., 2006), integrating high intensity PA with academic content with an emphasis on acquired MVPA (Martin & Murtagh, 2017a;Mullender-Wijnsma et al., 2016) or mixing these two approaches (Resaland et al., 2015). However, these kinds of interventions, even when proven to be effective, may remain short-lived because they often fail to become embedded after the specific intervention (Reis et al., 2016). ...
Engaging key stakeholders, including students into the process of school-based physical activity (PA) intervention planning is considered important. The present study was part of the preparatory phase of the Estonian Schools in Motion pilot programme and aimed to examine students’ perspective of PA opportunities in the classroom. Based on 17 focus group interviews with 92 Estonian children aged 8–15, the results demonstrate that although PA is not yet a natural part of academic lessons in Estonia, students are eager and motivated to practise more PA. Even though they do not associate PA and academic lessons in general, they can come up with a wide range of activities that could make learning process more physically active. Students could identify several activities from incidental and content-related movement to games and energy breaks which helps to broaden the scope of classroom PA.
... Therefore, the dose-response relationship between activity duration and cognitive effects may need to be shifted to shorter durations of activity. This hypothesis is supported by the results of Howie et al. (2014) which found significant improvement in academic outcomes in a classroombased PA session of 15 min, and no improvement after 20 min. Egger et al. (2018) also argues for a shorter duration of activity as their 20-min classroom-based cognitively engaging PA session also showed no significant effect on inhibition and actually led to worse performance on a shifting task. ...
Cognitively engaging physical activity (PA) has been suggested to have superior effects on cognition compared to PA with low cognitive demands; however, there have been few studies directly comparing these different types of activities. The aim of this study is to compare the cognitive effects of a combined physically and cognitively engaging bout of PA to a physical or cognitive activity alone in children. Children were randomized in pairs to one of three 20-min conditions: (1) a cognitive sedentary activity; (2) a non-cognitively engaging PA; and a (3) cognitively engaging PA. Executive function (EF) was assessed using a modified Eriksen flanker task immediately before and 10–15 min following the experimental condition. Children ages 6–8 years ( n = 48, Mage = 7.04, SD = 1.37; 40% girls) were included in the study. A repeated measures ANOVA found no significant difference between groups with respect to scores on the flanker task. The results do not support the hypotheses that a cognitively engaging bout of PA enhances cognitive performance over non-cognitively engaging PA or sedentary activities. Possible explanations for our findings include overexertion during the acute bout of PA and depletion of positive affect prior to performing the post-intervention EF tasks.
... Reason for Exclusion Adsiz et al. (2012) [61] No AB Amicone et al. (2018) [62] No AB Bartholomew et al. (2018) [63] No attention: Time on task Ben-Zeev et al. (2020) [64] No AB: PE lesson Blasche et al. (2018) [65] No attention Budde et al. (2008) [28] No proper CG: PE lesson Chou et al. (2020) [66] No AB: PE lesson Chrismas et al. (2019) [67] No AB Contreras et al. (2020) [68] Not written in English. [71] No AB Gonzalez et al. (2020) [72] Not written in English Grieco et al. (2016) [73] No attention: Time on task Howie et al. (2015) [74] No attention Howie et al. (2014) [75] No attention: Time on task Kubesch et al. (2009) [76] No AB: PE lesson Mahar (2011) [77] Review Mavilidi et al. (2020) [78] No attention: [85] Not written in English Owen et al. (2018) [86] No AB Pesce et al. (2013) [87] No AB Ruiz-Ariza et al. (2021) [88] Not written in English Sánchez-López et al. (2015) [89] Protocol Sugahara et al. (2018) [90] No AB Tan et al. (2016) [4] No attention: Time on task Vazou, et al. (2020) [91] No attention: Observation [92] Protocol Watson et al. (2019) [93] No attention: Classroom behavior Webster et al. (2015) [94] No attention: Time on task AB: active break, CG: control group, PE: physical education. ...
School physical activity breaks are currently being proposed as a way to improve students’ learning. However, there is no clear evidence of the effects of active school breaks on academic-related cognitive outcomes. The present systematic review with meta-analysis scrutinized and synthesized the literature related to the effects of active breaks on students’ attention. On January 12th, 2021, PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science were searched for published interventions with counterbalanced cross-over or parallel-groups designs with a con-trol group, including school-based active breaks, objective attentional outcomes, and healthy students of any age. Studies’ results were qualitatively synthesized, and meta-analyses were performed if at least three study groups provided pre-post data for the same measure. Results showed some positive acute and chronic effects of active breaks on attentional outcomes (i.e., accuracy, concentration, inhibition, and sustained attention), especially on selective attention. However, most of the results were not significant. The small number of included studies and their heterogeneous design are the primary limitations of the present study. Although the results do not clearly point out the positive effects of active breaks, they do not compromise stu-dents’ attention. The key roles of intensity and the leader of the active break are discussed.
... There is a growing interest in the study on the effect of one bout of physical activity, which is also referred to as acute exercise, on cognitive and behavioral functioning over the past couple of decades. A body of literature has demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise, in particular, done for 10-45 min, positively influences brain health and cognition (Chang et al., 2017;Howie et al., 2014;Kao et al., 2020;Mrcpuk et al., 2017;Niemann et al., 2013;O'Leary et al., 2011;Won et al., 2017). Notwithstanding the consistent evidence from previous studies and meta-analytical reviews (Kao et al., 2019;Lubans et al., 2016;Ludyga et al., 2016;Pontifex et al., 2018), the specific aspect or domain of cognitive functions, which preferentially benefits from acute exercise, remains unclear. ...
Objectives: To examine the effect of acute exercise on multiple ERP components in young adults and to determine whether acute moderate-intensity exercise exerts a general or selective effect on a cognitive task requiring basic information processing and the inhibitory aspect of executive function.
Design: A randomized controlled trial design.
