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Yam: A neglected and underutilized crop in Brazil

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Abstract

In Brazil current studies and investments on yams are incipient. Similarly, the literature in recent decades lacks adequate information on this group of plants. The existing literature, on its turn, requires more than ever to be revised and organized. Yams have joined the so-called "neglected" group of crops for several reasons, but particularly because they are associated with poor and traditional communities. Many vegetables introduced in Brazil during the colonization period have adapted to different cropping systems, yams being an excellent example. This diversity resulted very widespread, yet poorly recognized in the country. In turn, the gardens using traditional farming systems continue to maintain and enhance yam local varieties. Studies from other countries, with an emphasis on characterization and genetic breeding, brought to light an urgent need for Brazil to invest in yams as a food rich in carbohydrates, even to the point of alterations in food public policy. Reversal of the yam's current stigma is both a challenge to the scientific community and to the population as a whole. This paper aims to raise pertinent questions about Dioscorea species, an important key group for many communities in tropical countries, yet still unrecognized as so in Brazil.
16 Hortic. bras., v. 29, n. 1, jan.- mar. 2011
Certain crops, such as yams, are
associated with low-income
communities, being a subsistence food
source for many Brazilians. Despite the
many contributions to human health
from the active compounds found in
several species, yams continue to be
marginalized, hence have joined one
of the many “orphan” crops. The yam
is an underutilized crop, somewhat
forgotten by society and not considered
priority in political agendas (Siqueira
& Veasey, 2009). Yams are not even
included in agricultural, government,
or economic policies, which act as

of resources, especially exportable
monocultures. Additionally, the species
Colocasia esculenta is also called “yam”
SIQUEIRA MVBM. 2011. Yam: a neglected and underutilized crop in Brazil. Horticultura Brasileira 29: 16-20.
Yam: a neglected and underutilized crop in Brazil
Marcos VBM Siqueira
USP-ESALQ, Lab. Ecologia Evolutiva e Genética Aplicada, C. Postal 83, 13400-900 Piracicaba-SP; marcos.morruga@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In Brazil current studies and investments on yams are incipient.
Similarly, the literature in recent decades lacks adequate information
on this group of plants. The existing literature, on its turn, requires
more than ever to be revised and organized. Yams have joined
the so-called “neglected” group of crops for several reasons, but
particularly because they are associated with poor and traditional
communities. Many vegetables introduced in Brazil during the
colonization period have adapted to different cropping systems, yams
being an excellent example. This diversity resulted very widespread,
yet poorly recognized in the country. In turn, the gardens using
traditional farming systems continue to maintain and enhance yam
local varieties. Studies from other countries, with an emphasis on
characterization and genetic breeding, brought to light an urgent
need for Brazil to invest in yams as a food rich in carbohydrates,
even to the point of alterations in food public policy. Reversal of the

and to the population as a whole. This paper aims to raise pertinent
questions about Dioscorea species, an important key group for
many communities in tropical countries, yet still unrecognized as
so in Brazil.
Keywords: Dioscorea spp., tubers, traditional agriculture,
agrobiodiversity, molecular markers.
RESUMO
Inhame: uma cultura negligenciada e subutilizada no
Brasil
No Brasil, estudos e investimentos ao inhame são incipientes.
Similarmente, a literatura nas últimas décadas apresenta informações

vez, exige mais que nunca ser revisada e organizada. O inhame tem-se
unido ao grupo de culturas ditas “negligenciadas” por diversas razões,
mas particularmente devido ao fato de estar associado às comunidades
pobres e tradicionais. Muitos vegetais introduzidos no Brasil durante
o período da colonização têm-se adaptado a diferentes sistemas de
cultivo, sendo o inhame um excelente exemplo. Esta diversidade é
resultado de uma ampla dispersão, ainda pouco conhecida no país.
Por sua vez, as roças usam o sistema de agricultura tradicional de
forma a manter e aumentar as variedades locais de inhame. Estudos
de outros países, com ênfase na caracterização e melhoramento
genético, trouxeram à luz uma necessidade urgente de o Brasil
investir em inhame como uma rica fonte de carboidratos, mesmo
apesar das mudanças na política alimentar pública. Reverter o atual

e população como um todo. Este artigo objetiva-se a trazer questões
pertinentes sobre as espécies do gênero Dioscorea, um importante
grupo para muitas comunidades em países tropicais, contudo ainda
pouco conhecido no Brasil.
Palavras-chave: Dioscorea spp., tubérculos, agricultura tradicional,
agrobiodiversidade, marcadores moleculares.
(Recebido para publicação em 1 de setembro de 2010 ; aceito em 2 de fevereiro de 2011)
(Received on September1, 2010; accepted on February 2, 2011)
in some regions of Brazil, making it


two different crops.
This neglected species is increasingly
“forgotten” on the table of the rural
population and still utterly unrecognized
in large cities, hence the need for
resurgence of its popularity. The spread
of monocultures, the disappearance
of traditional communities, changes
in nutritional habits among younger
generations, and lack of incentives for
public and private institutions to focus
on yam cultivation research, have made
the following questions difficult to

over the years in tropical countries, (ii)
if there is wide biodiversity in these
regions, as the question of genetic
erosion risk rises, and (iii) how genetics
can manifest itself in favor of yams.
Through advances in molecular
    
importance of cultivars beyond the
perimeters of food. Other research,
with reinforcement from new fields,
such as ethnobotany, involves local
communities that have genetic resources
of inestimable value as local varieties
(Peroni & Hanazaki, 2002; Bressan
et al., 2005; Zannou et al., 2006).
However, how long will this gene
pool exist in backyards and gardens
throughout the tropics? The stimulus
of applied studies (such as in vitro
cultivation and genetic breeding), the
strengthening of the entire supply chain
17Hortic. bras., v. 29, n. 1, jan.- mar. 2011
(surely that would help marketing in
an increasingly competitive market),
and an effective conservation policy
(a set of measures that focus on the

maintain local varieties), are the main
premises that can bring value back to
yams. This resolution and other parallel
issues would certainly put yams back
in the spotlight, both domestically and
internationally.
Thus, the goal of the present study
was to review concepts regarding
Dioscorea spp., focusing on how

particular emphasis on issues related to
in situ and ex situ conservation.
The yam today - Yam is currently
the fourth most important tuber-root
crop in the world, after potato (Solanum
tuberosum L.), cassava (Manihot
esculenta Crantz), and sweet potato
(Ipomoea batatas L.). In 2008, the
estimated world production of yams
was 51.7 million tons, with Africa
leading the production. The Brazilian
production, in 2008, was 250,000 tons
within a cultivated area of 27,000 ha
(FAOSTAT, 2010). Thriving well in
tropical and subtropical environmental
conditions, varied yam species are
satisfactorily developed in the Brazilian
ecosystems, especially in the Northeast
region of the country, where agriculture
presents great economic potential
(Santos, 1996). The highest production
of yams in Brazil occurs mainly in the
States of Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas,
Bahia, and Piauí, followed by others at
a lesser scale (Mesquita, 2002).
The Dioscorea species has long
been cultivated for their medicinal
properties (sapogenin steroids, used in
production of cortisone and synthetic
hormones) in the following order of
importance: D. bulbifera, D. cayenensis,
D. dumentorum, D. alata, D. trida, D.
laxiora, and D. microbotrya (Karnick,
1969; Pedralli, 2002). Wu et al. (2005)
analyzed the consumption of D. alata by
post-menopausal women and concluded
that although the mechanisms are not
yet fully understood, its consumption
reduces the risk of breast cancer and
cardiovascular disease. Among many
of the yam medicinal properties, the
prevention of diseases like malaria,
yellow fever, and dengue is mentioned.
Bhandari & Kawabata (2004) have
presented interesting information about
the nutritional composition of several wild
species and their possible application in
modern medicine. Traditional medicine
uses yams to cleanse skin impurities, for
example, rashes. Nutritionists stress the
importance of yams in treating anemic
patients given their wealth of nutrients,
vitamins, and minerals (Okwu & Ndu,
2006). In Africa, it was found that the
tuber is responsible for increased fertility
in women who habitually consume it
(Balbach & Boarim, 1993).
Yam species, considered somewhat
irrelevant on a commercial scale,
began to receive recognition for their
importance, as exemplified in D.
bulbifera, from which diosgenin can be
extracted (Narula et al., 2007) or even
in its use as an anti-tumor agent (Gao et
al., 2007). Among many other species of
the same genus, is D. balkan, endemic
to the Balkans and currently protected,
however, sustainably extracted to
obtain high concentrations of diosgenin
(Fodulovicé et al., 1998). This example
serves to illustrate the rich and untapped
genetic resources found within the genus
Dioscorea.
Even with all the economic and
cultural significance that this crop
entails for tropical countries, few
studies using biochemical approaches or
molecular markers have been conducted
to understand the relationships and
extent of genetic similarity between
cultivated and wild yams (Tamiru
et al., 2008). Consequently, farmers
in some countries have reported the
disappearance of many cultivars due
specially to pests and diseases, which

