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The oil, fatty acid and squalene content of varieties of raw and processed amaranth grain
Abstract
The oil, fatty acid and squalene content of varieties of raw and processed grain amaranth. Six amaranth grain varieties were processed to yield a nixtamalized flour, one cooked in water, one expanded, a malted one and a laminate samples after a thermic treatment. The chemical values of the raw samples contained from 14.5% to 15.1% protein, 5.9 to 6.7% ether extract and from 2.3% to 3.2% ash on a dry weight basis. The flours from the different processes yield products with a fat content which varied from 6.4% to 7.0% for the 6 varieties. The flours coming from dry heat processing contained higher oil levels than those flours coming from wet processes. The oil from only 3 varieties and from 4 processes were analyzed from its fatty acid composition. The oil contained on the average 17.85% of C16:0, 68.1% of stearic, olic and linoleic acids, 3.86% of C18:3, 5.1% of C20:0 and small amounts of C20:1 and C22:0. The squalene content in the oil of the processed flours varied from 7.0 to 9.6 g/100 g for the raw flour, 8.1 -12.6 g/100 g for the flour from wet cooking in water, 9.0 -12.7g/ 100 g for the flour from the nixtamalization process, 10.1-12.8g/ 100 g for the expanded grain flour, 9.0 to 11.2 g/100 g for the malted flour and 6.0-9.5 g/100 g for the laminated grain flour. The squalene averages per process showed statistical significant differences.
... The fatty acids palmitic (19%), oleic (26%), and linoleic (47%) appear in higher amounts, and the linolenic fatty acid is also found (1.4% of the total fatty acids; Berger and others 2003). A high content of the unsaturated hydrocarbon squalene is found in amaranth oil, ranging from 2.4% to 8.0% of the ether extract (Bruni and others 2001;Rodas and Bressani 2009;Table 2), or amounting to about 0.5% of the grain (dry basis [db]), and to which the beneficial effect of reducing serum cholesterol levels has been attributed (Miettinem and Vanhanen 1994). ...
... In terms of fractionation by milling, the report of Marcílio and others (2005) raises the issue that in order to retain the maximum nutritive quality, the flour should not be processed to any degree of refinement because of the unique morphology of the seed. These authors showed that refining of the amaranth flour would result (Bruni and others, 2001;Rodas and Bressani, 2009 in a drastic loss of protein and indispensable amino acids; as the degree of extraction approached 40%, the protein content of the flour was diminished to about 4%, unlike what was observed with the other pseudocereal quinoa. ...
... Should this new view be proven correct, it would also explain the intriguing observation made by Shin and others (2004) that the "squalene" from amaranth is not equivalent to shark squalene. It should be pointed out that when squalene was purified for analytical purposes, the substance was not assayed biologically (Rodas and Bressani 2009). Gonor and others (2006b) investigated the influence of a diet containing either amaranth oil or squalene on the antioxidant activity and the immune state of 125 patients (ages between 33 and 74 y) with cardiac ischemia and hyperlipoproteinemia over 3 mo. ...
Amaranth grain is a highly nutritional pseudocereal with a superior amount of proteins when compared to true cereals. It is a reasonably well-balanced food with functional properties that have been shown to provide medicinal benefits. The health benefits attributed include decreasing plasma cholesterol levels, stimulating the immune system, exerting an antitumor activity, reducing blood glucose levels and improving conditions of hypertension and anemia. In addition, it has been reported to possess anti-allergic and antioxidant activities. The present article provides a comprehensive overview of amaranth grain that focuses on recent research reporting its use in the clinical practice and its possible benefits to human health.
... Another study on A. cruentus varieties and locations demonstrated that palmitic acid ranged from 17.06% to 21.35%, stearic acid from 3.05% to 3.80%, oleic acid from 20.26% to 32.01%, and linoleic acid from 33.56% to 43.88% (Berganza et al., 2003) [55] . The predominant fatty acids in amaranth oil are palmitic (22.2%), oleic (29.1%), and linoleic (44.6%) acids, while smaller concentrations of linolenic (3.86%), arachidic (5.1%), and gadoleic acids are also present (Rodas and Bressani, 2009) [56] . As fish cannot synthesize linoleic, oleic, or linolenic acids, which are considered essential fatty acids, the omega-6 fatty acids found in amaranth oil become crucial as a dietary supplement for fish growth. ...
... Another study on A. cruentus varieties and locations demonstrated that palmitic acid ranged from 17.06% to 21.35%, stearic acid from 3.05% to 3.80%, oleic acid from 20.26% to 32.01%, and linoleic acid from 33.56% to 43.88% (Berganza et al., 2003) [55] . The predominant fatty acids in amaranth oil are palmitic (22.2%), oleic (29.1%), and linoleic (44.6%) acids, while smaller concentrations of linolenic (3.86%), arachidic (5.1%), and gadoleic acids are also present (Rodas and Bressani, 2009) [56] . As fish cannot synthesize linoleic, oleic, or linolenic acids, which are considered essential fatty acids, the omega-6 fatty acids found in amaranth oil become crucial as a dietary supplement for fish growth. ...
... The main benefit associated with amaranth in cardiovascular health is through amaranth oil (very likely its high squalene content). Squalene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon ranging from 2.4 to 8.0% [36,37], which has a similar structure to beta-carotene, and is an intermediate metabolite in the synthesis of cholesterol [38]. ...
... • The lipidic content (which includes squalene) shows great variations depending on the species and genotype [37,97] as well as the different parts of the seed [98]. ...