Methods: Forty young adults were randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups: (a) an acute bout of moderate-intensity exercise (n = 20) or (b) a non-exercise control (n = 20). The participants completed congruent and incongruent trials of a flanker task at baseline and after the treatments (exercise or control) while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded.
Results: Acute moderate-intensity exercise facilitated response times for both congruent and incongruent flanker conditions. Larger P2, N2c, and P3 amplitudes were observed under both conditions following the exercise. No effects on accuracy or latency were found.
Conclusion: These findings suggest that acute moderate-intensity exercise generally influences basic information processing and the inhibitory aspect of executive function in healthy young adults. The ERP data imply that general facilitation occurs in the perceptual, stimulus classification and evaluation processes.
... Focusing on small breaks over a period of 7 hours can be challenging for younger students. A randomized controlled trial was conducted to assess the Korkmaz and Demir 475 effect of class activity breaks, and after a 10-minute exercise break, a significantly higher incidence was observed in students compared to a non-stationary control group (Howie et al., 2014). Cognitive functions are related to taking, storing, processing, and using information such as attention, perception, memory, and thinking. ...
The goal of this study is to investigate whether or not the attention level of middle school students’ changes depends on their physical activity. Fourty middle-school students who have been taking education in Yalova province joined the study as a volunteer. Fifty percent of the participants are male and the others are female. The experimental and the control groups have been formed and each of these groups consisted of 10 male and 10 female students. International physical activity questionnaire short form and Burdon concentration test were used as the information gathering instruments. To compare the experimental groups with the control groups, a T-test was used for independent groups. To compare one to another participant in each group, also T-test was used for dependent groups. Using the international physical activity questionnaire short form, preliminary and final tests were applied to each participant. According to the results of the questionnaire, weekly MET values of each participant were calculated. At the beginning of the study, the Burdon concentration test applied to each participant. Our study has finished in eight weeks. The physical activity levels of the control group were kept constant and no information was given. Twenty pieces of Xiaomi-mi-band-3 smart bracelets were supplied to the experimental group and they were informed about the features of these devices. At the end of 8 weeks period, the international physical activity questionnaire short form and Burdon concentration test were applied to each participant again. According to the physical activity levels of the control group, no significant difference has been found between the results of the Burdon concentration test (p > 0.05). But according to the physical activity levels of the experimental group, a significant difference has been found between the results of the Burdon concentration test (p < 0.05). As a result, it has been observed that an increase in levels of physical activity provides an increase in concentration. In conclusion, it is seen that many students and young people have low levels of physical activity due to both lifestyle and virtual world dependence. Although there are many factors, the decrease in physical activity causes low levels of attention. The better the attention levels of our students and young people, the more successful they will be in their lives. Our study and most of the mentioned studies reveal that attention is a developable skill and a situational factor that is open to influence. Therefore, attention development in children who are directed to recreational activities should be emphasized, especially during periods of rapid physical growth. If we want our students and young people to be more successful, they should be encouraged and supported more about physical activity.
... Future studies should explore if a 1hour program is the optimal length for BASPs to effectively increase PA as this has been done with other types of schoolbased PA programs. 45,46 Finally, results from the DCE show that parents prefer BASPs that offer a balanced mix of PA opportunities and academic time. Those involved with the planning and designing of BASPs specifically should allow for academic time alongside PA opportunities. ...
Background:
The purpose of this study was to examine and compare parent preferences of before and after school physical activity program components in rural and suburban elementary schools.
Methods:
A discrete choice experiment was conducted to measure parent preferences for components of before/after school programs. A total of 183 parents (age = 37.2 [8.2] y, 155 females) sampled from 15 elementary schools (K-6 grades) in the Western United States took part in the study, half of which were from a rural community (n = 93, 50.8%). Results from the discrete choice experiment were analyzed using hierarchic Bayesian methodology, which estimated utility scores and was used to calculate important scores for program components.
Results:
The specific goal of the before/after school program was the strongest determinant of parents' stated choice overall, followed by leaders, time of day, length, and main focus. Learning sports as the physical activity goal was the top-rated attribute. Subgroup analyses revealed discrepancies between suburban and rural parents and parents of boys and girls.
Conclusion:
This study extends the application of discrete choice experiments to school-based programming, providing a unique way to design empirically based, stakeholder informed school programs, specifically within before and after school settings.
... Like teachers and students, the principal also expressed her belief that PA at school is advantageous for student learning and behavior. Indeed, evidence has supported a positive association between classroom PA and elementary student behavior, including time spent on-task (Howie, Beets, and Pate, 2014;Szabo-Reed et al., 2017). Further, the teachers' and the principal in this study both valued the connection between PA in the classroom and academic-related outcomes, which is consistent with previous research (Brown and Elliott, 2015). ...
The physical activity has been shown to be beneficial to indicators of physical, mental, and psychosocial health in child and adolescent populations. In this way, there is a growing interest in the effect of physical activity on cognitive outcomes, because there are some evidences about the influence of physical activity and his efficacious and low-cost health behavior on cognitive and brain development in children and adolescents. However, the effects of regular physical activity on cognitive performance in children have been inconsistent in the literature and not enough study in childhood education. For this reason, the aim of this chapter will be focused in many aspects to take into account to create a proposal to increase the physical activity levels to improve the attentional and concentration levels in children from 3 to 6 years old.
Active breaks have received great attention both among teachers and researchers and are used by those who pursuit to take advantage of all its benefits. Because of these benefits, many teachers or schools have incorporated active breaks into their daily classroom routines. However, to the authors' knowledge, there is not any program aimed entirely at preschool age. Also, the type of activities proposed in these programs are mostly mechanic with low cognitive engagement while some authors argue that cognitively engaging physical activity is more beneficial for cognitive and academic performance than mechanic activities. For these reasons, this chapter proposes a new active break program aimed at preschool children. This program, entitled “Move Your Brain,” will be composed of physical activities with inherent cognitive demands to challenge the children's brains.