(Mignouna & Dansi, 2003).
Despite the minor effects of pests
on yam cultivars in comparison to other
crops, phytosanitary problems represent
the main difficulties for producers.
The virus [Yam mosaic virus (YMV)],
anthracnose (caused by the fungus
Glomerella cingulata), nematodes
(Meloidogyne spp., Pratylenchus spp.,
and Scutellonema bradys), and tuber
rot (Penicillium sclerotigenum and
Rhizopus oryzae) are the main diseases

storage losses in susceptible cultivars
(Abang et al., 2003; Amusa et al.,
2003). Anthracnose stands out as the
principal phytosanitary problem in
several areas of yam cultivation and
production. Nematodes, which interact
with fungi and bacteria, attack the

damage in post harvest. The dry rot
disease is also a limiting factor in yam

market value of the product, especially
when found in conjunction with the
nematode Scutellonema bradys, which
acts as its etiologic agent. This disease
is a serious problem because it still
lacks effective countermeasures, hence
remains lethal. Yam meloidogynoses
are diseases caused by nematodes of the
genus Meloidogyne, which show high
incidence and severity in production,
causing heavy losses in yam production
and marketing (Abang et al., 2002;
Mignouna et al., 2003b).
Micropropagation and organogenesis
are two of many biotechnological
techniques that could be adopted to
obtain healthy seedlings, increasing
the potential of cultivation (Alizadeh et
al., 1998; Chen et al., 2003; Royero et
al., 2007), especially in commercially
valuable species, such as D. alata
(Balogun et al., 2006).
Although of great importance,
especially to subsistence communities,
for its high nutritional quality and
medicinal properties, there are
unfortunately few institutions involved
in research related to yam in Brazil. For
this reason, as previously mentioned,
further study is necessary to improve
the knowledge on this species.
Origin, dispersal of species,
and genetic contribution - With
approximately 600 yam species, only
few are known for their use in human
consumption (D. alata, D.cayenensis, D.
mummularia, D. opposita, D. rotundata,
D. transverse, D. esculenta, D. bulbifera,
D.trifida, and D. pentaphylla). The
genus is quite dispersed and can be
found throughout tropical, sub-tropical,
and temperate regions (Lebot, 2009).
Different yam cultivation practices,
similar to historical and socio-cultural

the creation and maintenance of genetic
Yam: a neglected and underutilized crop in Brazil
18 Hortic. bras., v. 29, n. 1, jan.- mar. 2011
diversity between each group in several
areas of Africa (Baco et al., 2007). It is
believed that a similar chain of events
has also occurred in Brazil.
According to Lebot (2009), the
genus dispersed worldwide at the end
of the Cretaceous period, evolved in
different directions throughout the New
and Old World, and resulted in distinct
species. The main dispersal regions
for many of these species included
the Americas, Africa, Madagascar,
South and Southeast Asia, Melanesia,
and Australia. According to Coursey
(1967), separation of the Asian and
African species occurred later, during
the Miocene period. Furthermore,
according to Coursey (1967), the
species, D. alata and D. esculenta,
originated from Burma and Assam,
localities of Southeast Asia. Degras
(1993) noted that D. cayenensis is of
African origin, given that wild species
can be found on the continent. The
origins of other yam cultivated species
are African and Asian, except for D.
trida, whose origin is South American
(Lebot, 2009). In these regions, the yam
has been cultivated by humans since
the beginning of civilization, where
 
diet has always been valued. Although
cultivated since antiquity by native
Indian communities, the yam cultivars
only entered Western civilization when

most likely that yams were introduced
to Europe by merchants, especially
by black slave traders. In Brazil, a
similar history ensued, however native
Indians blended with introduced slaves
in various states of the country during
colonization (Madeira et al., 2008).
According to Silva (1971), in the
early twentieth century, the Rondon
Commission found isolated tribes in
the northwest of Mato Grosso, Brazil,
cultivating the species D. trida where
they named it “cará mimoso”.
Dioscorea spp. is commonly known
as ”cará” or yam in Brazil. Due to the
ethnic richness in tropical countries,
there is a wide diversity of vernacular
names assigned to species (Pedralli et
al., 2002; Bressan et al., 2005; Tamiru
et al., 2008). The name “igname” or
“yam” seems to have an African origin.
Thus, it appears that the word “inhame”
is a translation of the terms, “yam” or
“igname”, used originally in English
and French colonies in Africa. As for
the word “cará”, based on historical
Brazilian documents, it seems to be of
native Indian origin (Cascudo, 1983). In
Portuguese, especially in the Northeast
region of Brazil, there is a tendency to
apply the name “yam” to large tubers of
D. cayenensis and the name “cará” to
the smaller tubers of D. alata (Peixoto
Neto et al., 2000).
One aspect that makes yams well
known in Brazil is the strong African

Despite being increasingly abandoned,
communities still maintain their dietary
value and use yam in cultural dishes.
Recently, it is notable that there is a
presence of yams in some supermarket
chains, small retail markets, and farmers
markets, which has encouraged some
agriculturists to increase cultivation of

the explanation for this may be related to
the diet of the Northeastern population.
However, in recent years, the media has
explored several issues related to health
and nutrition, which may be stimulating
yam consumption in the pursuit of
alternative starch sources (Hsu et al.,
2004; Ukpabi, 2010).
In Brazil, no data exists yet about the
diversity of the yam based on molecular
markers. The most relevant studies
came from Africa, the main origin and
dispersal centers of some yam species.
Studies of genetic diversity in 269
cultivars of D. alata from the South
Pacific, Asia, Africa, the Caribbean,
and South America (Lebot et al., 1998),
concluded that many yams exhibited
diverse variations, most likely due to
human selection. In Brazil, isozymes
were used to study the genetic diversity
among local varieties of D. alata, D.
bulbifera, D. cayenensis, and D. trida
in the Ribeira Valley, on the coast of
São Paulo State. The results of this
study showed a high genetic diversity
maintained by farmers in this region, and
that this variability was not structured in
space (Bressan, 2005). RAPD markers
were used to evaluate intraspecific
variation in accessions of D. alata
from Jamaica (Asemota et al., 1996),
to compare Dioscorea species from
Africa, Asia and Polynesia (Ramser et
al., 1996), and to characterize accessions
in the D. cayenensis-rotundata complex
(Hamon & Toure, 1990; Dansi et al.,
2000b). AFLP markers were used to
assess the genetic diversity of D. alata
in relation with nine other species of
edible yams (Malapa et al., 2005) and to
study domestication of genus Dioscorea
(Scarcelli et al., 2006). Egesi et al.
(2006), using these markers, were able
to show, from 53 accessions of D. alata
in west and central Africa, that each
group formed was a mixture of different
geographical origins, indicating that
geography has played a central role in
species differentiation.
Isozymes, RAPD and microsatellites
have contributed to the determination of
the D. cayenensis-rotundata complex,
which some have considered not to be
two separate species, but as a species
complex (Dansi et al.
et al., 2005; Obidiegwu et al., 2009a).
Fundamentally, microsatellite markers
have been used to study the segregation
patterns and characterization of several
Dioscorea species (Mignouna et
al., 2003a; Mignouna et al., 2003b;
Scarcelli et al., 2005; Hochu et al., 2006;
Obidiegwu et al., 2009b).
Part of the complexity in genetic
studies of the yam is due to its ploidy.
The basic chromosome number of
Dioscorea species is considered to be x
= 10 and x = 9, with a high frequency
of polyploid species (Abraham, 1998).
Tetraploid species are most frequent,
followed by types 2x, 6x, and 8x in
similar proportions. The basic number of
chromosomes (x = 10) is found in 52%
of African species and 13% of American
species. The remaining African and
American species have the basic number
x = 9. However, recent studies show
two new basic chromosome numbers,
x = 6 (Segarra-Moragues et al., 2004)
and x = 20 for D. rotundata (Scarcelli
et al., 2005) and D. trida (Bousalem
et al., 2006). If these basic numbers
  