... El maní contiene 23.68% de proteína y 49.6% de grasa, mientras que el ajonjolí contiene 17% de proteína y 49.6% de grasa por cada 100 g (Menchú & Méndez, 2007; United States Department of Agriculture [USDA], 2016). La calidad de proteína en las leguminosas es óptima en relación a su composición de aminoácidos esenciales (análisis proximal y bromatológico) (Rodas & Bressani, 2009;World Health Organization [WHO], 2007;Snyderman, Holt, & Boyei, 1960). Sin embargo, se sabe poco sobre estudios que evalúen la calidad proteica y la digestibilidad de estas leguminosas complementadas con proteína de origen animal (leche) en diseños experimentales en bioterio. ...
... Sin embargo, se sabe poco sobre estudios que evalúen la calidad proteica y la digestibilidad de estas leguminosas complementadas con proteína de origen animal (leche) en diseños experimentales en bioterio. En Guatemala, la mayoría de referencias de estudios biológicos en cereales fueron desarrollados por el Dr. Ricardo Bressani, principalmente para determinar la calidad proteica de combinaciones de maíz y plantas autóctonas (Rivas, 2014;Dardon & Bressani, 2012;Rodas & Bressani, 2009). Por otro lado, los estudios con leguminosas reportados en otras regiones se han enfocado en evaluar la calidad biológica de la semilla pura sin combinación con proteína de origen animal (Dreyer, 1968;Joseph et al, 1962;Singh, B., & Singh, U., 1991). ...
Peanuts and sesame are two important sources of macronutrients and micronutrients. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the weight gain, protein quality and digestibility of eight legumebased diets in Wistar rats during a period of four weeks. The initial weight was 46.00 g (standard deviation SD = 4.00) in male and female rats. The diets were classified as: control diet, diet A (skim milk), diet B (nitrogen free), diets C, D, E, F (with peanuts in a proportion that varied from 100%, 75%, 50% to 25%, mixed with skim milk), diets G, H, I, J (with sesame in a proportion that varied from 100%, 75, 50% to 25%, mixed with skim milk). The study showed significant differences in weight gain when comparing with the control diet, particularly with diet D (75% peanut) with 226 g (SD=55.29) (p<0.05), diet H (75% sesame) with 218.16 g (SD=56.28) (p<0.05), and diet I (50% sesame) with 216.83 g (SD=45.86) (p<0.05). The study showed that the diets with skim milk and legumes were highly digestible (96% - 100%), with protein efficiency ratio (PER) of 2.73, very similar to the control diet. These formulations are promising and have potential implications for human nutrition.
... proteins, 5-8% fat, 60-65% saccharides, and 3-5% crude fibre (Yanez et al. 1994). The oil content of amaranth is about 6-9% (Rodas & Bressani 2009). Amaranthus oil is characterised by high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. ...
... The major fatty acids in amaranth oil are palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids with the average level of 22.2%, 29.1% and 44.6%, respectively (He & Corke 2003). Minority fatty acids are also present in amaranth oil; these include α-linolenic (3.86%), arachidic (5.1%) and, in very small amounts, gadoleic and behenic acids (Rodas & Bressani 2009). The ratio of ω-6/ω-3 fatty acids is an important determinant in decreasing the risk for coronary heart disease; both in its primary and secondary preventions (Simopoulos 2008). ...
The oil of amaranth grain (Amaranthus spp.) is a rich source of poly-unsaturated fatty acids. In this study, we tested 10 amaranth samples representing two species (Amaranthus cruentus and Amaranthus hypochondriacus) in two consecutive years (2010, 2011). Grain oils were analysed by gas chromatography for their fatty acids profile. In 2010, oil content ranged from 6.4–8.2% for A. cruentus and 6.3–7.9% for A. hypochondriacus. In 2011, the level was 7.1–8.2% and 6.6–8.7% for A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus, respectively. Linoleic, palmitic, and oleic acids were dominant fatty acids in all of the oil samples. The essential linoleic acid level was 33.3–38.7% (A. cruentus) and 31.7–47.5% (A. hypochondriacus) in 2010 and 34.6–39.9% (A. cruentus) and 34–44.5% (A. hypochondriacus) in 2011. The minority fatty acids, i.e. stearic, α-linolenic, and arachidic acids were also observed. Eicosenoic and behenic acids were present in the grain in trace amounts. Statistical evaluation showed a significant effect of year and species of amaranth on the levels of certain fatty acids. There was a strong positive correlation between oil content and oleic acid, and a negative correlation between oleic acid and either of the other two fatty acids, linoleic and α-linolenic ones.
... A. caudatus primarily has non-glutinous starch (Okuno and Sakaguchi, 1982), whereas A. cruentus is characterized by glutinous starch (MacMasters et al., 1955). The protein content in Amaranthus grain ranges from 14.5% to 15.12% (Rodas and Bressani, 2009) and in leaf up to 14.3 g/kg with an average of 12.4 g/kg (Prakash and Pal, 1991;Shukla et al., 2003). The A. cruentus grain has fibre values of 19.5À27.9 ...
... Among the fatty acid composition of amaranth, linoleic acid has the largest mass fraction (up to 40%), fatty acids such as palmitic and stearic acids, which are present in small amounts, are limited. Amaranth also contains a large proportion of vitamin E compared to other cereal crops [20][21][22][23][24]. ...