El principal objetivo fue revisar la evidencia científica sobre los efectos de dos estrategias que integran movimiento en las clases de aula (clases académicas físicamente activas y descansos activos) en resultados académicos, cognitivos y de salud. Las clases físicamente activas refuerzan el contenido académico conectándolo directamente con determinadas actividades físicas, mientras que los descansos activos utilizan la AF como recuperación de la carga académica sin conectar necesariamente con contenidos
curriculares. Se examinan las revisiones y meta-análisis publicadas en los últimos cinco años y se pone el foco en implicaciones docentes relevantes. Se concluye que integrar movimiento en las clases académicas tiene el potencial no solo de mejorar los niveles de actividad física modera y vigorosa de los estudiantes durante la jornada escolar, sino también de incrementar facilitadores del aprendizaje como la concentración, la cognición y el tiempo en la tarea, así como las funciones ejecutivas de organización, y el rendimiento académico.
Brief coordinative movement breaks increase student attention and should be implemented by school-based occupational therapists to support the occupational potential of all students. Inattention is one of the most common reasons for student referrals to special education. Decreased physical activity is a contributing factor, yet movement opportunities are declining in schools. Despite these trends and the call from AOTA to support health promotion and prevention for all, 1:1 occupational therapy focusing on students identified with handwriting deficits continue to be prevalent in school-based practice. To remain a relevant service and keep pace with changing trends in special education and best practice, occupational therapists must broaden their scope to address inattention. This study explored Bal-A-Vis-X as an inclusive coordinative exercise intervention and found that 10-minutes of Bal-A-Vis-X twice per week for eight weeks improved attention in sixth grade students from d2 Test of Attention pretest to posttests. Immediate posttest improvements were statistically significant for processing speed (TN, t(27) = −7.27, p <.001), focused attention (TN-E, t(27) = −9.85, p <.001), concentration performance (CP, t(27) = −7.90, p <.001), and accuracy (E%, t(27) = 1.72, p = .048). Delayed posttesting was completed 90-minutes after the intervention with statistically significant improvements in processing speed (TN, t(21) = −10.37, p <.001), focused attention (TN-E, t(21) = −12.59, p <.001), concentration performance (CP, t(21) = −11.28, p <.001), and accuracy (E%, t(21) = 2.62, p = .008).
BACKGROUND
High volumes of school-based sedentary time may impact academic achievement and executive function negatively. This study evaluated a multimodal classroom program's (POWER) effect on fifth graders' physical activity (PA) and executive function.
METHODS
Six 5th grade classes (3 = intervention [POW]; 3 = waitlist control [CONT]) in 2 diverse New Jersey schools participated. Data were collected before, during, and post-intervention. PA was assessed via accelerometer, executive function by NIH Toolbox, and academic achievement via standardized math tests. The POW principal, teachers, and select students participated in follow-up interviews. Group comparisons were made by multivariate repeated-measures ANOVA and linear regression.
RESULTS
PA decreased in both groups over time, but POW's post-intervention class-time PA was significantly higher than CONT's. POW's NIH Toolbox score increased 3 percentiles more than CONT's. Intervention fidelity was associated with significantly higher scores for one NIH Toolbox test. Student math test scores increased significantly for both schools, but there was no significant main effect for group. POW's feedback was positive, with the principal reporting fewer disciplinary referrals and teachers and students conveying positive growth.
CONCLUSIONS
Overall, POW's positive changes and the favorable reception of POWER support POWER'S ability to improve children's socioemotional and physical health.
Physical activity in children is associated with several cognitive benefits. Since children and adolescents spend an increasing amount of time engaged in sedentary behavior both at school and in their free time, movement breaks during class hours, in which students are physically active, may be beneficial for effective learning. The aim of this systematic research is to provide an overview of prospective studies investigating the influence of classroom-based physical activity (CB-PA) interventions on attention and on-task behavior in school-aged children and adolescents aged between 4 and 18 years. A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, Science Direct, PsycINFO, Ovid), according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement, was performed from July 2020 to March 2021. Study characteristics data were analyzed and a methodological quality assessment, using a modified Downs and Black checklist, of both randomized and non-randomized studies was conducted. Overall, the available evidence points to a beneficial effect of exercise on attention and on-task behavior in a classroom setting. However, methodological differences concerning participants and duration and type of physical activity should be considered when comparing the results. Further studies with more comparable methodology are needed to provide a better understanding of the effect of CB-PA on attention and on-task behavior.
Though classroom time has been identified as a contributing factor to sedentary behavior, school has been recognized as the main educational setting providing physical activity (PA) opportunities. The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the feasibility of a classroom-based intervention which integrates PA during the school time, and assess its potential effect on reducing inactivity in primary school children. The intervention was performed in a sample of 47 children attending a primary school in the south of Italy and it was structured in two sessions of classroom active breaks (CABs) in three school days a week, shared with and supervised by the teachers. CABs showed an overall potential positive effect on the reduction of inactivity of ∼12 min and an equivalent increase in PA levels, of which 5 min were of moderate/vigorous intensity. Girls showed lower time spent in light and moderate PA and higher amount of inactivity than boys and responded better to the intervention. The satisfaction of children and teachers was high. CABs program is a safe tool to reduce inactivity and increase moderate/vigorous PA. Designing structured exercise breaks adapted in a flexible way to meet the needs of the school curriculum program may increase the feasibility of such PA program in the schools.
Though classroom time has been identified as a contributing factor to sedentary behavior, school has been recognized as the main educational setting providing physical activity (PA) opportunities. The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the feasibility of a classroom-based intervention which integrates PA during the school time, and assess its potential effect on reducing inactivity in primary school children. The intervention was performed in a sample of 47 children attending a primary school in the south of Italy and it was structured in two sessions of classroom active breaks (CABs) in three school days a week, shared with and supervised by the teachers. CABs showed an overall potential positive effect on the reduction of inactivity of ∼12 min and an equivalent increase in PA levels, of which 5 min were of moderate/vigorous intensity. Girls showed lower time spent in light and moderate PA and higher amount of inactivity than boys and responded better to the intervention. The satisfaction of children and teachers was high. CABs program is a safe tool to reduce inactivity and increase moderate/vigorous PA. Designing structured exercise breaks adapted in a flexible way to meet the needs of the school curriculum program may increase the feasibility of such PA program in the schools.