species, the basic chromosome number
of the genera may be reconsidered,
leading to a decrease in the ploidy level
in some species (Bousalem et al., 2006;
Arnau et al., 2009).
MVBM Siqueira
19Hortic. bras., v. 29, n. 1, jan.- mar. 2011
Accurate information on genetic
diversity is critical to the success
of breeding programs, since genetic
divergence produces high heterotic
effects and, therefore, desirable
segregants for the purposes of each
program. In this sense, molecular
markers have contributed to the
advancement of measures not only for
protection, but improvement, which

from. The literature shows actions and
consequences of the replacement of
local varieties by other more productive
by gene banks and research centers,
bringing losses to yam ethnovarieties
(Tamiru et al., 2008). As a consequence
of stress agents, the issue of genetic
erosion of local varieties generates a
heated debate, demanding effective
measures by government and more
interaction among the few gene banks
of the genera.
Final Considerations - Based on
what has been reported, it becomes clear
that studies involving yam cultivation,
whether for conservation or breeding,
especially in Brazil, are still incomplete.
Urgent government intervention with a
number of measures to aid researchers,
extension workers, and farmers is
necessary for several reasons, and the
risk of genetic erosion is one of the main
issues. In this context, it is hoped that the
Yam and Taro Symposium will return to
Brazil, where the second, and last, took
place in 2002. This would be an excellent
opportunity to share problematic yam
insights; helping traditional, local, and
large-scale farmers.
The unknown diversity of Dioscorea
in Brazil, with a wide range of local
varieties and agroecosystems, is an
information blank for breeding and
conservation programs. Thus, coupled
with an urgency to reinforce to the
new generations how important is
the yam as a healthy food source,
multidisciplinary analysis is crucial for
future progresses.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank
Elizabeth Ann Veasey, Paulo César
Tavares de Melo and Josh Halsey for
contributions to the manuscript. The
author is also grateful to The São
Paulo Research Foundation (process
2007/07222-8).
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21
Pesquisa / Research
Hortic. bras., v. 29, n. 1, jan. - mar. 2011
As abóboras, do ponto de vista sócio
econômico, são importantes por
fazerem parte da alimentação básica
das populações de várias regiões do
nosso país, tendo alcançado em 2002
o volume comercializado de 30.300 t
(CEAGESP–SP) (Agrianual, 2004).
Embora diversos híbridos nacionais de
abóbora tipo tetsukabutotenham sido
desenvolvidos, a produção de sementes
-
ciente, impossibilitando o atendimento
de toda a demanda interna. Para tanto,
é importada a quase totalidade das
sementes utilizadas para a produção de
abóbora do tipo tetsukabuto, em uma
estimativa de 10 t/ano, com um custo
de US$ 1 milhão (Embrapa, 2003). Este
valor pode chegar a US$ 2,4 milhões,
a nível de produtor. Produtividades
Hor-
ticultura Brasileira 29: 21-25.
Inuência da quantidade de pólen na produção e qualidade de sementes
híbridas de abóbora
Warley Marcos Nascimento1; Graziele P Lima2; Ricardo Carmona3
1Embrapa Hortaliças, C. Postal 218, 70351-970 Brasília-DF; 2Coordenação de Sementes e Mudas, Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e
Abastecimento, Brasília-DF; 3UnB, C. Postal 4508, 70910-970 Brasília-DF; wmn@cnph.embrapa.br; grazi.lima@bol.com.br; rcar-
mona@unb.br
RESUMO
A baixa produção de sementes híbridas de abóbora obtida em
nossas condições deve-se provavelmente aos métodos de produção


também a qualidade das sementes híbridas. Neste estudo, utilizou-se a
polinização manual, a qual constou de cinco tratamentos relacionados
com a quantidade de pólen do progenitor masculino para polinizar

   


adotado foi em blocos ao acaso, com três repetições e dezoito plantas
por parcela. O aumento da quantidade de pólen aplicada aumentou a
produção de sementes por fruto e consequentemente a produção de

não foi afetada entre os tratamentos, embora foi observada uma menor

polinizadas com 1/4 de pólen.
Palavras-chave: C. maxima, C. moschata, 
ABSTRACT
Inuence of pollen amount on production and quality of
squash hybrid seeds
The low production of squash hybrid seeds obtained in our
   
    
the two parents may affect not only the hybrid seed production but



    

with three replications and eighteen plants per plot. The increasing
    
    
  

Keywords: C. maxima, C. moschata
(Recebido para publicação em 3 de novembro de 2008; aceito em 12 de janeiro de 2011)
(Received on November 3, 2008; accepted on January 12, 2011)
variando de 50 a 100 kg/ha de sementes
híbridas têm sido obtidas em nosso país.
Diferentes causas para esta baixa produ-
ção de sementes em nossas condições
podem estar ocorrendo, incluindo uma

Para a obtenção de sementes híbridas
de abóbora do tipo tetsukabuto é reali-
zado o cruzamento de uma linhagem
de moranga (Cucurbita maxima), como
parental feminino, com uma linhagem
de abóbora (Cucurbita moschata), sendo
o parental masculino. Quando a produ-
ção de sementes híbridas é realizada em
cultivos protegidos, os grãos de pólen de
 C. moschata são transferidos

de C. maxima-
ninas de abóbora possui muitos óvulos,
podendo formar várias sementes. Como
cada grão de pólen tem a capacidade de
fecundar apenas um óvulo, e a semente
é originada de um óvulo fecundado, uma

se torna necessária, para que nenhum
óvulo deixe de ser fecundado. Segundo

for o processo de polinização, ou seja,
quanto maior for o número de grãos de
pólen viáveis e compatíveis no estigma,
maior será a competição entre eles para
fecundar os óvulos e maior será a per-
centagem de sementes formadas.
No caso da produção atual de semen-
tes de Cucurbita, é importante salientar
que o uso de polinização manual, com
 
tem sido utilizado e sementes mais
vigorosas são obtidas quando utilizada
 
22 Hortic. bras., v. 29, n. 1, jan.- mar. 2011
et al.,
2000). Um estudo mais detalhado de
práticas de polinização se faz necessário
para um possível aumento da quantidade
de sementes híbridas de abóbora produ-
zidas e, consequentemente, uma oferta

acessíveis. Este trabalho teve como ob-
-
tidade de pólen na produção e qualidade
de sementes híbridas de abóbora.
MATERIAL E MÉTODOS
Este estudo foi conduzido na Em-
brapa Hortalas, de novembro de
2002 a junho de 2003. O delineamento
experimental foi em blocos ao acaso,
utilizando cinco tratamentos, referentes
à quantidade de pólen para polinizar
cada flor: 11 mg (1/4 da quantidade