Amaranth is one of the ancient, so-called pseudo-cereal crops, the first mentions of it date back more than 8,000 years. Despite the sufficiently high study of amaranth and its wide distribution, according to the volume of its cultivation, it can be classified either as a niche crop or as a special purpose crop. Amaranth can be attributed to small-seeded grain crops, the grain has a rounded lenticular, oval-rounded shape with a diameter of 0.9 to 1.7 mm, the weight of 1000 grains is in the range of 0.6 to 1.1 g. Amaranth grains can be white, red, golden, black, or brown in color, with the white grain having the highest manufacturability. In Ukraine, up to 50 enterprises are engaged in the processing of amaranth, while receiving oil, cereals, flakes and flour, but at the moment, despite the high usefulness of these products, a permanent circle of its consumers has not yet been formed in our country, which in turn affects the volume of amaranth cultivation and volumes of its processing into food products. 15 varieties of amaranth are included in the register of plant varieties suitable for distribution on the territory of Ukraine, among which seven varieties are intended for grain. Sterkh, the forage amaranth variety, was the first to enter the Register... in 1994. In the following year, 1998, three amaranth varieties Atstek and Ul'tra and Kremovyi rannii were registered. It should be noted that the first two varieties are grain requirements according to the recommendations of the Register..., and the Kremovyi rannii variety is a fodder variety. In 1999, two more grain varieties of amaranth, Orkhideia and Polischuk, were registered. In 2000, the grain requirements variety Zhaivir was registered. In 2003, the Liera and Sem grain requirements varieties were registered, and in 2009, the Students'kyi variety. Indirectly, amaranth can be characterized by a mass fraction of protein up to 19%, fat up to 9%, carbohydrates up to 60 %, fiber up to 4 %, ash up to 3 %. An impeding factor in increasing the volume of amaranth grain processing is the lack of approved regulations and the lack of enterprises with the appropriate understanding of how to effectively clean amaranth grain from impurities, carry out dehulling, sorting of dehulling products and, most importantly, what kind of product range to produce. All this stops the wide spread of this crop in our country and, accordingly, amaranth products are not widely distributed compared to other traditional crops and are not well known to the domestic consumer.
... The main characteristics of cereal crops is the range of fatty acids they contain [11]. The main fatty acids present in most cereal crops, excluding trans fatty acids (TFAs), are stearic acid (C18:0), palmitic acid (C16:0), linoleic acid (C18:2), and oleic acid (C18:1) [12]. Majority of cereal grain are composed of nonpolar lipids, mostly stored as phospholipids, glycolipids, and acylglycerols [13]. ...
Teff (Eragrostis tef) is a gluten-free cereal, and the consumer also prefers teff due to its nutritional composition. Determining the geographical origin of teff is important to select the right product for consumers. The quality and consumer preference of teff varies based on their production origin; consequently, their prices differ significantly. This work studied the profile of fatty acids in seventy-two teff samples by using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and identifying the markers to discriminate the geographical origin of teff depending on their production region. Principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminat Analysis (LDA) were used to visualize data trends, and construct classification models for teff samples according to their geographical origins. Thirty different fatty acids were detected in all of the collected teff samples. The total mean concentration of fatty acids ranged from 739.85 to 938.06 mg/100g across the six districts in the three zones (East Gojjam,Awi, and West Gojjam). Stearic acid,trans-vaccenic acid, linoleic acid, azelaic acid, and capric acid were the most discriminating fatty acids of teff grains between East Gojjam and West Gojjam zones, while palmitic, palmitoleic, and oleic acid discriminated Awi zone teff samples from the other zones. The recognition and prediction abilities of the LDA model for the classification of the production zones were 98.6 % and 94.4 %, respectively. Hence, the fatty acid profiles combined with multivariate data analysis too can be used in the determination of the geographical origin of teff grains.
... The major bioactive components in pseudocereals are phenolic groups present in the outermost layers of amaranth and quinoa seeds (Table 5.4). These phenolic compounds can prevent oxidative damage to tissue cells (Rodas & Bressani, 2009). However, the antioxidants in pseudocereals are helpful in the prevention of diseases (Majewska et al., 2011). ...
... In addition, amaranth oil can increase the high-density lipoprotein and lower the low-density lipoprotein by 21%-50%. The protein content of the amaranth leaf is about 12% [6], while it is 15% in grains [7]. The protein content of amaranth is similar to the protein level suggested by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) for a balanced diet [8]. ...
Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0). Consumers hesitate to purchase field-grown shoot-tops of amaranths in Sri Lanka, citing the low-cleanliness making growers focus on greenhouse farming. However, the photosynthetic and growth variations in relation to the organoleptic preference of the greenhouse-grown amaranths in comparison to field-grown counterparts have not been studied. Also, the species delimits of the amaranths in Sri Lanka have not been identified, limiting our ability to interpret species-specific production characteristics. Thus, we assessed the common types of amaranths under greenhouse and field conditions. The photosynthesis was measured using a MultispeQ device of the PhotosynQ phenomic platform, which records chlorophyll fluorescence-based parameters. The shoot-tops were harvested and prepared as dishes according to the typical recipe for amaranths in Sri Lanka. The dishes were subjected to an organoleptic assessment for the parameters color, aroma, bitterness, texture, and overall taste. The differences in plant and the shoot-top biomass were also assessed. The markers atpB-rbcL, matk-trnT, and ITS were used to define the species delimits. The field-grown and greenhouse-grown amaranths exhibited species/cultivar-specific photosynthetic variations. The texture and overall taste of the dishes were different among greenhouse and field-grown material. The tasters preferred the texture and the overall taste of the greenhouse-grown shoot-tops. The greenhouse-grown plants also yielded higher shoot-top harvests compared to field-grown counterparts. Out of the tested markers, ITS defines the delimits of amaranth species. The higher organoleptic preference, the appreciable yield levels, unique photosynthetic patterns of the greenhouse-grown amaranths, and species definitions provide the much-needed platform for clean shoot-top production guaranteeing the highest end-user trust.