Objective
To evaluate the impact of three types of social cognitive theory (SCT)-based elementary school classroom physical activity (PA) training on teachers’ implementation rates, attitudes, knowledge and behaviour.
Design
Key stakeholder focus groups informed development of phase II which took the form of a randomised controlled trial of three different intensities of teacher training to conduct classroom-based PA sessions.
Setting
The study was conducted over one school year (2016–2017), across four elementary schools in the USA.
Methods
Researchers delivered professional development to teachers, focusing on effective methods for PA use in the classroom through three formats: webinar, in-person training and in-person with personalised assistance. Training content was built on SCT constructs. This study examined the impact of the PA training on SCT construct outcomes among elementary school classroom teachers ( n = 41). Study outcome measures included reciprocal determinism, behavioural capability, outcome expectations and self-efficacy. Over the 12-week period following the training, teachers completed surveys to measure SCT construct outcomes.
Results
Results of the intervention demonstrated an increase in teacher self-efficacy and knowledge ( p < .01 and p < .01). There was a significant increase of teachers who started using PA in the classroom who indicated no use at baseline (from 21% to 6% not using).
Conclusion
The use of SCT to provide a teacher training is an effective method to increase classroom PA, while improving teacher self-efficacy and knowledge concerning PA implementation.
Objectives: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of specifically designed physical activities on primary school children's foreign language vocabulary learning and attentional performance. Design: A total of 104 children aged between 8 and 10 years were assigned to either (a) an embodied learning condition consisting of task-relevant physical activities, (b) a physical activity condition involving task-irrelevant physical activities, or (c) a control condition consisting of a sedentary teaching style. Within a 2-week teaching program, consisting of four learning sessions, children had to learn 20 foreign language words. Method: Children were tested on their memory performance (cued recall test) after completion of the program and on their focused attention (d2-R test of attention) immediately after one learning session. Results: Linear mixed model analyses revealed both the embodied learning (d = 1.12) and the physical activity condition (d = 0.51) as being more effective in teaching children new words than the control condition. Children's focused attention, however, did not differ between the three conditions. Conclusions: The results are discussed in the light of embodied cognition and cognitive load theory. Implications for the inclusion of specific physical activities during the school day are proposed.
Individuals with attention problems often exhibit more off-task behaviors and less engagement in classroom settings, and exercising has demonstrated positive effects in decreasing disruptive behaviors and increasing on-task behaviors. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of physical activity on academic engaged time for individuals with attention problems in a classroom setting. Results indicate that the average percentage of on-task behaviors were higher on days of exercise compared to days without exercise, though visual inspection of the data suggests physical activity has no effect on on-task behavior.
Giriş ve Amaç: Hareketsizlik, sağlıksız beslenme ve teknoloji bağımlılığı ile ilişkilendirilen obezite, diyabet, kalp-damar hastalıkları ve psikolojik problemler çocuklar arasında giderek artış göstermektedir. Bu bağlamda, zamanlarının büyük bir bölümünü okulda geçiren çocukların ilgili sağlık problemlerine karşı korunması adına okullarda yapılacak düzenlemeler önem kazanmaktadır. Nitekim, son yıllarda, sınıflarda gerçekleştirilen fiziksel aktivite uygulamalarına yönelik çok sayıda bilimsel araştırmanın yanı sıra, uygulamalı projelerin sayısındaki artış dikkat çekmektedir. İlgili çalışmalarda, fiziksel aktivite, vücut kitle endeksi ve harcanan kalori gibi fizyolojik parametrelerin yanı sıra, dikkat, görev davranışı, motivasyon, akademik performans gibi bilişsel ve psikolojik parametreler de incelenmiştir. Bu araştırmanın amacı, uluslararası perspektifte literatürde yer alan bilgi kaynaklarının değerlendirilmesi ve konuya bütünsel bir bakış açısı sağlanması, ulusal perspektifte ise Türkiye’de gerçekleştirilecek fiziksel aktiviteye dayalı öğrenme uygulamalarına yönelik gelecek araştırma ve projelere ışık tutulmasıdır. Yöntem: Bu araştırmada, nitel araştırma yaklaşımı temel alınarak doküman analizi tekniği kullanılmıştır. Araştırmaya dahil edilen makaleler (n=44) ölçüt örnekleme yöntemi ile belirlenmiştir. Bu doğrultuda, dergilerin tarandığı indeksler-veri tabanları (WoS, Pubmed, Scopus, PsycINFO vb.), dergilerin etki faktörleri, güncellik ve özgünlük gibi nitel ve nicel ölçütler dikkate alınmıştır. İlgili makaleler araştırmacılar tarafından incelendikten sonra araştırmacı notları ortak bir toplantı ile çözümlenerek değerlendirilmiştir. Bulgular: Fiziksel aktiviteye dayalı öğrenme ortamlarının öğrencilerin fizyolojik, bilişsel ve psikolojik parametreleri üzerinde olumlu etkileri olduğu, buna karşın etki büyüklüklerinin farklılaştığı gözlenmiştir. Uygulamaların dezavantajlı gruplar üzerindeki olumlu etkileri daha belirgindir. Aktivitenin şiddeti, süresi, türü gibi bağımsız değişkenler bağımlı değişkenler üzerinde farklı sonuçlar doğurabilmektedir. Uygulama öncesi eğitim, motivasyon ve destek öğretmenlerin uygulamalardaki bilgisi, becerisi ve pozisyonu açısından önem taşımaktadır. Araştırmalarda kullanılan yöntem ve veri toplama araçlarına göre elde edilen sonuçlar soru işareti uyandıracak düzeyde farklılaşmaktadır. Sonuç: Araştırmaların büyük bir çoğunluğu, fiziksel aktiviteye dayalı öğrenme ortamlarının fizyolojik, bilişsel ve psikolojik parametreler üzerinde olumlu etkileri olduğunu raporlamaktadır. Çocukluk obezitesinin hızla arttığı ülkemizde eğitim, sağlık ve spor alanında faaliyet yürüten kurum ve kuruluşlar vakit kaybetmeden örnek araştırma ve uygulamalar gerçekleştirilmelidir.