94 mg (a quantidade de pólen de duas


repetições e dezoito plantas por parcela.
Linhagens femininas e masculinas de

na Embrapa Hortaliças foram utilizadas
neste estudo. As sementes de abóbora
do progenitor masculino (Cucurbita
moschata) foram semeadas em bandejas
de poliestireno expandido (isopor) de 72
células, utilizando duas sementes por
célula, em 18 de novembro de 2002.
A semeadura do progenitor feminino
(Cucurbita maxima) foi realizada dire-
tamente no solo da casa de vegetação.
Foram semeadas duas sementes por
cova, em 04 de dezembro. Nesta mesma
data também foi realizado o transplantio
do progenitor masculino para a mesma
casa de vegetação, na proporção de uma
planta do progenitor masculino para
quatro plantas do progenitor feminino.
Essa diferença de 16 dias na semea-
dura teve como objetivo sincronizar o
-
nitores. As plantas foram desbastadas
posteriormente, permanecendo apenas
uma planta por cova. O espaçamento
utilizado, para as duas espécies, foi de
1,0 m entre linha e 0,5 m entre plantas.
A irrigação foi realizada sempre pela
manhã, utilizando o sistema de gote-
 
realizado sempre que necessário.
-
culinas do progenitor feminino eram
retiradas antes da sua abertura, para
evitar uma possível autofecundação.
Iniciou-se a polinização 41 dias após o
plantio da linhagem feminina, utilizando
cinco diferentes quantidades de pólen

um quarto da quantidade de pólen de

 




 
do progenitor masculino e com um
estilete foram cortadas as suas pétalas
e os estames foram raspados levemente
para a retirada apenas do pólen. O pólen
coletado foi depositado em um papel
alumínio e pesado para a obtenção do
peso total. A partir do valor obtido foi
calculado o peso médio de pólen de uma
-
linizações foram realizadas no período
da manhã. O pólen, após pesado, foi
colocado em um recipiente cilíndrico,
utilizando um medidor de sal para o
preparo de soro caseiro, para facilitar a
polinização. A polinização foi realizada
-
-
res por planta foram polinizadas. Todas

A colheita dos frutos foi realizada após
50 a 60 dias da polinização e permane-
ceram em repouso por mais 15 dias em
local arejado e seco, antes da extração
de sementes.
As sementes foram extraídas e lava-
das em água corrente, com a utilização

camada de mucilagem que as recobria.
Após a extração, as sementes foram
postas em uma sala de pré-secagem
por 48 horas a uma temperatura de
32°C e, posteriormente, em uma estufa
elétrica por 24 horas a uma temperatura
de 40°C.
Foram avaliados os parâmetros: a)
peso de frutos (PF): os frutos foram
pesados em balança de precisão após
15 dias de repouso; b) estimativa
da produtividade de frutos (PRF):
estimou-se a produtividade de frutos por
hectare, a partir do peso total de frutos
obtido na parcela de 9 m2; c) peso de
sementes total por fruto (PSTF): as
sementes de cada fruto foram pesadas
em balança de precisão, antes de serem
passadas pelo soprador; d) peso de se-
mentes por fruto (PSF): as sementes de
cada fruto foram pesadas em balança de
precisão, depois de serem passadas por
um soprador pneumático (eliminação de
sementes chochas, mal formadas, leves,
etc.); e) estimativa da produção de
sementes por área (PRS): foi calculada
a partir do valor obtido na parcela de
9m2; f) número de sementes por fruto
(NSF): as sementes de cada fruto foram
contadas manualmente; g) pegamento
(PEG): obtido pela porcentagem de
 

polinizadas na parcela; h) peso de 100
sementes (P100): quatro repetições de
100 sementes, por tratamento, foram
tomadas aleatoriamente e pesadas em
balança de precisão; i) teste de germi-
nação (GER) e vigor (1a contagem):
foram utilizadas quatro repetições de
50 sementes por tratamento, em um
delineamento inteiramente casualizado.
As sementes foram semeadas em rolo
de papel (RP), contendo três folhas de

com água destilada, e incubadas na
temperatura alternada de 20ºC (16 h)
e 30ºC (8 h), de acordo com as Regras
para Análise de Sementes (Brasil, 1992).
A primeira contagem, aos 4 dias após a
instalação do teste foi considerada como

após 8 dias, foi considerada como a
germinação das sementes; j) emergên-
cia das plântulas em substrato (ES):
foram utilizadas quatro repetições de 50
sementes por tratamento, em um deli-
neamento inteiramente casualizado. As
sementes foram colocadas em caixas de
poliestireno expandido (isopor) conten-
do 200 células em substrato tipo Plant-
max Hortaliças (Eucatex). As bandejas
permaneceram durante todo o período
em casa de vegetação e o substrato foi

de dar à semente a quantidade de água
necessária para a germinação. Efetuou-
se a contagem das plântulas aos 10 dias
após a semeadura.
Os dados obtidos neste estudo fo-
WM Nascimento et al.
23Hortic. bras., v. 29, n. 1, jan.- mar. 2011
ram submetidos à análise de variância,
comparando as médias dos tratamentos
através do teste Tukey a 5% de probabi-
lidade para a análise dos parâmetros de
qualidade de sementes (P100, Primeira
contagem, Germinação e Emergência
em substrato). Os outros dados de
produção de frutos e sementes foram
avaliados pela análise de regressão.
RESULTADOS E DISCUSSÃO
O cruzamento entre C. maxima e C.
moschata resultou em pegamento máxi-
mo de frutos de 50% quando se utilizou

o mínimo de 22% quando se utilizou um
quarto da quantidade de pólen de uma

pegamento dos frutos com a quantidade
-
res onde, quanto maior a quantidade de

de C. maxima, maior foi o pegamento de
frutos (Figura 1A). Segundo Whitaker
& Davis (1962), no cruzamento de C.
maxima x C. moschata cerca de 30 a
40% de polinizações originaram frutos.
Valores aproximados também foram ci-
tados por Takashima (1954) que obteve
42% de pegamento ao polinizar 750
C. maxima. Yamane (1952), ao

oito frutos, ou seja, aproximadamente
14% de pegamento. As causas destes
diferentes valores de pegamento são
discutíveis, podendo-se levantar a hi-
pótese da utilização de linhagens com
diferentes graus de compatibilidades
ou o cultivo em diferentes condições
edafoclimáticas. Condições adversas de

fertilização usualmente resultam em um
pequeno ou anormal desenvolvimento
do fruto (Zitter et al., 1996).
Não foi observada diferença signi-

polinização com diferentes quantidades
de pólen, porém existiu uma tendência
dos frutos obtidos da polinização com

maiores e, consequentemente, mais
pesados (Figura 1B). O maior tamanho
dos frutos pode ser explicado pela maior
quantidade de sementes no fruto e tam-
bém pela presença de maior quantidade
de auxina no grão de pólen. A germi-
nação do grão de pólen é muitas vezes
o estimulante para o desenvolvimento
do ovário quando uma polinização

alta taxa de auxina que tem como função
garantir a manutenção e o crescimento

grande quantidade de pólen geralmente
resulta em uma explosão no crescimento
do ovário e aumento do pegamento.
Desde a polinização, a auxina age na
formação do ovário (Kessel, 1976). Sem
a fecundação, o ovário se desprende e
cai. Embora o pólen tenha poucas horas
para alcançar os óvulos, se a taxa de
elongação do fruto exceder a taxa de
crescimento do tubo polínico, os óvulos
nunca serão fertilizados devido à maior
distância dos óvulos nos frutos longos
(Robinson & Decker-Walters, 1996).
Assim, a auxina presente, até mesmo
quando foi utilizada a quantidade de
-
sionado este crescimento exagerado do
fruto, antes da fecundação dos óvulos,
pois não se observou redução no número
de sementes por fruto ao se aumentar a
quantidade de pólen (Figura 1C).
As plantas polinizadas com a quan-
tidade de pólen de duas (94 mg) a

maior percentagem de pegamento de
frutos (Figura 1A). Soma-se a isto uma
percentagem maior de plantas com dois
frutos nestes tratamentos, contribuindo
para a obtenção de valores crescentes
de produção de frutos com o aumento
da quantidade de pólen utilizada (Figura
1D).
A maior produção de frutos ocorreu
quando a polinização foi realizada com
188 mg de pólen, alcançando aproxi-
madamente 30 t/ha (Figura 1D). Existe
uma tendência dos frutos mais pesados
apresentarem maior número de semen-
tes por fruto (Figura 1C), maior peso de
sementes por área (Figura 1F) e maior
produção de sementes/fruto (Figura
1E). Hayase (1953), Stephenson et al.
(1988) e Zitter et al. (1996) observaram
o mesmo, onde o tamanho do fruto e
conseqüentemente o seu peso aumentam
com o número de sementes no fruto.
Lima et al. (1999) trabalhando com duas
quantidades de pólen (50% de uma an-
tera e uma antera inteira) para polinizar
-
ram que o uso da metade da quantidade
de pólen de uma antera propiciou menor
peso de sementes (por fruto, planta e
área), e originou frutos com menor pro-
dução de sementes e consequentemente
de menor peso; o peso médio de fruto