... Table 2 represents the composition of Amaranth grain. (Bruni et al., 2001;Rodas and Bressani, 2009) ...
... Amaranth oil is reported to have high levels of tocotrienols and squalene, which are natural organic compounds that are involved in the metabolism of cholesterol and that could play an important role in lowering LDL-cholesterol in blood. Amaranth lipid is unique with high squalene content ranging from 2.4 to 8.0% of the total oil contents (Rodas and Bressani, [19]. A comparative account of nutritive value of grain amaranths and other cereals is presented in Table 1. ...
... 2 Amaranth oil has been reported to be constituted mainly by fatty acids such as oleic acid and palmitic acid, and in lower concentration, squalene. 3 Oleic acid (OA) is a monounsaturated fatty acid (C18:1) present in vegetal oils, 4 widely known by its health benefits and recommended to prevent diseases as cancer but its mechanism is not completely known; 5−7 it is also a raw material for bio products, 8 and one common technique applied to extract oleic acid is fractional distillation. 9 Palmitic acid (PA) is a saturated fatty acid (C16:0) and limited in a daily diet to decrease possible health risks. ...
Experimental solubility determinations of binary and ternary systems that involve fatty acids (palmitic acid and oleic acid) in supercritical carbon dioxide (sc-CO2) were performed using an experimental system based on the static synthetic method with online sampling. The solubility data of squalene + sc-CO2, and palmitic acid + sc-CO2 were obtained and compared with data from the international literature resulting in the validation of the experimental method. Experimental solubility measurements of squalene + palmitic acid + sc-CO2, and squalene + oleic acid + sc-CO2 were studied at pressures from 9.00 to 30.38 MPa and temperatures between 313.30 and 333.48 K. The standard uncertainties for temperature and pressure were evaluated to be 0.02 K and 0.02 MPa, respectively. The relative combined expanded uncertainty (k = 2) for the composition was estimated to be Ur(y) = 0.051. Chrastil, del-Valle and Aguilera, Bartle et al., and Kumar and Johnston models were used to correlate the experimental solubility data. The modeling results validated the self-consistency of experimental data in the entire range of measurement.
... The lipid contents vary between 1.9 and 9.7 g/100 g depending on the species and genotype. Amaranth lipid is unique with high squalene content ranging from 2.4 to 8.0% of the total oil contents (Rodas and Bressani, 2009). It also contains 50e60% starch with granule size varying between 1 and 3.5 mm and has low gelatinization temperature (Tosi et al., 2001). ...
In the present study roller milling potential of amaranth grains was evaluated. The conditioning moisture influenced the millability of the amaranth grain. The results showed that the coarse seed coat (CSC) fraction increased from 12.91 to 38.33% with increase in conditioning moisture of the grains from 11 to 18.5%. The nutrients were more concentrated in the CSC fraction, while flour (FL) fraction showed low protein, ash, fat and dietary fiber contents. As the grain moisture content was increased from 11.0 to 15.5%, the yield of flour decreased with improvement in the brightness values. CSC showed higher values for redness and yellowness and lower values for brightness compared to other milled fractions. CSC had the highest water and oil holding capacities with the values of 410 g/100 g and 215 g/100 g respectively. The swelling power was also higher for CSC and fine seed coat (FSC) fractions. Among milled fractions, highest pasting temperature of 75.9 °C and peak viscosity of 212 BU was recorded for CSC and FL fractions respectively. These results showed that the roller mill can be used for milling amaranth grains to produce fractions rich in nutrients with unique functional properties.
... Additionally, it is a gluten-free food. [22][23][24] Squalene is also widely used as an antioxidant, skin moisturizer, treating skin disorders like acne, psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. Therefore, it is needed to find alternative natural resources which explore the utility of squalene for skin cosmetics. ...
Anti-melanogenic effects of amaranth (AT), one of the key source of squalene, were investigated in melanocytes. Amaranth seed powder was extracted with water and melan-a cells were treated with various concentrations of AT. By using HPLC, content of myo-inositol, one of potential active components, was measured in the crude extract of AT.AT reduced the melanin content in melan-a melanocytes and down-regulated melanogenic enzyme activity such as tyrosinase, TRP-1 and TRP-2. By regulating melanogenic enzyme activity, AT may be a potential natural source for whitening agent. Myo-inositol was detected in AT by HPLC and may be one of the active compounds from AT involved in the regulation of anti-melanogenesis. In this study, we demonstrated that AT has anti-melanogenesis properties. This new function of amaranth may be useful in the development of new skin-whitening products and its value as food.
... Se sabe que el escualeno es un intermediario en la biosíntesis del colesterol (Popa, Băbeanu, Popa, Niță, & Dinu-Pârvu, 2015) y su consumo disminuye la concentración de colesterol plasmático además de tener un efecto antioxidante. (Berger et al., 2003;Rodas & Bressani, 2009) ...
Resumen El amaranto es una planta que ha sido cultivada en nuestro país desde tiempos ancestrales y que dejó de ser utilizada por situaciones culturales de la época. Sin embargo, gracias a que posee múltiples beneficios a la salud y nutrición, volvió a captar el interés de la sociedad en los años 70 y es actualmente muy estudiada como base para la elaboración de alimentos funcionales. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue realizar una revisión bibliográfica actualizada sobre los componentes bio-activos del amaranto y su impacto en la salud. Para ello, se realizó un análisis sistemático de la literatura científica reciente referente a las propiedades terapéuticas de varios componentes del amaranto, seguido de una síntesis de los hallazgos que se consideraron más relevantes y contundentes. Como resultado se obtuvo una revisión bibliográfica que muestra las
... This small seed is an important source of vegetable protein, rich in methionine and lysine amino acids, being this last one a limiting in many grains. The grain has high levels of soluble fibers, magnesium, calcium, tocotrienols and unsaturated fatty acids, especially linoleic acid [5,6]; there have also been reports about significant levels of squalene, an important precursor of all the steroids [7]. Besides its nutritional quality, this grain exerts several nutraceutical actions due to the presence of a series of phytochemical compounds with hypolipidemic action [8][9][10][11] and antihypertensive potential [12], as well as antioxidant capacity [13][14][15]. ...