The present study aimed to investigate international literature regarding to physical activity integrated learning environments. Document analysis technique was used on basis of qualitative research approach. The articles covered by the study (n=44) were selected using criterion sampling method. In this regard, indexes-data bases for journals (WoS, Pubmed, Scopus, PsycINFO etc.), journals’ effect factors, actuality and authenticity criterias were considered. It is obvious that physical activity based learning environments have positive effects on physiological, cognitive and psychological parameters, however, effect sizes varies. Additionally, type, duration and volume of physical activity and research designs causes changeable results. Positive effects seems more apparent on disadvantaged groups. Practical training and motivation are critical for teacher’s knowledge, skills and position. It was observed that limitations in studies may effect results. According to many studies, physical activity based learning environments have positive effects on pupils and learning environments, however future studies must enhance and carefully constitute parameters concerning to research designs. Additionally, In Turkey, where childhood obesity is rapidly increasing, institutions operating in the field of health and sport have to carry out sample research and practices without any delay.
The increasing prominence of standardized testing to assess student learning motivated the current investigation. We propose that standardized achievement test scores assess competencies determined more by intelligence than by self-control, whereas report card grades assess competencies determined more by self-control than by intelligence. In particular, we suggest that intelligence helps students learn and solve problems independent of formal instruction, whereas self-control helps students study, complete homework, and behave positively in the classroom. Two longitudinal, prospective studies of middle school students support predictions from this model. In both samples, IQ predicted changes in standardized achievement test scores over time better than did self-control, whereas self-control predicted changes in report card grades over time better than did IQ. As expected, the effect of self-control on changes in report card grades was mediated in Study 2 by teacher ratings of homework completion and classroom conduct. In a third study, ratings of middle school teachers about the content and purpose of standardized achievement tests and report card grades were consistent with the proposed model. Implications for pedagogy and public policy are discussed.
Three field experiments were conducted to determine the effects of different recess timing regimens on children’s classroom and recess behaviors. Experiment 1 involved children in Grades K, 2, and 4. The timing of their recess was experimentally varied by 30 minutes. Students’ classroom behavior before and after recess was observed as was their outdoor recess behavior. Children’s prerecess inattention varied as a function of deprivation duration. Further, children, but especially boys, were more socially interactive on the playground following the long deprivation, compared to the short deprivation. Recess behaviors did not relate significantly to postrecess inattention. However, inattention rates were higher before recess than after. Experiment 2 utilized a similar paradigm with a sample of second and fourth graders from the same school. Experiment 2, generally, replicated results from Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, which utilized a replication sample design, children s recess was also manipulated, but the recess period was indoors. Results of the two samples replicated each other and the preceding experiments. Results are discussed in terms of play deprivation theory and massed versus distributed practice.
This paper reports an analysis of videotape and interview data from four Year 8 mathematics lessons from the perspective of
student cognitive engagement. The study extends our understanding of cognitive engagement by locating empirical evidence for
its occurrence within the classroom. On the basis of the data we have examined, it appears that cognitive engagement can be
consistently recognised by specific linguistic and behavioural indicators and is promoted by particular aspects of the classroom
situation, the task, and the individual.
The effectiveness of fixed-time delivery of attention to increase the on-task behavior of 2 students in general education
was examined. The teacher in this study provided attention to students on a 5-min fixed-time schedule and responded to students
in her typical manner between cued intervals. An ABAB withdrawal design was used to test the effects of the intervention.
The results of this study indicate that a fixed-time schedule of attention was effective in increasing students’ on-task behavior
and decreasing their off-task behavior. Implications of the study for research and practice are discussed.
KeywordsFixed-time schedule–Reinforcement–Teacher attention–Intervention–On-task behavior
Most youth are not meeting physical activity guidelines, and schools are a key venue for providing physical activity. School districts can provide physical activity opportunities through the adoption, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies. This paper reports results of a 2009 survey of California school governance leaders on the barriers and opportunities to providing school-based physical activity and strategies to promote adoption of evidence-based policies.
California school board members (n = 339) completed an 83 item online survey about policy options, perceptions, and barriers to improving physical activity in schools.
Board members' highest rated barriers to providing physical activity were budget concerns, limited time in a school day, and competing priorities. The key policy opportunities to increase physical activity were improving the quantity and quality of physical education, integrating physical activity throughout the school day, supporting active transportation to/from school, providing access to physical activity facilities during nonschool hours, and integrating physical activity into before/after school programs.
Survey findings were used to develop policy resources and trainings for school governance leaders that provide a comprehensive approach to improving physical activity in schools.
Priority health-risk behaviors, which are behaviors that contribute to the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among youth and adults, often are established during childhood and adolescence, extend into adulthood, and are interrelated and preventable.
September 2008- December 2009.
The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) monitors six categories of priority health-risk behaviors among youth and young adults: 1) behaviors that contribute to unintentional injuries and violence; 2) tobacco use; 3) alcohol and other drug use; 4) sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection; 5) unhealthy dietary behaviors; and 6) physical inactivity. In addition, YRBSS monitors the prevalence of obesity and asthma. YRBSS includes a national school-based Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) conducted by CDC and state and local school-based YRBSs conducted by state and local education and health agencies. This report summarizes results from the 2009 national survey, 42 state surveys, and 20 local surveys conducted among students in grades 9-12.