de pólen. Cardoso (2003), utilizando
três quantidades de pólen (meia, uma e
-
nha (Cucurbita pepo), não encontrou

peso médio de frutos e número e peso
de sementes por fruto.
O maior número de sementes encon-
trado por fruto foi de aproximadamente
117 quando utilizada a quantidade de
pólen de quatro flores. Quanto mais

ou seja, quanto maior for o número de
grãos de pólen viáveis e compatíveis
no estigma, maior será a fecundação
dos óvulos e consequentemente a
quantidade de sementes formadas. A
quantidade de sementes obtida, usando-
   
foi um pouco menor, aproximadamente
87 sementes por fruto (Figura 1C).
O baixo pegamento de frutos (22%)
(Figura 1A) obtido quando houve a
polinização com 1/4 de pólen de uma

com a quantidade de pólen utilizada e o
número de sementes formadas no fruto.
Lee & Bazzaz (1982) têm sugerido que,
através do abortamento de frutos com
poucas sementes, a planta pode elimi-
nar todos os frutos na qual teve pouca
competição pelo acesso aos óvulos e,
um aborto seletivo de frutos com poucas
sementes pode ser visto como um meio
de aumentar a qualidade das sementes
produzidas. Finalmente, verificou-se

utilizada na polinização e produção de
sementes. Quanto maior a quantidade
de pólen utilizada, maior a quantidade
de sementes produzida (Figura 1F). A
maior produção de sementes alcançada
foi de 520 kg/ha utilizando-se 188 mg
de pólen, e a menor foi de 160 kg/ha
utilizando-se 11 mg de pólen.
Não foi observada diferença signi-

de pólen utilizadas na polinização para
a maioria dos parâmetros de qualidade
das sementes (P100, vigor, emergência

24 Hortic. bras., v. 29, n. 1, jan.- mar. 2011
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
050 100 150 200
Quantidade de pólen (mg)
Peso de fruto (g)
Valores obtidos
PF:
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
050 100 150 200
Quantidade de pólen (mg)
Número de sementes por fruto
Valores Obtidos
NSF:
Quantidade de pólen (mg)
Produção de frutos (Kg/ha)
Valores obtidos
PRF:
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
050 100 150 200
Quantidade de pólen (mg)
Peso de sementes por fruto (g)
Valores obtidos
PSF:
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
050 100 150 200
Quant idade de pól en (mg)
Produção de sementes (Kg/ha)
Val ores Obtidos
PRS:
Figura 1. A) Pegamento de frutos de abóbora híbrida procedentes de polinização com diferentes quantidades de pólen (squash fruit setting
from pollination using different pollen amounts); B) Peso de frutos de abóbora em função de diferentes quantidades de pólen (squash fruit
weight from pollination using different pollen amounts); C) Número de sementes por fruto de abóbora híbrida procedentes da polinização
com diferentes quantidades de pólen (squash seed number per fruit from pollination using different pollen amounts); D) Produção de frutos
de abóbora híbrida procedentes da polinização com diferentes quantidades de pólen (squash fruit yield from pollination using different
pollen amounts); E) Peso de sementes por fruto de abóbora híbrida procedentes da polinização utilizando diferentes quantidades de pólen
(weight of seeds per hybrid squash fruit from pollination using different pollen amounts); F) Produção de sementes de abóbora híbrida
procedentes da polinização com diferentes quantidades de pólen (squash seed production from pollination using different pollen amounts).
Brasília, Embrapa Hortaliças, 2003.
em substrato) (dados não apresentados),
corroborando os dados obtidos por Car-
doso (2003) em abobrinha (C. pepo).
A geminação das sementes tendeu a
aumentar com o aumento da quantidade
de pólen depositado no estigma (Jen-
nings & Tophan, 1971). Lima (2000),
trabalhando com abobrinha (C. pepo),
-
gor quando utilizou a maior quantidade
de pólen (100% da antera). No presente
estudo, a germinação das sementes foi
menor (75%) quando foi utilizada a
menor quantidade de pólen e foi maior
(94%) quando se utilizou a quantidade