Hyperlipidemia and hepatic steatosis are frequent alterations due to alcohol abuse. Amaranth is a pseudocereal with hypolipidemic potential among other nutraceutical actions. Here we study the effect of Amaranthus hypochondriacus (Ah) seeds on serum and liver lipids, and the expression of genes associated to lipid metabolism and liver histology in male Wistar rats intoxicated with ethanol. The animals were divided into four groups; two groups were fed the American Institute of Nutrition 1993 for maintenance diet (AIN-93M), and the other two with AIN-93M containing Ah as protein source. One of each protein group received 20 % ethanol in the drinking water, thus obtaining: CC (control casein), EC (ethanol casein), CAh (control Ah) and EAh (ethanol Ah). When comparing EAh
vs. EC, we found a positive effect of Ah on lipids, preventing the increment of serum cholesterol (p < 0.001), through the higher expression of the LDL receptor (p < 0.001); and it also decreased free (p < 0.05) and esterified cholesterol (p < 0.01) in liver, probably via the reduction of the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase expression (p < 0.001). We also observed that amaranth contributed to the decrease of fat deposits in liver, probably through the decrease in acetyl-CoA carboxylase alpha (p < 0.01), glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase 1 (p < 0.01) and diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 2 (p < 0.05) expression. The histological study showed a decrease in the fat deposits in the amaranth group when compared to casein; this is consistent with the biochemical and molecular parameters studied in this work. In conclusion, amaranth could be recommended to avoid the alterations in the lipid metabolism induced by alcohol and other harmful agents.
... The main element is linoleic acid which the human organism is not able to produce and which is necessary for its existence. Amaranth grain contains tocotrienols and squalene compounds, which are known to affect cholesterol biosynthesis (Rodas & Bressani 2009). ...
The article deals with the importance and advantages of the amaranth plant - a genus of herbs of the family Amarantaceae. Amaranth, highly nutritional pseudocereal and traditional american crop has good food potential value. Amaranth grain doesn´t contain gluten. The high content of quality protein and unsaturated fatty acids is one of its advantages. It is also a carrier of a very valuable fibre and good source of squalene.
... The protein component of amaranth is quite close to the level recommended by the FAO/WHO for a balanced diet in humans. The protein in grain amaranth ranges from 14.5% to 15.1% (Rodas and Bressani, 2009) and in leaf upto 14.3 g/kg with an average of 12.4 g/kg Prakash and Pal, 1991). The protein content in amaranth leaf is also higher than spinach, another leafy vegetable ( Table 6). ...
The major staple food crops production is not able to fulfill food requirement of the global population due to relatively higher population growth rate in developing countries. The research on these crops for exploring their ultimate yield potential is currently at a plateau level. To replace the existing pressure on these major crops there is an urgent need to explore other alternative crops having the potential to replace and fulfill the available food demand. FAO statistics reveal that there is a high frequency of low birth weight children in the developing countries, which is primarily due to deficiency of micronutrients in the mother's diet. Amaranth, an underutilized crop and a cheap source of proteins, minerals, vitamin A and C, seems to be a future crop which can substantiate this demand due to its tremendous yield potential and nutritional qualities, also recently gained worldwide attention. Recently, current interest in amaranth also resides in the fact that it has a great amount of genetic diversity, phenotypic plasticity, and is extremely adaptable to adverse growing conditions, resists heat and drought, has no major disease problem, and is among the easiest of plants to grow in agriculturally marginal lands. The present review is an effort to gather the available knowledge on various diversified fields of sciences for the future exploitation of the crop.
Амарант є перспективною сільськогосподарською культурою, посівні площі під якою в Україні та країнах Європейського союзу з кожним роком зростають, що робить його привабливим для сільськогосподарських виробників. Насіння амаранту містить велику кількість легкозасвоюваного білку (до 18 %), ліпідів (до 9,7 %) та комплекс різних вітамінів, потрібних для людського організму. У статті на основі аналізу українських та закордонних літературних джерел проведено оцінку перспективності використання індукованого мутагенезу в селекції амаранту. Розглянуто різні методи мутагенезу, їх ефективність та мутації, які вони індукують на різних сільськогосподарських культурах. Відзначено, що за допомогою використання різних фізичних і хімічних мутагенів у світі створені нові генотипи рослин, з морфологічними та господарсько-цінними ознаками, які неможливо отримати іншими класичними методами селекції. З огляду літературних джерел встановлено, що основним методом індукованого мутагенезу, який застосовувався в селекційній практиці амаранту, було використання фізичного мутагенезу на основі гама-випромінювання і подальше вивчення хромосомних аберацій, якісного складу насіння та фенотипових змін рослин. Водночас майже не вивченим залишається використання хімічного мутагенезу та мутацій, які він індукує. Серед основних мутагенів, що ефективно себе зарекомендували в мутаційній селекції, є алкілуючі речовини, такі як диметилсульфат, етилметансульфонат, етиленімін та інші. Проаналізувавши літературні джерела, відмічено, що етилметансульфонат є одним із перспективним хімічних мутагенів, який був успішно використаний на різних сільськогосподарських культурах, таких як пшениця, кукурудза, кіноа, льон олійний та інших, при створенні однолокусних та багатолокусних мутацій. Втім, досліджень по вивченню впливу мутагену етилметансульфонату на зернові види роду Amaranthus не проводилося, що робить даний напрямок перспективним для подальших наукових досліджень та створення нових генотипів амаранту з покращеними господарсько-цінними ознаками.