Results from the 2009 national YRBS indicated that many high school students are engaged in behaviors that increase their likelihood for the leading causes of death among persons aged 10-24 years in the United States. Among high school students nationwide, 9.7% rarely or never wore a seat belt when riding in a car driven by someone else. During the 30 days before the survey, 28.3% of high school students rode in a car or other vehicle driven by someone who had been drinking alcohol, 17.5% had carried a weapon, 41.8% had drunk alcohol, and 20.8% had used marijuana. During the 12 months before the survey, 31.5% of high school students had been in a physical fight and 6.3% had attempted suicide. Substantial morbidity and social problems among youth also result from unintended pregnancies and STDs, including HIV infection. Among high school students nationwide, 34.2% were currently sexually active, 38.9% of currently sexually active students had not used a condom during their last sexual intercourse, and 2.1% of students had ever injected an illegal drug. Results from the 2009 YRBS also indicated that many high school students are engaged in behaviors associated with the leading causes of death among adults aged >or=25 years in the United States. During 2009, 19.5% of high school students smoked cigarettes during the 30 days before the survey. During the 7 days before the survey, 77.7% of high school students had not eaten fruits and vegetables five or more times per day, 29.2% had drunk soda or pop at least one time per day, and 81.6% were not physically active for at least 60 minutes per day on all 7 days. One-third of high school students attended physical education classes daily, and 12.0% were obese.
Since 1991, the prevalence of many health-risk behaviors among high school students nationwide has decreased. However, many high school students continue to engage in behaviors that place them at risk for the leading causes of morbidity and mortality. The prevalence of most risk behaviors does not vary substantially among cities and states.
YRBS data are used to measure progress toward achieving 15 national health objectives for Healthy People 2010 and three of the 10 leading health indicators, to assess trends in priority health-risk behaviors among high school students, and to evaluate the impact of broad school and community interventions at the national, state, and local levels. More effective school health programs and other policy and programmatic interventions are needed to reduce risk and improve health outcomes among youth.
The purpose of this study is to examine the interplay of children's temperamental attention and activity (assessed when children were 4-and-a-half years old) and classroom emotional support as they relate to children's academic achievement in third grade. Particular focus is placed on the moderating role of classroom emotional support on the relationship between temperament (attention and activity level) and academic achievement. Regression analyses indicated that children's attention and activity level were associated with children's third grade reading and mathematics achievement, and classroom emotional support was associated with children's third grade reading and mathematics achievement. In addition, classroom emotional support moderated the relation between children's attention and reading and mathematics achievement, such that attention mattered most for reading and mathematics achievement for children in classrooms with lower emotional support. Findings point to the importance of understanding how children's temperament and classroom emotional support may work together to promote or inhibit children's academic achievement.
The effect of an acute bout of moderate treadmill walking on behavioral and neuroelectric indexes of the cognitive control of attention and applied aspects of cognition involved in school-based academic performance were assessed. A within-subjects design included 20 preadolescent participants (age=9.5+/-0.5 years; eight female) to assess exercise-induced changes in performance during a modified flanker task and the Wide Range Achievement Test 3. The resting session consisted of cognitive testing followed by a cardiorespiratory fitness assessment to determine aerobic fitness. The exercise session consisted of 20 min of walking on a motor-driven treadmill at 60% of estimated maximum heart rate followed by cognitive testing once heart rate returned to within 10% of pre-exercise levels. Results indicated an improvement in response accuracy, larger P3 amplitude, and better performance on the academic achievement test following aerobic exercise relative to the resting session. Collectively, these findings indicate that single, acute bouts of moderately-intense aerobic exercise (i.e. walking) may improve the cognitive control of attention in preadolescent children, and further support the use of moderate acute exercise as a contributing factor for increasing attention and academic performance. These data suggest that single bouts of exercise affect specific underlying processes that support cognitive health and may be necessary for effective functioning across the lifespan.
The relationship between aerobic fitness and executive control was assessed in 38 higher- and lower-fit children (M-sub(age) = 9.4 years), grouped according to their performance on a field test of aerobic capacity. Participants performed a flanker task requiring variable amounts of executive control while event-related brain potential responses and task performance were assessed. Results indicated that higher-fit children performed more accurately across conditions of the flanker task and following commission errors when compared to lower-fit children, whereas no group differences were observed for reaction time. Neuroelectric data indicated that P3 amplitude was larger for higher- compared to lower-fit children across conditions of the flanker task, and higher-fit children exhibited reduced error-related negativity amplitude and increased error positivity amplitude compared to lower-fit children. The data suggest that fitness is associated with better cognitive performance on an executive control task through increased cognitive control, resulting in greater allocation of attentional resources during stimulus encoding and a subsequent reduction in conflict during response selection. The findings differ from those observed in adult populations by indicating a general rather than a selective relationship between aerobic fitness and cognition.
This study examines the amount of recess that children 8 to 9 years of age receive in the United States and compares the group classroom behavior of children receiving daily recess with that of children not receiving daily recess.
This is a secondary analysis of a public-use data set, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999, third-grade data set. Children were categorized into 2 levels of recess exposure, that is, none/minimal break (<1 break of 15 minutes/day) or some recess. Some recess was further categorized into 5 levels on the basis of frequency and duration of recess. Child, parent, school, and classroom characteristics of those with and without recess were compared. The group classroom behavior was assessed by using the teacher's rating of class behavior.
Complete data were available for 10301 to 11624 children 8 to 9 years of age. There were equal numbers of boys and girls (boys: 50.3%). Children exposed to none/minimal break (30%) were much more likely to be black, to be from families with lower incomes and lower levels of education, to live in large cities, to be from the Northeast or South, and to attend public school, compared with those with recess. Teacher's rating of classroom behavior scores were better for children with some recess than for those with none/minimal break. This finding was maintained in multivariate regression analysis. However, among children receiving daily recess, the teacher's rating of class behavior scores did not differ significantly according to the level of exposure.
These results indicated that, among 8- to 9-year-old children, having > or =1 daily recess period of >15 minutes in length was associated with better teacher's rating of class behavior scores. This study suggests that schoolchildren in this age group should be provided with daily recess.