Davis et al. (1987) e Winsor et al.
(1987) também trabalhando com abobri-
nha e Quesada et al. (1996) trabalhando
C. pepo
x C. texana), observaram que sementes
produzidas com elevada quantidade de
pólen possuíam maior vigor do que as
produzidas com baixa quantidade de
Y= -0,000014570P2+0,004348P+0,196768 (R2 = 0,63)
AB
CD
EF
Y= -0,002171P2+1,446709P+1209,092418 (R2= 0,12)
Y= -0,002425P2+0,730807P+65,045604 (R2=0,51)
Y= -0,000741P2+0,247441P+9,134344 (R2=0,45)
Y=17,6050=0,0509P (R2=0,52)
Y= -0,000016386P2+0,005262P+0,113465 (R2=0,64)
WM Nascimento et al.
25Hortic. bras., v. 29, n. 1, jan.- mar. 2011
pólen. Embora não significativo, os
dados numéricos de vigor (emergência
em solo) no presente estudo mostram a
superioridade da emergência em solo
nos tratamentos onde utilizaram-se
maiores quantidades de pólen (dados
não apresentados). A explicação para
tal acontecimento deve-se a uma relação
de quanto maior a quantidade de pólen
no estigma, maior é a possibilidade de
se ter grãos de pólen mais vigorosos.
Estes, por sua vez, são mais compe-
titivos, aumentando a capacidade de
fertilizar os óvulos e gerar sementes
mais vigorosas.
Finalmente, a quantidade de pólen
pode interferir na produção e na quali-
dade de sementes híbridas de abóbora
onde a utilização de pólen de quatro
C. moschata na polinização de
C. maxima ocasionou uma
maior produção de sementes.
REFERÊNCIAS
BRASIL. MINISTÉRIO DA AGRICULTURA E
REFORMA AGRÁRIA. 1992. Regras para
análise de sementes. Brasília: SNDA: DNVD:
CLAV, 220p.
CARDOSO AII. 2003. Produção e qualidade de
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... In Brazil, family farmers have suffered from economic pressures, such as the advance of monocultures and the 27 lack of public and private sector investments, which have reduced some agricultural activities, leading to the loss of 28 genetic diversity of yam species (Siqueira 2011). In this respect, there is the need for studies to determine the damage 29 caused by these pressures, estimate the genetic diversity that is generated by these farmers, and develop strategies for 30 conservation and maintenance of traditional varieties that are an important source of alleles for various desirable 31 agronomic traits, such as resistance to pests and pathogens and tolerance to abiotic factors (Nascimento et al. 2015). ...
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The aim of the present study was to evaluate the genetic diversity of genotypes of Dioscorea sp. originating from states of the Brazilian Northeast region (Sergipe, Bahia, Alagoas, and Paraíba) through morphological and molecular characterization. For this evaluation, 52 yam genotypes were collected from market locations and directly from rural growers. Morphological characterization made use of 31 morphological descriptors for the yam crop. The environmental coefficient of variation (CV e ) of most of the descriptors evaluated was greater than the genotypic coefficient of variation (CV g ), and heritability was high only for stem color (86.86%). The highest significant positive correlation was between the presence of the tuber and the presence of roots on the surface of the tuber (r = 1; p < 0.001). The genotypes were clustered in seven different groups based on the morphological descriptors evaluated. For molecular characterization, SSR (9) and ISSR (16) primers were used. The primers used were considered informative, showing high polymorphic information content; and 100% of the bands were polymorphic. Genetic diversity was estimated by the following parameters: number of alleles (2.00), effective number of alleles (1.30), expected heterozygosity (0.211), and the Shannon index (0.351). The 52 genotypes were clustered in seven groups according to the Jaccard distance. The genetic structure of the population in K = 2 reveals shared alleles among the genotypes of different geographic origins. Morphological and molecular characterization reveals the high genetic diversity among the 52 genotypes of Dioscorea sp. and low diversity among the collection sites.
... Consequently, farmers in some countries have reported the disappearance of many cultivars due to pests and diseases, which has led to significant genetic erosion The virus [Yam mosaic virus (YMMV)], anthracnose (caused by the fungus Glomerella cingulata), nematodes (Meloidogyne spp., Pratylenchus spp., and Scutellonema bradys), and tuber rot (Penicillium sclerotigenum and Rhizopus oryzae) are the main diseases and account for the highest field and storage losses in susceptible cultivars The dry rot disease is also a limiting factor in yam cultivation. This has a negative influence on the market value of the product, most especially when found in conjunction with the nematode Scutellonema bradys, which acts as its etiologic agent (Siqueira 2011) Age is one of the limitation in yam production and utilization, t older farmers are more risk averse and less likely to be flexible than young farmers and thus have a lesser likelihood of information utilization and new +technologies (Katungi, 2007). ...
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ABSTRACT Yam as a tuberous food crop is basically rich in carbohydrate with little amount of mineral, vitamin and protein. Over 600 varieties of yam have been reported, only about six species are cultivated and known as important staples in the Tropics ,which includes D. rotundata (white yam), D. esculenta (Chinese yam), D.alata (water yam), D. bulbifera (aerial yam), and D. dumenterum (trifoliate yam) are among the economically important species (Ike and Inoni 2006). There are numerous challenges in the cultivation of yam which include lack of planting materials, land space, pests and diseases, storage, losses and low multiplication ratio of tubers, declining soil fertility; lack of access , or inadequate information about improved yam varieties . Despite the challenges associated in the cultivation and utilization of yam, they can be processed into diverse food forms. Processing is prerequisite to the consumption of yam, also the diversification of yam production is related to the individual desire and the need at a particular time and area. Yam apart from serving as food, has a lot of potential industrial uses. The review work considered the, characteristics and utilization of yam
... This does not exceed thousands of tons exported annually (Pérez and Ardila, 2018;Vega, 2012). Additionally, few government initiatives have been presented to improve the productivity and utility of this crop (Siqueira, 2011). Despite this, yam has acquired marked importance within the local economy of producing countries. ...
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Yam (Dioscorea spp.) is a crop that has acquired great relevance as a food and source of inputs for the population of different developing countries due to its adaptability to different edaphoclimatic conditions, the content of starch and other nutrients in its tuberous roots, in addition to its nutritional content. Likewise, the presence of different bioactive principles in yam tubers has been identified that allow their application in the pharmaceutical industry. For these reasons, this review sought to concisely present the most relevant aspects associated with yam cultivation, the development of its product, and its nutritional value. In this sense, in the first place, the general aspects of the crop were dealt with, including a morphological description of the plant, the cultivation conditions, and the most outstanding varieties. Next, the productive development and current relevance of the yam in the world were exposed. Subsequently, they are exposed to the most relevant agronomic aspects of yam cultivation, highlighting its morphological characteristics, growth cycle, development conditions, propagation methodology, and the sowing process. Finally, fertilizers and possible diseases and pests associated with the plant and their treatment are mentioned.
... Neglected crop cultivation is associated with the topics of traditional communities' participation and recognition of local knowledge (Siqueira, 2011). Fourteen percent of the documents analyzed connected NUS promotion with looking into local and indigenous knowledge. ...
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The category of "neglected and underutilized crops" (NUS) has been understood as negligence in research and consumption, aligned with development and conservation discourses. Nevertheless, the promotion of these crops has implied a rise in their costs and increased scientific patents, which have little to do with the discourse of ensuring food for Andean peoples. This dissertation builds on postcolonial concepts of coloniality of power, ecologies of knowledge(s), and the colonization of the lifeworld framework to analyze the construction of NUS from a Western and neoliberal point of view. It uses mixed methods like content analysis to identify the nuances in the definition of NUS in academic papers written in the last twenty years and interviewed scientists that participated in the production of the report The Lost Crops of the Incas by the National Research Council in the 1990s and key informants. Bibliometric data was used to identify trends in scientific production -in papers and patents- of three groups of Andean crops (grains, tubers, and fruits) since 1985. Finally, it employs official quantitative data from Peru's agriculture ministry to illustrate trends in national production (prices and cultivated area). The findings help to discuss two NUS narratives that, on the one hand, reinforce agricultural research to achieve food security goals and that are compatible with a trend in patenting these crops; and, on the other hand, a trend that pretends to associate Andean plant species with non-Andean consumers.
... Madagascar (Burkill andPerrier, 1950, Wilkin andThapyai, 2009). Dioscorea is of high value but underutilized (Siqueira, 2011). Its value arises from the huge populations of people who depend on it as a staple food. ...
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Tubers of wild Dioscorea species (yam) are used as low cost materials for synthesis of steroids; cortisone and progesterone using the Marker Degradation chemical route. Decoctions from yam leaves and tubers are also used in ethnomedicine for regulating women’s fertility, alleviating painful periods and menopausal symptoms. It is now known that yam tuber extracts reduce and inhibit proliferative action of breast cancer cells and reverse cardiovascular diseases. Due to current urgent needs and global interest in plants’ biodiversity advancement and drug discovery importance; Dioscorea composita and Dioscorea floribunda shoots were studied with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to detect anatomical types of trichomes’ compared to essential oil production as integrated in the ontogeny of the studied shoots and hydro-distilled oils from the same organs were characterised with Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). The SEM study revealed presence of oil glands, the capitate type on the epidermal layers of parts studied which GC/MS analysis further revealed the components of the oils on the leaves to be α-farnesene, Citronellyl acetate, α-terpinene, Elemol, Nerolidol, Farnesol and Valerenyl acetate. This is the first time these phytocompounds are reported in the species. In this light, microscopical methods supported by chromatography contribute to rapid identification of novel lead compounds contributing to important drug discovery.