Grain amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) is an emerging crop rich in proteins and other valuable nutrients. It was domesticated twice, in Mexico and Peru. Although global trade is dominated by Mexican species of amaranth, Peruvian amaranth (A. caudatus, kiwicha) has remained neglected, although it harbours valuable traits. In the current study, we investigate the accumulation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, comparing four genotypes of A. caudatus with K432, a commercial variety deriving from the Mexican species A. hypochondriacus under the temperate environment of Southwest Germany. We show that the A. caudatus genotypes flowered later (only in late autumn), such that they were taller as compared to the Mexican hybrid but yielded fewer grains. The oil of kiwicha showed a significantly higher content of unsaturated fatty acids, especially of linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid compared to early flowering genotype K432. To gain insight into the molecular mechanisms behind these differences, we sequenced the genomes of the A. hypochondriacus × hybridus variety K432 and the Peruvian kiwicha genotype 8300 and identified the homologues for genes involved in the ω3 fatty-acid pathway and concurrent oxylipin metabolism, as well as of key factors for jasmonate signalling and cold acclimation. We followed the expression of these transcripts over three stages of seed development in all five genotypes. We find that transcripts for Δ6 desaturases are elevated in kiwicha, whereas in the Mexican hybrid, the concurrent lipoxygenase is more active, which is followed by the activation of jasmonate biosynthesis and signalling. The early accumulation of transcripts involved in cold-stress signalling reports that the Mexican hybrid experiences cold stress already early in autumn, whereas the kiwicha genotypes do not display indications for cold stress, except for the very final phase, when there were already freezing temperatures. We interpret the higher content of unsaturated fatty acids in the context of the different climatic conditions shaping domestication (tropical conditions in the case of Mexican amaranth, sharp cold snaps in the case of kiwicha) and suggest that kiwicha oil has high potential as functional food which can be developed further by tailoring genetic backgrounds, agricultural practice, and processing.
El maní y ajonjolí, son dos fuentes importantes de macronutrientes y micronutrientes. El objetivo del estudio fue evaluar la ganancia de peso, calidad proteica y digestibilidad en ocho dietas compuestas a base de dos leguminosas, en ratas Wistar durante cuatro semanas. Las dietas se clasificaron en dieta control; dieta A (leche descremada), dieta B (libre de nitrógeno), dietas C, D, E, F (conformadas por 100%, 75%, 50%, 25% de maní complementadas con leche descremada), y dietas G, H, I, J (conformadas por 100%, 75%, 50%, 25% de ajonjolí, complementadas con leche descremada). Se encontraron diferencias significativas en la ganancia de peso en relación a la dieta control, principalmente en los grupos de ratas que consumieron la dieta D, maní 75% con un valor medio después de las cuatros semanas de 226.00 g (SD=55.29)(p<.05), dieta H, ajonjolí 75%, con un valor medio de 218.16 g (SD=56.28)(p<.05), y dieta I, ajonjolí 50%, con un valor medio de 216.83 g (SD=45.86)(p<.05). Las dietas formuladas con leche y leguminosas fueron de alta digestibilidad (96% - 100%), con un índice de eficiencia proteica de 2.73, muy similar al encontrado en la dieta control. Estas formulaciones basadas en leguminosas podrían tener potencial uso en la nutrición humana.
The Northwestern Himalayan region is a rich storehouse of nutraceuticals enriched potential crops which have been underutilized and neglected by mankind for a long. The pseudocereals “ABC”, namely amaranth (Amaranthus sp.), buckwheat (Fagopyrum sp.), and chenopodium (Chenopodium quinoa) are excellent examples of such nutraceutical superfoods which are generally cultivated marginally in limited areas but can perform a significant role in nutritional security. The phytochemical constituents and unique nutritional profile of these pseudocereals have made them popular worldwide nowadays. They also form suitable alternatives as gluten-free products for celiac patients. The high dietary fiber, well-balanced amino acid content, and health beneficial metabolites make them a popular choice for functional food and biofortification. This chapter presents comprehensive information about the bioactive compounds available in these crops which may possess outstanding biological activities and have nutraceutical potential. The role of these pseudocereals as potential nutritional food sources for the masses is also discussed besides highlighting the on-going national and international biotechnological interventions for the genetic improvement of these crops.
Amaranthus spp. is a highly nutritive pseudocereal, rich in macronutrients and micronutrients, including vitamins and minerals. Amaranth grain is rich in essential amino acids, particularly lysine, with high nutritional quality. In addition, recent research demonstrates that Amaranthus spp. essential nutrients, such as phytochemicals, have potential beneficial health effects. This review focuses on the amaranth grain nutritional composition and antioxidant capacity. Also, the limitations on its intake and the strategies to improve its digestibility, bioaccessibility and bioavailability are summarized in this review. Finally, the most recent literature contributions reporting food applications of amaranth (e.g., as encapsulating material) are discussed in order to deepen the understanding of the potential health benefits and functionalities of this nutritious grain.
At the present time, the urgent problem is the development of product range of beer and the reduction of production costs. We used amaranth flour: "protein" and "carbohydrate", is designed and experimentally obtained from seeds of amaranth and made available for research "Agros" company (Kaliningrad region). The article discusses the effects of different concentrations of flour on the process of mashing, fermentation and the quality of beer. Prepared in the ratio of light barley malt:amaranth flour 90:10 and 80:20, respectively. Experimental were chosen of mashing barley malt with the addition of flour. The mashing process started with a temperature of 40 or 500C. Cytolytic pause was 30 min, protein-25 min, malt pause was increased up to 30 min. Using 20% of flour in the total grain charge leads to the increase of first wort extract content to 12.2%. By increasing the amount of flour in the grist of grain products increases the saccharification of the mash. The time of saccharification when you make 20% of the "protein" flour and the initial temperature of mashing 500C is 26 minutes, and "carbohydrate" flour -18min., therefore, when developing technology of new beer, from the point of view of reducing the cost of production, it is advisable to use "carbohydrate" amaranth flour in the amount of 20% in the total grain products. We estimated the impact of concentrations used flour on organoleptic indicators of finished beer on a 25 point scale. The aroma of the beer was felt citrus and malt undertones. Total score of beer with 10% amaranth flour is 18 points, and 20% amaranth flour is 20 points.
Some specialty oils contain higher amounts of nutritionally desirable components such as antioxidants, essential fatty acids, phospholipids, phytosterols, and other bioactive phenolics. The more common sources of these functional specialty oils include marine organisms, tree nuts, cereals, and berry plants. Oils from tree nuts used in nutraceutical and cosmetic products are used mainly for their higher amounts of monounsaturated fatty acids. They also contain high amounts of essential polyunsaturated lipids such as linoleic acid and linolenic fatty acids.
Amaranth is a Native American grain appreciated for its high nutritional properties including high mineral content. The aim of this study was to evaluate the availability of Fe, Zn and Ca from extruded products made with two varieties of amaranth and their mixtures with maize at two levels of replacement. Mineral availability was estimated using dialyzability method. The contents of Fe (64.0-84.0 mg/kg), Ca (1977.5-2348.8 mg/kg) and Zn (30.0-32.1 mg/kg) were higher in amaranth than in maize products (6.2, 19.1, 9.7 mg/kg, respectively). Mineral availability was in the range of (2.0-3.6%), (3.3-11.1%) and (1.6-11.4%) for Fe, Ca and Zn, respectively. Extruded amaranth and amaranth/maize products provide higher amount of Fe and Ca than extruded maize. Extruded amaranth products and amaranth addition to maize could be an interesting way to increase nutritional value of extruded products.
Samples of Amaranthus cruentus were cooked for 10 and 20 min at atmospheric pressure with 0, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6% calcium hydroxide on the basis of sample weight. A raw sample served as control. Dry matter recovered ranged from 87.4 to 93.5%, but there was no relationship to lime level or cooking time. Protein and fat contents increased from 4 to 11% and from 3 to 13% in the cooked samples, respectively. Lysine content decreased about 10-12%, and no change was observed in tryptophan content upon cooking with lime. The fat acidity of the raw sample stored at ambient temperature for 146 days increased significantly. An increase was also observed in the cooked samples but was significantly less when 0.6% lime was used. Calcium content increased with respect to lime level, as well as Mg, but to a lower extent. The protein quality of amaranth was increased by cooking, either with or without lime, and protein digestibility was not affected.
A set of 14 selections of four amaranth species were studied. Six yielded over 10 kg 36 m−2, and three below 5 kg 36 m−2. Grain size varied from 1.55 to 2.14 mm, and seed weight from 0.46 to 1.18 mg seed−1. There was no relationship between seed weight and yield. Protein content varied from 12.5 to 16.0%, while fat varied from 7.7 to 12.8%. The content of P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn was similar among all selections. Trace amounts of C14 fatty acids were found, while C16 acids varied from 16.83 to 23.83% of the oil. The C18:0 fatty acids varied from 1.86 to 4.11%, the C18:1 from 20.29 to 35.46%, while the C18:2 fatty acids varied from 38.25 to 57.86%. Lysine varied from 0.73 to 0.84%, with tryptophan values ranging from 0.18 to 0.28%. Seeds from all selections were processed by hot-water soaking for 20 min followed by drum-drying, for protein quality evaluation.
The three A. caudatus had an average protein efficiency ratio (PER) of 2.45; A. hybridus a PER of 2.34; A. cruentus 2.36 and A. hypo-chondriacus 2.33. Differences were not statistically different. Light and dark coloured seeds had the same average value of 2.36, the study showed important genetic differences in chemical composition.
Oil was extracted with hexane on a pilot plant scale from seeds ofAmaranthus cruentus after the seeds were subjected to an efficient abrasive milling. Optimum conditions were then determined for refining and
bleaching this oil. The yellow oil obtained is similar in appearance and composition to corn oil, but comparison with previously
published analyses reveals a considerable variation in the content of the principal fatty acids, palmitic, oleic and linoleic,
although the squalene content (5–8%) was in the expected range.
Puffing or popping is a common method of processingAmaranthus cruentus (Syn.Amaranthus paniculatus L. or Rajgeera) grain. Investigations into the effect of this processing treatment have shown the percent unsaturation in
the oil to decrease from 75.5% to 62.3%. The maximum effect is on linoleic acid, the quantity of which decreased sharply from
46.8% to 27.0%. Squalene also increased by 15.5%, due to puffing of amaranth seeds.
Four selections of three amaranth species were used in the study:A. cruentus (US Rodale 82S-1034),A. hypochondriacus (US Rodale 81S-1024).A. caudatus (Cusco, Peru CAC-2002) andA. cruentus (GUA-17). These were fertilized with levels of 0, 30, 60 and 90 kg/ha of a 12-24-12 fertilizer formulation applied to experimental plots 34m2 in four replications. The harvested grain was used for protein and fat analysis, and for protein quality evaluations on raw and on heat processed samples.A. cruentus (US) andA. hypochondriacus flowered at 43–44 days at 60 and 43cm, respectively,A. caudatus (Peru) at 51 days and 65cm, andA. cruentus (Gua) at 50 days and 80cm height. Days at harvest varied from 100 to 129 days at heights of 125 to 180cm. Yield of grain fromA. hypochondriacus (US) andA. cruentus (Gua) was higher than forA. cruentus (US) andA. caudatus, but did not differ for each pair. although not influencing yield, the application of fertilizer increased protein content forA. caudatus (Peru) from 12.35 to 14.50%; but not the protein content of the other selections. The fat content was affected differently in all four selections. The application of fertilizer did not affect protein quality either in raw or processed grain. On the other hand, processing increased protein quality, food intake, and animal performance significantly most clearly seen withA. cruentus (US) andA. caudatus (Peru) and to a lesser extent forA. hypochondriacus (US) andA. cruentus (Gua)). The data obtained showed inconsistent effects on yield and chemical composition, and no effect on protein quality with fertilizer application.
Five varieties of Amaranthus cruentus were planted in 3 localities at different altitudes above sea level. They were subjected to equivalent agronomic practices and harvested at 120–130 days. The seeds were removed and dried to 12% moisture. The seeds from each variety were analyzed for total fat, palmitic, stearic, oleic and linolenic acids and squalene contents. Oil content varied from 5.83 to 7.13%, palmitic acid from 17.06 to 21.35%, stearic acid from 3.05 to 3.80%, oleic acid from 20.26 to 32.01% and linoleic acid from 33.52 to 43.88%. The values for oil and fatty acid contents were similar to those found in the literature. The differences in the analytical values of the present study were not statistically significant for variety or for location.
Squalene content varied from 2.26 to 5.94% of the oil. This variability is similar to that reported previously by other workers. Statistical analysis showed significant difference for localities but not for varieties. It is suggested that environmental conditions, such as temperature and water availability, may lead to a greater accumulation of squalene in the grain.
Fatty acid compositions of the seed oils from eighteen vareties of amaranthus species have been determined after room temperature
transesterification. Consistent with earlier studies, wide variations in the fatty acid composition are reported, and appear
to be agronomically related. All variaties show significant levels (2–5%) of squalene and a combined linoleic acid and olaic
acid occurrence of between 70–-80%. This study represents the frist reported fatty acid composition of grain amaranthus cultivated
in West Africa.
Serum squalene, a non-steroid intermediate of cholesterol biosynthesis, originates mainly from endogenous cholesterol synthesis and partly from diet, especially in populations consuming a lot of olive oil rich in squalene. Its postabsorptive metabolism has not been studied in detail in humans. Its presence in chylomicrons and VLDL suggests that the removal of dietary squalene may reflect the metabolism of intestinal lipoproteins. Accordingly, we studied the postabsorptive metabolism of 1 g dietary squalene in 16 healthy subjects with apolipoprotein (apo) E 3/3 phenotype and in five type III hyperlipidemic apo E 2/2 homozygotes known to have a retarded chylomicron remnant removal, and compared the results with vitamin A fat load test. About 40% of the basal and 90% of the postabsorptive squalene was in lipoproteins < 1.019 g/ml. The peak concentrations of chylomicron squalene were at 6 h, and of triglyceride-rich nonchylo-fraction at 9-12 h in the controls. The peak values occurred later than those of vitamin A. At 24 h the levels still exceeded the basal ones. In type III dyslipoproteinemia, most of the basal and postabsorptive squalene was in lipoproteins of density less than 1.019 g/ml, the peak postabsorptive values occurred later than in the controls and the serum values remained above the control levels for up to 24 h. The squalene and vitamin A areas under the incremental response curves (AUC) were higher than in the control group. The AUCs of the two markers in chylomicron were correlated negatively and those in LDL+HDL were correlated positively with fasting HDL cholesterol levels, the respective correlations being opposite with fasting VLDL triglycerides. The postabsorptive profile of squalene levels resembled that of vitamin A in both groups, except that the squalene curves were shifted to a later time period. Thus, a delayed clearance of chylomicron remnants could be detected by analyzing serum squalene 6-24 h after the squalene-supplemented fat meal.
Grain amaranth has been suggested as an alternative to marine animals as a natural source of squalene. Oil contents, squalene contents, and fatty acid profiles were determined in 11 genotypes of four grain amaranth species. Although the oil contents of grain amaranth were low (from 5.1% in Amaranthus tricolor to 7.7% in Amaranthus cruentus) as compared to other oil-containing grains, high concentrations of squalene were found in total lipids, ranging from 3.6% in Amaranthus hypochondriacus to 6.1% in A. tricolor. The major fatty acids in Amaranthus oil consisted of palmitic acid (19.1-23.4%), oleic acid (18.7-38.9%), and linoleic acid (36.7-55.9%). A high degree of unsaturation was observed in Amaranthus oils, with S/U ratios of 0.26-0.32. A method to isolate and purify the squalene from Amaranthus oil was developed. After the saponification of K112, the squalene content increased from 4.2% in the crude oil to 43.3% in the unsaponifiables by the removal of the saponifiables. The unsaponifiables were fractionated by silica gel column chromatography to get highly purified squalene. The squalene purity in certain fractions was as high as 98%. Combining the fractions rich in squalene gave a 94% squalene concentrate, with a yield of 90%. The structure of squalene in the purified sample was confirmed by comparison of its ultraviolet spectrum with a standard and from its nuclear magnetic resonance spectra.