This study evaluated the effects of a classroom-based physical activity program on children's in-school physical activity levels and on-task behavior during academic instruction.
Physical activity of 243 students was assessed during school hours. Intervention-group students (N = 135) received a classroom-based program (i.e., Energizers). The control group (N = 108) did not receive Energizers. On-task behavior during academic instruction time was observed for 62 third-grade (N = 37) and fourth-grade students (N = 25) before and after Energizers activities. An independent groups t-test compared in-school physical activity levels between intervention and control classes. A multiple-baseline across-classrooms design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the Energizers on on-task behavior. Additionally, a two-way (time [pre- vs postobservation] x period [baseline vs intervention]) repeated-measures analysis of variance compared on-task behavior between observation periods. Magnitudes of mean differences were evaluated with Cohen's delta (ES).
Students in the intervention group took significantly (P < 0.05) more in-school steps (5587 +/- 1633) than control-group students (4805 +/- 1543), and the size of this difference was moderate (ES = 0.49). The intervention was effective in improving on-task behavior; after the Energizers were systematically implemented, on-task behavior systematically improved. The improvement in on-task behavior of 8% between the pre-Energizers and post-Energizers observations was statistically significant (P < 0.017), and the difference was moderate (ES = 0.60). Likewise, the least on-task students improved on-task behavior by 20% after Energizers activities. This improvement was statistically significant (P < 0.001) and meaningful (ES = 2.20).
A classroom-based physical activity program was effective for increasing daily in-school physical activity and improving on-task behavior during academic instruction.
This article presents results from two interrelated studies. The first study conducted a meta-analysis of the published literature since 1990 to determine the magnitude of achievement problems associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Effect sizes were significantly different between participants with and without ADHD (sample weighted r = .32, sample weighted d = . 71; p = .001). Effects were also examined according to the moderators of age, gender, achievement domain (reading, math, spelling), measurement method (standardized tests vs. grades, parent/teacher ratings, etc.), sample type (clinical vs. nonclinical), and system used to identify ADHD (DSM-III-R vs. DSM-IV). Significant differences emerged from the moderator comparisons. The second study, using averaged effect sizes from the first study as a baseline for comparison, investigated achievement levels for an understudied age group with ADHD, namely, college students. Unlike previous studies at the college level, the sample incorporated both student and parent ratings (N = 380 dyads). The results were comparable to outcomes from the meta-analysis for college students and adults. Analyses demonstrated modest (R = .21) but meaningful predictive validity across 1 year to end-of-first-year grades. However, unlike earlier studies with children and adolescents, student ratings were as predictive as parent ratings. Findings are discussed in terms of the impact of moderator variables on ADHD and achievement.
Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) is a 3-year elementary school-based intervention to determine if increased amounts of moderate intensity physical activity performed in the classroom will diminish gains in body mass index (BMI). It is a cluster-randomized, controlled trial, involving 4905 children (2505 intervention, 2400 control).
We collected both qualitative and quantitative process evaluation data from 24 schools (14 intervention and 10 control), which included tracking teacher training issues, challenges and barriers to effective implementation of PAAC lessons, initial and continual use of program specified activities, and potential competing factors, which might contaminate or lessen program effects.
Overall teacher attendance at training sessions showed exceptional reach. Teachers incorporated active lessons on most days, resulting in significantly greater student physical activity levels compared to controls (p < 0.0001). Enjoyment ratings for classroom-based lessons were also higher for intervention students. Competing factors, which might influence program results, were not carried out at intervention or control schools or were judged to be minimal.
In the first year of the PAAC intervention, process evaluation results were instrumental in identifying successes and challenges faced by teachers when trying to modify existing academic lessons to incorporate physical activity.
... of becoming obese increase 1.6 times for each can of a sugar - sweetened beverage consumed every ... and 93% of high schools allowed students to purchase such beverages in vending ... social fac- tors can independently affect both academic achievement and levels of obesity ...
Since Hirschi’s (1969) seminal work with delinquent youths, researchers have included school bonding and related constructs in analyses of delinquency, school dropout, student motivation, risk and resiliency, and academic achievement. In addition to school bonding, researchers have studied school engagement, school attachment, school connectedness, and other constructs as they relate to various student outcomes. At times, these constructs are measured and defined quite similarly, if not identically. However, in other instances, identical terms have been used to describe a construct that is measured in vastly different ways. These redundancies and discrepancies make it difficult to draw conclusions and build upon the summative knowledge gleaned from the extant school bonding research. In this article, research studies that use school bonding or a related construct (e.g., school engagement) are reviewed, with a specific focus on definition and measurement. A factor analysis was conducted using selected survey items from various school bonding and related measures, yielding five factors. The unique and shared aspects of these factors are discussed as well as implications for school practice and future research.
Objectives: To determine the subjective responses of teachers and students to classroom exercise breaks, and how responses varied by duration. Methods: This mixed-methods experimental study included focus groups with teachers (N = 8) and 4th- and 5th-grade
students (N = 96). Students participated in 5-, 10-, and 20-minute exercise breaks and 10 minutes of sedentary activity. In an additional exploratory analysis, video-tapes of each condition were coded and compared for positive affect. Results: Students and teachers discussed multiple
benefits, but teachers discussed barriers to implementing regular breaks of 5-minutes or more. Students exhibited higher positive affect during each exercise condition. Conclusions: Classroom exercise breaks are an enjoyable way to increase physical activity, but additional support
may be needed to encourage teachers to implement breaks of 5 minutes or longer.
The issue of race differences in standardized test scores and academic achievement continues to be a vexing one for behavioral scientists and society at large. Ellis and Ryan (2003) suggested that a portion of the cognitive-ability test performance differences between White/Caucasian-American and Black/African-American college students could be attributed to the greater use of ineffective test-taking strategies by the latter group. We replicated and extended their findings by using three outcomes—exam scores in a single academic course, self-reported GPA, and a measure of verbal abilities. Ellis and Ryan reported that the variance in cognitive-ability test performance explained by race dropped by 48% (i.e., from 21% originally to 11%) when controlling for the mediator, ineffective test-taking strategies. Our results were less dramatic, but also indicated that ineffective test-taking strategies accounted for 19% to 25% of the variance originally explained by race. In addition, reminiscent of the disidentification effect, supplementary analyses showed that academic/intellectual self-perceptions correlated with the criterion measures but only for White participants. These results suggest that a portion of the race difference on test scores might be accounted for by test-taking strategies.
The purpose of this research was to determine the effect of a recess break on classroom behavior, specifically working, fidgeting, and listlessness. A southern urban school district with a policy against recess granted permission for 2 Grade 4 classes to have recess once a week so that subsequent behavior on recess and nonrecess days could be compared. A multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measures and subsequent analyses of variance indicated that the 43 children, who were used as their own controls, differed on recess and nonrecess days, becoming more on task and less fidgety when they had recess. Sixty percent of the children, including all 5 of those with attention deficit disorder, and a balance of boys and girls benefited considerably. They worked more or fidgeted less (or both) on recess days.
This paper describes SOFIT (System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time), an observation instrument designed to assess variables associated with students’ activity levels and opportunities to become physically fit in physical education. SOFIT involves the direct observation of classes while simultaneously recording student physical activity levels, curriculum context variables, and teacher behavior. The paper reports the reliability, validity, and feasibility of using the instrument, as well as data from using SOFIT to assess 88 third- and fourth-grade classes.
Background:
Obesity rates are rising in the United States, especially among low-income and racial/ethnic minority individuals. Exploring motivators and barriers relative to engaging in physical activity is imperative.
Purpose:
The purpose of this study was to identify motivators and barriers relative to engagement in physical activity as reported by culturally diverse low-income adolescents and adults.
Methods:
A total of 91 adolescent (11 to 15 years of age) and adult (18 years of age or older) participants who self-identified as African American, Hispanic, or non-Hispanic White engaged in age group-, race/ethnicity-, and gender-concordant focus groups.
Results:
Qualitative data analysis indicated that the motivators and barriers most commonly identified among the adolescent and adult focus groups were: social influence; time and priorities; physical environment; fun and enjoyment; inherently physical activities; weight concerns; fatigue, physical discomfort and current fitness level; and immediate positive feelings.
Discussion:
Findings were generally similar across age group, gender and race/ethnicity. Age group-specific, gender-specific and race/ethnicity-specific motivators and barriers were related to how commonly the motivators and barriers were identified among each group.
Translation to health education practice:
Implications for increasing physical activity among low-income culturally diverse adolescents and adults are discussed.
This study investigated the predictive power of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) Full Scale IQ (FSIQ), the General Ability Index (GAI), and the WISC-IV index score composites on subsequent reading and math standardized test scores among high-achieving students. The sample consisted of 84 elementary-age students who received an individual cognitive assessment with the WISC-IV in the previous year as part of the application process for gifted and talented programming through their schools. Although there were no significant differences among the mean WISC-IV index scores, 77% of the individual students evidenced statistically significant WISC-IV index score variability. Thus, intraindividual test score variability appears to be the norm among high-achieving students. In spite of this variability, regression analyses indicated that the FSIQ predicted reading comprehension and mathematics achievement better than, or as well as, the GAI or individual scores for verbal comprehension and perceptual reasoning. None of the cognitive variables correlated significantly with achievement scores for Word Reading or Pseudoword Decoding scores, but the FSIQ, GAI, Verbal Comprehension, and Perceptual Reasoning scores predicted reading comprehension. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
We examined the effectiveness of a tactile self-monitoring prompt to increase on-task behaviors among 3 elementary-aged students in a special education classroom. Students were taught to self-monitor their attention by using the MotivAider (MotivAider, 2000), an electronic beeper that vibrates to provide a tactile cue to self-monitor. An ABAB reversal design was used for each participant. Results indicated that upon implementation of the self-monitoring intervention, students increased on-task behavior from a mean of 55% to more than 90% of the intervals observed. Additionally, teachers and students provided high ratings of treatment acceptability of this self-monitoring intervention. Limitations, implications, and future directions of these findings are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 43: 211–221, 2006.
Physical activity is not only beneficial to physical health but also to cognitive functions. In particular, executive functions that are closely related to learning achievement can be improved by acute and recurring physical activity. We examined the effects of a single 30-min physical education program in contrast to a 5-min movement break on working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition of attention and behavioral tendencies of eighty-one 13- to 14-year-old students in grade 7 in Germany. Results indicate that the maintenance of on-task attention in the face of distraction was improved by an aerobic endurance exercise-based physical education program but not by a short aerobic movement break. This suggests that the duration of a school sports program is decisive for improving students' executive attention.
The present study evaluated the effects of an acute bout of moderate-intensity treadmill walking on aspects of cognitive control underlying successful academic achievement.
The study used a within-subjects counterbalanced design with a sample of 36 preadolescent children. Cognitive performance was assessed using a modified flanker task and a modified spatial n-back task to assess inhibition and working memory, respectively.
No changes in task performance were observed while individuals were actively walking or at seated rest across both tasks. However, during the flanker task, increased response accuracy was observed after exercise relative to post-seated rest. Further observation revealed decrements to response accuracy after seated rest relative to baseline. No such effect was observed for the n-back task.
These findings suggest selective exercise-induced changes to cognitive control for aspects of inhibitory control and attention but not for working memory. Furthermore, the findings suggest that short bouts of exercise may be efficacious for maintaining cognitive performance, which may have implications for scholastic achievement.
Background:
Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) was a three-year cluster randomized controlled trial to promote physical activity and diminish increases in overweight and obesity in elementary school children.
Methods:
Twenty-four elementary schools were cluster randomized to the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum intervention or served as control. All children in grades two and three were followed to grades four and five. Physical Activity Across the Curriculum promoted 90 min/w