... Yam (Dioscorea spp.) has great socio-economic importance in Brazil, especially in the Northeastern region of the country, where it is commonly used as a food source and the tubers have important aggregated value when compared to other sources of carbohydrates, such as sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) and cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) (Siqueira, 2011). It is also important due to the labor demand during the crop cycle, mainly during harvest stage, generating jobs and income. ...
... Yam (Dioscorea L., family Dioscoreaceae) comprises around 629 species that grow in tropical and temperate regions, and about 140 species are found in Brazil [1] of which D. alata, D. bulbifera and D. cayennensis-rotundata are widely cultivated [1][2][3][4]. Yam is vegetatively propagated through tubers and this stipulates the accumulation of viruses from diverse genera: Potyvirus, Badnavirus, Cucumovirus, Carlavirus, Comovirus, Fabavirus, Macluravirus, Aureusvirus, and Potexvirus [5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. Among them, yam mosaic virus (YMV, genus Potyvirus) is the most prevalent virus in D. cayennensis-rotundata [12]. ...
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Yam (Dioscorea spp.) is an important crop for smallholder farmers in the Northeast region of Brazil. Wherever yam is grown, diseases caused by yam mosaic virus (YMV) are prevalent. In the present study, the diversity of YMV infecting Dioscorea cayennensis-rotundata was analyzed. In addition, five species of Dioscorea (D. alata, D. altissima, D. bulbifera, D. subhastata, and D. trifida) commonly found in Brazil were analyzed using ELISA and high-throughput sequencing (HTS). YMV was detected only in D. cayennensis-rotundata, of which 66.7% of the samples tested positive in ELISA. Three YMV genome sequences were assembled from HTS and one by Sanger sequencing to group the sequences in a clade phylogenetically distinct from YMV from other origins. Temporal phylogenetic analyses estimated the mean evolutionary rate for the CP gene of YMV as 1.76 × 10–3 substitutions per site per year, and the time to the most recent common ancestor as 168.68 years (95% Highest Posterior Density, HPD: 48.56–363.28 years), with a most likely geographic origin in the African continent. The data presented in this study contribute to reveal key aspects of the probable epidemiological history of YMV in Brazil.
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Background In Babitonga Bay, southern Brazil, records of yam consumption exist among shellmound builders from at least 4000 years ago. Shellmounds (sambaquis) are anthropogenic structures in the form of mounds with layers of shells associated with other faunal remains, as well as with charcoal, artefacts and burial. Larger sambaquis are considered to be funerary monuments. The indigenous Jê and Guarani people also lived in the region before the European invasion and cultivated yams. Currently, exotic and domesticated yams are cultivated in the region by farmers. Our aim is to describe the long-term history between the people and Dioscorea in the Babitonga Bay region based on its consumption and occurrence in shellmounds and swiddens. Methods Surveys of Dioscorea spp. and host were carried out in the vegetation of shellmounds and in the surrounding area using visual detection through intensive searches in transects using the walking method. The survey of Dioscorea species used and cultivated in the precolonial, colonial and current periods was carried out based on the literature. In the present study, only Dioscorea trifida cultivations were recorded. Results Dioscorea cayennensis, Dioscorea chondrocarpa, Dioscorea dodecaneura, Dioscorea laxiflora, Dioscorea olfersiana, and Dioscorea scabra, all recorded in associated vegetation of shellmounds, in different combinations of the species. In swiddens, D. trifida is most common, followed by Dioscorea alata and, to a lesser extent, Dioscorea bulbifera and D. cayennensis. Records of food use prevail, but they are used as medicinal plants. Yams are integrated on anthropogenic soils of shellmounds and in swiddens in monoculture systems or in intercropping with Zea mays or Colocasia esculenta. The presence of exotic food trees and D. cayennensis in some shellmounds indicates the influence of colonizers on the composition of the vegetation. In sambaquis, there are overlapping processes of construction of cultural niches by different human groups at different times. Conclusions The sambaquis and the associated vegetation and swiddens form part of a domesticated landscape. The native species of Dioscorea recorded in shellmounds and surrounding vegetation do not depend on human action to perpetuate themselves in the environment. However, this does not rule out human influence in the past, but it does not indicate horticulture among the Sambaquianos. Greater investment in genetic, archaeobotanical and ethnobotanical research can contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between people and yams over thousands of years.
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Yam is a tuber vegetable crop with vegetative propagation. The crop is low yielding due to the difficulty of obtaining quality material for propagation and the high cost of acquisition. The cutting technique is a new alternative for vegetative propagation of yam. The present studyevaluated the production of minitubers of yam through cuttings, and follow the formational growth of the minitubers. Different types of cuttings, obtained from three positions on the shoots, and three substrates were tested. The types of cuttings and substrates did not significantly affect the number of minitubers per cutting, this number ranging from 1.18 to 1.75. The best results were obtained using Tropstrato Florestal® and median-position cuttings for the following variables: minituber length (17.47 mm), minituber diameter (12.63 mm), minituber fresh weight (2.12 g), and percentage of cuttings with two minitubers (75%). Anatomical analysis showed cell divisions and starch accumulation in the nodal region at seven days after planting the cutting. Emergence of the minituber could be observed at 21 days. The production of yam minitubers through stem cuttings is enhanced using cuttings obtained from the median position of the shoot and using the commercial substrate Tropstrato Florestal®.
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The objective of this study was to examine the effects of pollen competition on offspring quality in the common zucchini squash ( Cucurbita pepo L.). In a controlled field study, we compared the performance of seeds that were produced under conditions of pollen competition (high pollen loads) to seeds produced under conditions of little or no pollen competition (low pollen loads). We found that seeds from high pollen loads were more likely to emerge and emerge more rapidly than seeds from low pollen loads. The high pollen load seedlings also tended to produce more flowers and fruits than the low pollen load seedlings. On a per-plant basis, the high pollen load progeny had significantly greater fruit volume, seed numbers, and total seed weight than the low pollen load progeny. We conclude that in zucchini, seeds produced under conditions of pollen competition are “superior” to seeds produced when pollen competition is minimal or absent. The significance of these results is considered in light of a previous study revealing nonrandom patterns of fruit abortion in this species.
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La agricultura tradicional en Brasil basicamente es mantenida para fines de subsistencia en comunidades locales, sin el uso de tecnologias modernas, usufructuando la mano de obra familiar. Una amplia gama de especies son usadas por esos agricultores que mantienen gran diversidad de variedades de cada especie, sea dentro o entre quintales y chacras, presentando tambien un intenso sistema de intercambio de esos genotipos entre familiares y vecinos. De esa gran diversidad de cultivos, se destacan muchas tuberosas que son parte de la dieta de la mayoria de los brasileros, siendo la yuca, los names y la papa dulce (camote) las mas cultivadas. A pesar de toda la importancia cultural y alimentaria, esas tuberosas demarcan un “olvido” por parte de grupos de investigacion, extensionistas y sociedad en general, visto que son escasas las investigaciones asociadas a ellas, si comparamos con culturas de ciclo corto, en las que predominan la fuerza del agro negocio y el apoyo gubernamental. Cultivos “huerfanos” o “despreciados” son algunas de las connotaciones peyorativas que reciben esas especies de propagacion vegetativa. Por la importancia como materia prima en programas de mejoramiento, por la urgencia de evitar la erosion genetica, estudios actuales con enfasis en marcadores moleculares trajeron, especialmente en los ultimos anos, informaciones importantes en relacion con la diversidad genetica mantenida por agricultores tradicionales y como esta diversidad se encuentra estructurada. Por la importancia que posee en Brasil, la caracterizacion y el analisis genetico de la yuca, name y papa dulce (camote) haran el cuerpo central de esta revision.
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Yams (Dioscorea spp.) constitute a staple food crop for over 100 million people in the humid and subhumid tropics. They are polyploid and vegetatively propagated. The Guinea yams, Dioscorea rotundata and D. cayenensis, are the most important yams in West and Central Africa where they are indigenous, while D. alata (referred to as water yam) is the most widely distributed species globally. The genetics of yams is least understood among the major staple food crops due to several biological constraints and research neglect. Research to unravel the apparent complexity of the yam genome will have far-reaching implications for genetic improvement of this important tuber crop. Some progress has been made in recent years in germplasm characterization and the development of molecular markers for genome analysis. A genetic linkage map based on amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers has been constructed for Guinea and water yams. These linkage maps were used to scan the genome for quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with genes conferring resistance to Yam Mosaic Virus (YMV) in D. rotundata and anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) in D. alata. In addition, candidate random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers associated with major genes controlling resistance to YMV and anthracnose have been identified that could be used for selection and pyramiding of YMV and anthracnose resistance genes in yam improvement. Also, molecular markers such as RAPDs, AFLPs, and microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSRs) have been developed for yam genome analysis. An initial c-DNA library has been constructed in order to develop expressed sequence tags (ESTs) for gene discovery and as a source of additional molecular markers. This paper will review the advances made, discuss the implications for yam genetic improvement and germplasm conservation, and outline the direction for future research.
Article
To establish an efficient in vitro regeneration system for D. alata plants, yam tubers were potted in a mixture of soil and organic humus in greenhouse conditions. For micropropagation 1cm long stem sections with 1-2 lateral buds were obtained from these plants. For organogenesis, micropropagated plants were used as sources of explants (microcuttings). Explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (1962) media (MS) supplemented with different hormonal combinations. For micropropagation, MS and 1/5 MS were used as control media. Three more media with hormones were also used for micropropagation. After 45 days, 4.9 buds per expiant were obtained on MS supplemented with 0.5mg·l -1 BA. Mass multiplication was achieved in MS supplemented with 2mg·l -1 BA. After 90 days an average of 5.75 plants per explant was obtained. MS supplemented with 1mg.l -1 BA + 0.5mg?·l -1 ANA was used for the establishment of organogenesis. After 105 days, an average of 25.15 buds per explant was obtained (direct organogenesis). Callus tissue production was observed on 10% of microcutting explants cultured on the same medium with an average of 5.3 buds per 1cm 2 callus fragment (indirect organogenesis). Micropropagated D. alata plants were obtained after 4.5 months of culture; while plants originated through direct organogenesis took 6 months to reach maturity; however, they produce a higher number of buds per explant. D. alata plants regenerated through micropropagation and organogenesis processes were potted with soil and river sand (1:1) and 70.7% plant acclimatization was obtained.
Article
This review presents different diseases associated with yam and the management strategies employed in combating its menace in Nigeria. The field and storage diseases are presented, anthracnose is regarded as the most widely spread of all the field diseases, while yam mosaic virus disease is considered to cause the most severe losses in yams. Dry rot is considered as the most devastating of all the storage diseases of yam. Dry rot of yams alone causes a marked reduction in the quantity, marketable value and edible portions of tubers and those reductions are more severe in stored yams. The management strategies adopted and advocated for combating the field diseases includes the use of crop rotation, fallowing, planting of healthy material, the destruction of infected crop cultivars and the use of resistant cultivars. With regards to the storage diseases, the use of Tecto (Thiabendazole), locally made dry gins or wood ash before storage has been found to protect yam tubers against fungal infection in storage. Finally, processing of yam tubers into chips or cubes increases its shelf live for a period of between 6 months and one year.
Article
This study investigated the extent of and basis for selective fruit maturation in the annual legume, Cassia fasciculata Michx. Demographic analysis of flowers and fruit in field populations demonstrated that fruit did not necessarily mature in the order initiated, although early initiated fruit were more likely to mature. Fruit initiated early in the season tended to grow slowly at first, whereas those initiated later tended to grow rapidly; this growth pattern dampened the effect of the order fruit initiation on maturation sequence. Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that more outcrossed fruit matured than selfed fruit, but in both cases the hypothesis was rejected. Other experiments were performed to determine if (a) fruit resulting from pollination by a particular plant mature more rapidly than do those resulting from pollination by other plants, and (b) fruit resulting from mixed pollen loads mature more readily than those pollinated by a single plant. These ideas were also rejected. Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that fruit with a large number of percentage of fertilized ovules are selectively matured. This hypothesis was supported by both glasshouse experiments and field observations. Percentage of fertilized ovules seemed to be more clearly related to fruit growth and maturation than was number of fertilized ovules. Natural selection may favor individuals that selectively mature fully fertilized fruit because such fruit (1) may be more resource-efficient because they contain less pericarp per seed, (2) may provide better dispersal of seed, or (3) may contain high-quality seed owing to increased gamete competition.
Article
A origem de muitos nomes vulgares das espécies muitas vezes é obscura ou mesmo impossível de ser identificada, em especial aqueles que acompanham as plantas cultivadas, que há milênios foram domesticadas e levadas dos seus locais de origem, domesticação e/ou cultivo inicial para referenciados pelos seus nomes populares há séculos, utilizando-se, geralmente, algum atributo morfológico, referência ao uso, local ou indicação de ordem muito pessoal. Assim, os nomes populares (vulgares ou regionais) variam de local para local, de região para região, de um país para outro, podendo uma mesma planta ter diversas denominações e uma denominação ser comum para diversas plantas. Por esta razão é imprescindível conhecer o nome científico de cada espécie, conforme previsto no "Código Internacional de Nomenclatura Botânica" (Greuter et al., 1994; Princípio Vº e Art. 23), e então procurar correlacioná-lo ao nome popular (vulgar). Na tentativa de organizar e valorizar esta informação tradicional, foram elaborados vários dicionários contendo os nomes científicos das plantas e seus correspondentes nomes populares, para várias regiões do mundo. Com relação às espécies cultivadas de Colocasia (C. esculenta e suas variedades), o nome "taro" tem sido historicamente utilizado, tanto nos locais de origem das espécies, quanto em várias partes do mundo onde essas plantas têm sido cultivadas (Miller, 1971 e 1971a; Purseglove, 1975; Wang, 1983; Watson & Dallwitz, 1992; Lee, 1999; UCLA, 2001). Por essa razão, necessita-se padronizar no Brasil, a utilização do nome "taro" para as espécies de Colocasia (família Araceae). No Brasil, as principais espécies cultivadas de Dioscorea (D. alata, D. bulbifera, D. caynensis, D. dodecaneura, D. dumetorum, D. rotundata), (excetuando D. trifida, domesticada pelos indígenas nas áreas limítrofes entre o Brasil e as Guianas), desde seus locais de origem, domesticação e cultivo na Ásia, têm sido chamadas de "inhames" (yams, ignames, ñames). Esse nome também é utilizado nos países onde são cultivadas atualmente, como na África e nas Américas (Burkill, 1939 e 1960; Martin, 1978; Coursey, 1980; Segnou et al., 1992; IPGRI, 1997; Pedralli, 1997; Malaurie, 1998). Nas regiões brasileiras do Norte/Nordeste, é utilizado o nome popular "cará" (cará-barbado, cará-moela, cará-da-costa, cará-de-São-Tomé, cará branco, cará preto, cará-do-ceú, cará-do-ar, cará-sapateiro, cará amarelo, cará-doze-meses, cará do Pará, cará-da-Guiné, cará-de-espinho, etc.) para as Dioscorea. Face à semelhança que apresentam alguns tipos de sistema subterrâneo das Dioscorea cultivadas, com aqueles das espécies cultivadas de Colocasia, muitas vezes o tubérculo é identificado pelo consumidor como "cará" ou "inhame", indiscriminadamente. Em 1997, um grupo internacional definiu os descritores para as espécies de Dioscorea, para todo mundo. Na publicação do "International Plant Genetic Resources Institute" (IPGRI), o nome único (padrão) adotado para as espécies cultivadas de Dioscorea foi "yam" (inhame). Por outro lado, o "Código Internacional de Nomenclatura Botânica" (Greuter et al., 1994), na Seção 6 – Nomes das plantas em cultivo, Art. 28 estabelece: "as plantas silvestres em cultivo mantém os nomes que são aplicados para os mesmos taxa crescendo na natureza," ou seja, o nome científico de cada espécie deve ser mantido, mesmo após sua domesticação e cultivo, recomendando-se, também, a manutenção do respectivo nome popular (vulgar). Soma-se, ainda o previsto no "Código Internacional de Nomenclatura das Plantas Cultivadas" (1980), referente às designações para plantas usadas na agricultura, reflorestamento e horticultura, sendo que os nomes publicados de plantas cultivadas (Art. 27), antes de 01.10.1959, devem ser mantidos, obrigatoriamente. Acredita-se que a proposta de padronização na Assembléia Geral "I Simpósio Nacional sobre as Culturas do Inhame e do Cará", realizado em Venda Nova do Imigrante, de 23 a 26.04.2001, atende ao previsto em ambos os "Códigos" e deverá trazer um melhor entendimento para os pesquisadores, sociedades civis organizadas, extensionistas, produtores, comerciantes e consumidores, facilitando a identificação das espécies cultivadas de cada família botânica.
Article
Este textó e a transcrição dos capítulos 3, 4 e 5 do livro: "As Hortaliças na Medicina Natural" escrito por A. Balbach e D. Boarim. No livro original estes capítulos tem os seguintes títulos: 3 -Inconvenientes do consumo de carne; 4 -Viver mais, vi-ver melhor; 5 -Moderação, fator de longevidade. O temá e a saúde e longevidade dos vegetarianos e as doenças degenerativas causadas pelo consumo de carne. Uma das partes mais convincente e sobre vegetarianismo e longevidade que mostra a vida longa e saudável de alguns vegetarianos, (Internet: hortmednat.html#2.1) tais como: Patrice O'Neil (113 anos), Jean Effingham (144 anos), Jean Bill (133 anos), Thomas Parr (152 anos), Handy Mohamed Ben Bark (165 anos) e Valentinovna Poujak (163 anos) e seus 3 irmãos centenários com 129, 121 e 120 anos de idade respectivamente. També e instrutivo conhecer o povo Hunza dos Himalais, sua dieta lacto vegetariana com sementes germinadas (Internet: hortmednat.html#2.5). A teoria ci-entífica, que explica a vida longa e saudável dos vegetarianos e as doenças degenerativas dos que comem carné e a teoria dos radicais livres (Internet: longevidade.html#2). De fato, a carne que apodrece, nos longos intestinos dos vegetarianos como nós, produz uma enorme quantidade destas moléculas orgânicas quebradas, chamadas radicais livres. Por outro lado, os vegetais e plantas que não possuem sistema excretor, combatem bioquímicamente os radicais livres naturais do metabolismo. Isso significa que os vegetais são ricos em substâncias anti-oxidantes que anulam os efeitos oxidativos dos radicais livres. A dieta vegetarianá e duplamente boa para saúde, primeiro devido aos inúmeros anti-oxidantes dos vegetais, segundo porque não produz tan-tos radicais livres como a carne. