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Abstract

A cross-sectional study was performed to determine the age-prevalence of hepatitis A virus CHAV) among street youth from Goiania city - Central Brazil, and to determine if any risk factors could be identified. The surveys were conducted between 1991/1992. The street youth were 397 individuals aged 7 to 21 years old living in institutions and teenagers working at streets. Then, 313 adolescents working at streets and with family links, and 84 institutionalized ones without family were screened for antibodies against HAV. Prevalences ranged from 80.0% to 92.2% to total anti-HAV and there was not a statistically significant trend ofpositivity with age in this group. Unvariate analysis for risk factors associated with HAV infection was performed with no statistically significant difference for adolescents working at streets and living with parents, and street youth with family links. Economic variables were not statistically associated with seropositivity, probable due to homogenous characteristics of the group. This study disclosed that street youth have a high rate of HAV infection. These findings do not suggest differences between subgroups of populations in acquiring immunity to HVA. The public health implication and the need of screening other subgroups of population of the same city were suggested in order to discuss vaccine strategy in underdeveloped countries.
Revista da Sociedade Brasileira d e Medicina Tropical
28(3):199-203, jul-set, 1995.
SOROEPIDEMIOLOGIA DA INFECÇÃO PELO VÍRUS DA
HEPATITE A EMMENINOS DE/NA RUA
DE GOIÂNIA-GOIÁS
D.A.O. Queiroz, D.D.P. Ca rdoso , C.M.T. Martelli, R.M.B. Martins, S.O.B.
P orto , M.S.P. Azev edo, A.M.T. Bo rges e R.R . D ah er
Um estudo soroepidemiolõgico, p ar a anticorpos contra o vírus d a hepatite A (anti-
VHA total - IgM e IgG), fo i realizado no peodo d e 1991-1992, em 397 “meninos de/na
ru a” em G oiânia. Destes, 313 apresentavam vínculo fa milia r e desmvolviam, em sua
maioria, atividades d e trabalho informal, eitquanto qu e 84 n ão po ssuíam vínculo
fa miliar e se encontravam n a rua ou em Instituições do Governo Estadual. A taxa
média de prevalência fo i de 90,4%, varian do de 80,0% a 92,9%, sem contudo
apresentar diferença estatística significante relativa à id ade (7-21). Também não se
evidenciou qualquer diferença qu ando este grupo fo i estratificado pa ra presença ou
au sência de nculo fam iliar ou mesmo quando analisado em relaçã o a outras
variáveiscio-dem ogrãficas. Estes dados sugerem que a hepatite A ê end êmica na
popu lação de baixa con diç ão sócio-econôm ica da rego e que nesta fa ix a etãria a
maioria dos indiduos j á adquiriu a infeão. Outras investigões em grupos e
ca madas sociais diferentes são necessárias a fim d e param etr ar estratégias vacinais em
pa íses subdesenvolvidos.
Palavras-chaves: Hepatite A. Soroepidemiologia. "Meninos de/n a ru a”.
O padrão de infecção do vírus da hepatite
A (VHA), desde a década passada, vem
mudando sobremaneira, restringindo a
infeão a grupos de risco em países
industrializados23, ou mesmo retardando-a para
idades mais elevadas em países em
desenvolvimento7. Contudo, em países
subdesenvolvidos, a infecção pelo VHA
continua a ser alta na primeira infância,
chegando a atingir, por volta dos 10 anos,
taxas de prevalência em torno de 90%9.
No Brasil, Região Sudeste, um estudo
realizado em crianças menores de 11 anos e
adultos de baixa renda mostrou prevalências
de 75% e 100%. Já no grupo populacional
de nível médio, de mesma faixa etária,
o b s e rv a r a m-s e 40,3% e 91,9%,
respectivamente17. No Rio de Janeiro, uma
Laboratório de Virotogia, Departamento d e Microbiologia
do Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública (IPTSP)
da Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO.
Financiamento: Pró-Reitoria de Pesquisa e Pós-Graduação
(PRPPG) e Conselho de Ciência e Tecnologia do Estado de
Goiás (CONCITEG).
Endero para c orre spondê ncia: Pro f. Divina Aparecida
Oliveira Queiroz. Laboratório de Virologia do Dept° de
Microbiologia/IPTSP/UFG. R. Delenda Rezende de Melo c/
l*Av., 7400 1-970 Goiânia, GO.Telefax: ( 062 ) 261 6414.
Recebido para publicação 23 /09 /94 .
in vestig açã o desenv olvid a em duas
co munidades u rbanas de p oder sócio -
econômico diferentes (Nova Iguaçu e Niterói),
mostrou prevalência de 90% nas faixas de 11 e
31 anos de idade1. Em outro estudo, realizado
em primodoadores, o percentual foi de 97%22.
Ainda no Rio de Janeiro, observou-se, em
universitários com média de idade de 21 anos
provenientes de 5 diferentes cursos da área de
ciências biológicas, 38,0% para os alunos de
medicina e 75,8% para os de enfermagem16.
Na Região Norte (Amazônia), encontrou-se
83,6% em crianças de 5-9 anos de baixo poder
aquisitivo e 100% nos indivíduos acima de 10
anos2. Na região Centro-Oeste (Goiânia),
observamos 69,7% em crianças de creches
públicas18.
Nos últimos 2 anos, poucos estudos
soroepidemiológicos sobre o anti-VHA têm
sido realizados, provavelmente, porque na
maioria dos países esse perfil é conhecido.
Entretanto, com a liberação comercial da
vacina inativada e avanços no preparo de
outras vacinas, entendemos ser oportuna a
retomada desses estudos. Tivemos como
objetivos determinar a prevalência do anti-
VHA total e avaliar fatores de risco sócio-
demográficos associados à soropositividade ao
VHA em “meninos de/na rua” de Goiânia.
199
Queiroz DAO, Cardoso DDP, Martelli CMT, Martins RMB, Porto SOB, A zevedo MSP, Borges AMT, D aher RR.
Soroepidem iologia da infecção pelo vírus d a hepatite A em “meninos de/na ru a” de G oiânia - Goiás. Revista
da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 28:199-203, jul-set, 1995.
MATERIAL E TODOS
Á rea e G rup o p op ulacion al: A pesquisa
foi realizada em Goiânia, no período de
novembro de 1990 a abril de 1992, em 397
indivíduos de 7 a 19 anos de idade,
vinculados, em sua maioria, à Secretaria de
Promoção Social do Estado de Goiás através
de instituições que atuam no atendimento
social da população carente, na faixa da
infância/adolescência. Foi adotada a seguinte
definição: Meninos de rua” - menores que
perderam o vínculo familiar e portanto, ora
vivem nas ruas da cidade, ora são encontrados
institucionalizados (N=84). “Meninos na rua” -
menores que trabalham na rua e mantêm
vínculo com seus familiares e que praticam, na
maioria das vezes, atividades de trabalho
informal (N=313).
Não havia registro atualizado sobre o total
de meninos de/na rua” em instituições e
órgãos o ficia is. Op tou -se po r triar
sorologicamente todos os indivíduos presentes
no momento da visita às instituições. Assim,
participaram do estudo 3 indivíduos com idade
entre 20 e 21 anos.
E n t r ev i s ta : Foram registrados, em
questionário padronizado, dados de
iden tificação e caractesticas sócio-
demográficas como: nome do indivíduo e do
responsável, endereço residencial, idade, sexo,
escolaridade, vínculo familiar, renda familiar,
tipo de moradia, disponibilidade de água
tratada, filtro caseiro, rede de esgoto, banheiro
com vaso sanitário, história pregressa de
hep atite ou icte rícia , e período de
permanência nas instituições.
E xa m es so ro ló gic os : Foram coletados
5ml de sangue e as amostras séricas foram
separadas e estocadas a -20°C até a realização
dos testes sorológicos. Para os meninos na
rua”, foi obtida permissão das instituições. Para
os adolescentes sem vínculo institucional e
sem família, a solicitação foi feita de forma
individual, sendo que a coleta de sangue foi
realizada após consentimento expresso.
Todas as am ostras sé ricas foram
processadas, durante o primeiro semestre de
1992, pelo teste imunoenzimático (ELISA)20, do
tipo competitivo, para detecção do marcador
de infecção pelo VHA (anti-VHA total). Para
realização deste teste, preparou-se o antígeno
do VHA através do cultivo da amostra
HM 175 em células FRhK-4 e os demais
imunobiológicos foram cedidos pelo Centro de
Referência Nacional para Hepatites Virais
Fiofcruz/Biomanguinhos - Rio de Janeiro.
A nálise dos d ados: Estimativas de Risco
(Razão de prevalência) foram calculadas com
intervalo de 95% de confiança e testes de
significância em nível de 5%. Testes de x2 para
testar diferenças nas frequências de
distribuições, x2 para tendências e o teste exato
de Fischer foram utilizados quando
apropriados. O teste t foi aplicado para avaliar
diferenças entre médias.
RESULTADOS
A média de idade dos meninos de rua”
(14,3) foi, estatisticamente, maior do que a dos
meninos na rua” (13,3) (teste t = 3,82,
p<0,01). Referente ao sexo, observou-se a
razão de 30:1 do sexo masculino em relação
ao feminino na categoria na rua, enquanto esta
razão era de aproximadamente 2:1 nos
meninos sem vínculo familiar (de rua).
Com relação ao grau de instrução,
constatou-se que 78,0% dos meninos na rua”
dispunham de no máximo instrução primária e
que 83,3% do grupo meninos de rua” era
constituído de indivíduos sem nenhuma
escolaridade ou com apenas o curso primário
incompleto. Em termos de renda e habitação,
verificou-se que, aproximadamente, um quarto
dos “meninos na rua” (25,2%) tinha renda e
habitação regulares (renda igual ou superior a
2 salários mínimos, morava de aluguel ou em
residência própria e dispunha de água
tratada). Um percentual de 20,1% tinha
saneamento regular (rede de esgoto, vaso
sanitário e filtro caseiro). Os demais o eram
servidos por esses instrumentos sanitários.
A Tabela 1, mostra a soroprevalência de
anti-VHA total em “meninos de/na rua”. Em
relação à faixa etária, a prevalência média foi
de 90,4 variando de 80,0% a 92,9%. Não se
observou aumento estatístico significante da
prevalência por faixa etária. Com referência às
demais variáveis como: sexo, vínculo familiar,
grau de instru ção , renda, habitação e
saneamento, observaram-se prevalências
variáveis entre 82,5% e 100%, sem diferenças
estatísticas significantes.
Os resultados de prevalência no grupo
meninos de/na rua” foram estratificados por
vínculo familiar e faixa etária a fim de
comparar a soropositividade entre os meninos
200
Queiroz DAO, Cardoso DDP, MartélH CMT, Martins RMB, Porto SOB, Azevedo MSP, Borges AMT, Daher KR.
Soroepidemiologia da infecção pelo vírus da hepatite A em “meninos de/na rua ” de Goiânia - Goiãs. Revista
da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 28:199-203, jul-set, 1995.
na rua e de rua. Entretanto, as prevalências
foram muito próximas e não evidenciaram
diferença estatística significante em relação a
vínculo familiar ou faixa etária (Figura 1).
Tabelo 1-Soroprevalência de anti-VHA total em
rua" em Goiânia, 1991-1992 ín=H97) meninos de/na
Variáveis Ne +/TOTAL (%) x 2 e Valor de p
Se x o
masculino 326/362 (91,2) p - 0, 55a
feminino 33/35 (94,3)
Vinculo familiar
Na Rua 282/313 (90,1) x 2 - 0,19
De R ua 77/ 84 (91,7) p -0,66
Fatxa etária
7 - 10 28/32 (87,5) x 2! - 0 ,8b
11 - 14 231/251 (92,9) p-0,38
15 - 18 92/104 (88,5)
19 - 21 8/10 (80,0)
Grau de Instrução
nenhum 33/40 (82,5) x 2! - 0,6b
prim ário inco mp leto 220/239 (92,0) p - 0,4 5
prim ário com ple to 38/44 (86,3)
gin ásio inc omp ./com pleto 62/ 68 (91,2)
22 G rau inco mpl eto 6/6 (100,0)
Renda e habitação
regular 71/79 (89,9) x2 - 0,0 4
precária 288/318 (90,6) p=0,85
Saneamento
regular 55/63 (87,3)
IT.
CO
o'
II
precário 304/334 (91,0) p=0,36
a * T est e d e F isch er; b - x2 p ara t end ênci a, gl =1
DISCUSSÃO
A prevalência de 87,5% do anti-VHA total
observada na faixa etária dos 7-10 anos indica
que no final da primeira década de vida
quase não indivíduos suscepveis de
adquirir a infecção pelo VHA. Esta observação
é concordante com o pado proposto para
países como o Brasil9. Nossos resultados estão
muito próximos dos observados em o Paulo,
que referiram 100% de soropositividade ao
anti-VHA em criaas de 8 anos, de baixo
poder aquisitivo, e 87,1% em indivíduos de 16-
20 anos, pertencentes ao nível cio-
econômico médio17. Assemelham-se também
aos encontrados na Amazônia, que mostraram
83,6% em indivíduos de 5-9 anos, 100% nos
acima de 10 anos e, no mesmo estudo, outros
80,6% em indivíduos de 10-14 anos
provenientes de outras localidades, pximas
da citada, inclusive aldeias2. Tamm não
parecem diferentes dos 90% encontrados em
criaas de 11 anos de Nova Iguaçu (RJ)1.
Todavia, estes dados diferem dos
resultados observados em estudantes
universitários com idade dia de 21 anos, no
Rio de Janeiro, que mostraram prevalências
variando de 38,0% a 79,6%16. Portanto, a
despeito de os universitários serem mais
velhos do que os “meninos de/na rua”, eles
apresentaram menor prevalência. Entretanto, a
literatura mostra claramente que a infecção
pelo VHA está diretamente relacionada à
condição sócio-econômica da população7151721.
Também há referência de declínio na
prevancia do marcador em países que
implementaram melhorias no pado de vida
da populão81011.
Em relação a outros países, com condições
melhores que as brasileiras, nossos dados
diferem dos já encontrados na Islândia, que
referiram 1,6% de soropositividade ao anti-
VHA na adolescência3; do Cana, onde
observaram 4% e 10% em indivíduos de 10 e
16 anos, respectivamente6 e do Japão, onde
mostraram 10% em indivíduos de até 14 anos
de idade14. Também, mais recentem ente,
referiram 6% para crianças de 6-7 anos na
Tailândia12 e ainda, 1,9% e 9,5% em crianças de
6-8 anos e em indivíduos de 3-19 anos,
respectivamente, na Itália519.
Os índices de prevalência não mostraram
nenhuma associação com instrução escolar,
renda familiar e habitação ou saneamento
(p>0,05), diferente do observado na Itália19 e
em Taiwan4. Devemos ressaltar, entretanto,
que a populão de “meninos de/na rua”
apresentou-se bastante homonea do ponto
de vista cio-econômico, o que difere dos
dois estudos acima mencionados, realizados
em 5 regiões distintas.
201
Queiróz DAO, Cardoso DDP, Martelli CMT, Martins RMB, Porto SOB, A zevedo MSP, Borges AMT, Dah er RR.
Soroepidem iologia da infecção pelo vírus d a hepatite A emmeninos d e/na ru a” de Gonia - Goiãs. Revista
da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 28:199-203, jul-set, 1995.
Apesar de os “meninos de ru a” não
possuírem vínculo familiar e estarem na
categoria de vida precária, as prevalências o
se mostraram diferentes das observadas para
aquele percentual de “meninos na rua que
dispunham de con dição de vida regular e
também de vínculo com a família. Assim,
inferimos que higiene pessoal e educação
sanitária devem ser precárias nos dois grupos.
Nossa investigação mostra prevalências do
marcador de imunidade em um segmento
populacional de baixa renda. Tendo em vista a
liberação comercial da vacina de vírus
inativado (HAVRIXtm)13 e a execução de vacina
de vírus a te nua do , o ut ros estu dos
soroep idemiogicos se fazem n ecessários
para que se possa avaliar o grau de infeão
do VHA em população infantil de outras
camadas sociais e também definir grupos de
risco que deveo, no futuro, serem vacinados
em nosso país.
SUMMARY
A cross-sectional study was pe rform ed to
determ ine the age-prevalence o f hepatitis A virus
CHAV) am ong street youth fro m G oiania city -
Central Brazil, an d to determ ine if any risk factors
cou ld be identified. The surveys were condu cted
between 1991/1992. The street you th were 3 97
individuals ag ed 7 to 21 years old living in
institutions an d teenagers working at streets. Then,
31 3 adolescents working at streets an d with fam ily
links, an d 84 institutionalized ones without fam ily
were sc reened fo r a ntibodie s against HAV.
Prevalences ran ged from 80.0% to 92.2% to total
anti-HAV a nd there was not a statistically
significant trend ofpositivity with ag e in this group.
Unvariate analysis fo r risk factors associated with
HAV infection was p erform ed with no statistically
significant d ifference fo r adolescents working at
streets an d living with parents, an d street youth with
fa mily links. Econom ic variables were not
statistically asso ciated with seropositivity, pr obable
due to homogenous characteristics o f the group. This
study disclosed that street youth have a high rate o f
HAV infection. These fin ding s do not suggest
differences between subgroups o f populations in
acquiring imm unity to HVA. The public health
im plication a nd th e nee d o f screening other
subgroups o f pop ulation o f the sa me city were
suggested in order to discuss vaccine strategy in
underdeveloped countries.
Key-words: Hepatitis A. Seroepidemiology. Street
youth.
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203
... Racial, ethnical, and geographical differences in HAV transmission rates actually reflect variations in the socioeconomic level and resulting life conditions of patients [9,10]. Prevalence of anti-HAV is inversely proportional to the per capita income of the population [7][8][9][10]17]. In Brazil, although a great part of the population pertains to a low socioeconomic level, there are many variations in sanitary and hygienic conditions. ...
... With the commercial availability of the hepatitis A vaccine, the performance of prevalence studies aimed at determining which populations should be vaccinated has become opportune and relevant [17]. It is possible to calculate vaccination costs and to establish target groups as well as the lower age limit and prevalence rates for prevaccination screening [26]. ...
... The high cost of available vaccines, the financial restrictions in the public health system, and the seroepidemiological patterns of HAV infection justify studies on the efficiency of systematic detection of anti-HAV prior to vaccination, in order to establish the minimum prevalence required for the determination of disease markers [8,17]. In any case, prevaccination screening is indicated for groups with high infection rates. ...
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... Os estudos disponíveis indicam padrões variados de endemicidade, que atingem até 95% nas regiões Norte, Nordeste e Centro-oeste. Nas regiões Sul e Sudeste as prevalências tendem a ser mais baixas 8,[11][12][13] . ...
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To estimate the prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis A virus (antiVHA-IgG) in children aged 7-14 years from public and private schools, and to identify demographic, socioeconomic and sanitation factors associated with the prevalence of antiVHA-IgG. Seroepidemiological study for the detection of IgG antiVHA. It was conducted from April 2002 to April 2004 with 462 elementary school students from São Luis, ranging from 7 to 14-years of age. Thirty schools randomly selected took part in the study, with a probability proportional to the number of students enrolled; 23 schools were public and 7 were private. Data was obtained through a structured questionnaire. In order to identify the variables independently associated with IgG antiVHA, the Poisson multiple regression analysis was performed, estimating the adjusted PRs and their 95% confidence intervals. The variables associated with the prevalence of hepatitis A with p < 0 were the only ones that remained in the final model. The level of significance of 0.05 (α = 0.05) was adopted. The prevalence of antiVHA-IgG was 64%, 71.5% in public and 36.5% in private schools. After multivariate analysis, age 11 to 14 years, more than one person per bedroom, and less than two bathrooms per household were associated with a higher prevalence of antiVHA-IgG. Higher parental education was associated with lower prevalence of antiVHA-IgG. Hepatitis A is endemic among schoolchildren in São Luís. The prevalence rate was similar to those found in other regions of the country with similar socio-economic and health conditions. Factors historically associated with a higher prevalence of hepatitis A were also identified in this population.
... In the last five years, few studies have been published analyzing the prevalence of HAV infection in Brazil: 69.7% among day-care children from 3 months to 9 years 4 and 80.0% to 92.2% among abandoned children 5 . These studies involved populations of low socioeconomic level from Goiânia, a middle size city in the central region of Brazil. ...
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To evaluate the prevalence of antibodies against hepatitis A in two socioeconomically distinct populations, 101 and 82 serum samples from high and low socioeconomic groups, respectively, were analysed for the presence of IgG anti-HAV using a commercial ELISA. The prevalence in low socioeconomic level subjects was 95.0%, whereas in high socioeconomic subjects was only 19.6% (p < 0.001). These data show a duality in Brazil: anti-HAV prevalence in low socioeconomic subjects is similar to that of developing countries, while in high socioeconomic subjects, a pattern typical of developed countries is found. The control of this infection in our country is primarily related to the improvement of sanitation, but especially for high socioeconomic level populations, the use of vaccination against hepatitis A is strongly advisable to avoid the occasional appearance of this disease in adults.
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A cross-sectional study was performed to determine the age-prevalence of hepatitis A virus (HAV) among street youth from Goiania city--Central Brazil, and to determine if any risk factors could be identified. The surveys were conducted between 1991/1992. The street youth were 397 individuals aged 7 to 21 years old living in institutions and teenagers working at streets. Then, 313 adolescents working at streets and with family links, and 84 institutionalized ones without family were screened for antibodies against HAV. Prevalences ranged from 80.0% to 92.2% to total anti-HAV and there was not a statistically significant trend of positivity with age in this group. Univariate analysis for risk factors associated with HAV infection was performed with no statistically significant difference for adolescents working at streets and living with parents, and street youth with family links. Economic variables were not statistically associated with seropositivity, probable due to homogeneous characteristics of the group. This study disclosed that street youth have a high rate of HAV infection. These findings do not suggest differences between subgroups of populations in acquiring immunity to HVA. The public health implication and the need of screening other subgroups of population of the same city were suggested in order to discuss vaccine strategy in underdeveloped countries.
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Green M S (Medical Corps, Israel Defence Force, Israel), Tsur S and Slepon A. Sociodemographic factors and the declining prevalence of anti-hepatitis A antibodies in young adults in Israel: implications for the new hepatitis A vaccines. Internationl Journal of Epidemiology 1992; 21: 136–141. In order to examine changes in the epidemiology of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection in Israel during the past decade, a sero-epidemiological study was carned Out in 1989 in a random sample of 1153 members of the permanent army, aged 21–30 years. Of the males 59.2%, and 54.3% of the females were anti-HAV antibody positive (p = 0.22). At all ages, the highest prevalence was in those of North African origin, followed by those of Asian, native lseaeli and Western origin. There was a marked decline in the prevalence of antibodies in later birth cohorts, (from 74.4% in those born in 1959–1960, to 47.8% in those born in 1967–1968). Age, ethnic origin, number of siblings, more than two younger siblings and smoking were independently significantly associated with anti-HAV antibodies. Despite an overall decline in family size in later birth cohorts, ethnic differences remain prominent. These findings suggest that when the new active hepatitis A vaccines become available, their use in small children should dramatically reduce the incidence of diseases in highly endemic areas by limiting intrafamilial spread of the disease.
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During the period from May 1987 through November 1989, the prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis A virus infection (anti-HAV) was assayed by the ELISA method in the serum samples of 5,507 (54% males, 46% females) apparently healthy subjects three to 19 years old in Italy. Subjects were selected by a systematic cluster sampling in five different geographical areas of Italy. The overall prevalence of anti-HAV was 9.5%; it increased from 2.3% among children three to five-years-old to 16.3% in teenagers 17 to 19 years old (p less than 0.001). A slight preponderance of females was observed (10% versus 9.1%), but the difference was not statistically significant. The prevalence was significantly higher in Southern Italy than in Northern Italy (27.4% versus 4.8%; p less than 0.01). The prevalence of anti-HAV was inversely related to the fathers' years of schooling (O.R. 3.3; 95% C.I. = 2.5-4.2) and positively related to the family size (O.R. 2.4; 95% C.I. = 1.9-3.1). These findings indicate that, today, exposure to HAV infection at a young age in Italy is very low. However, sociodemographic factors are still important determinants in the spread of this infection.
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A comparative seroepidemiological study (1979 vs 1989) on HAV infection, was carried out in children and adolescents from North-East Italy. Anti-HAV was tested in 850 subjects 6 to 8 years of age and the results were compared to those observed in 1979, in 462 subjects of the same age range and from the same geographical area. Overall anti-HAV prevalence was 1.9% (ranging from 0.5 to 5.2) in 1989 vs 32.5% (ranging from 7.8 to 70.7) in 1979. This dramatic decline of HAV infection in children and adolescents reflects the improved sanitation standard of our country but, on the other hand, indicates that the number of non-immune adults is increasing, with a higher risk of symptomatic infection in the near future.
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Seroepidemiologic and surveillance data show that hepatitis A is declining in both Northern and Southern Italy, in the latter the decline has been more recent. Every year about two thousand cases of acute disease occur. Shellfish consumption and travel to endemic areas are at present the most important risk factors in Italy. Use of immunoglobulin is effective in controlling outbreaks and preventing hepatitis A among travellers. Active immunization for travellers to endemic areas will be recommended, when a vaccine will be available. Adequate cooking of shellfish is at present the only advisable measure to prevent the risk represented by their consumption. Acute morbidity and the occurrence of outbreaks suggest the need to keep our attention on hepatitis A infection in Italy.
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Hepatitis A antibody was almost universal among Thai children 10–15 years ago. To assess whether transmission of hepatitis Aamong Thai children had declined, contemporary antibody prevalenceand seroconversion rates were determined. Antibody prevalence in 1987–1988 among children in Bangkok declined since 1977 for all ages studied, most markedly among young children. Among 453 low-income urban school children, there were no seroconversions over a 10- to 12-month period (95% confidence interval [CI] for incidence, 0–0.8%). Antibody prevalence among rural children also declined between 1985 and 1989, though rates were higher than those in Bangkok. Antibody prevalence differed by community. The annual rural infection rate was 1.1% (CI, 0.8%–1.6%). The pattern of rural hepatitis A transmission was focal. Increased numbers of susceptible children in Thailand, where hepatitis A virus still circulates, sets the stage for rising rates of symptomatic disease in adults.
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Epidemiological data from various countries show that the frequency of Hepatitis A virus antibodies (anti-HAV) in different population groups is largely dependent on the geographical and age distribution of the population surveyed. As regards Europe anti-HAV antibodies are generally frequent in all groups in Southern Europe while in Northern Europe these antibodies are common in older people only. The prevalence data collected in 1979 and in 1989 show that the anti-HAV antibodies rate is a function of age, but the rates for all age groups were lower in 1989 compared to 1979. In 1979, at an age between 25 and 30, some 50% of the population was anti-HAV antibody positive. The same results were obtained in another Belgian study conducted in 1979. In 1989 50% positivity was only reached at an age between 35 and 40 years. The present study confirms that anti-HAV antibody prevalence decreases with higher socioeconomic status. The higher rate relative to age is associated with socioeconomic and hygienic living conditions at the time when most infections occur, i.e. before the age of 20. It can be concluded by comparing the 1979 and 1989 results that the number of adults susceptible to HAV infections has increased. This fact drew attention in view of the strongly altered travelling pattern of fairly large sections of the population.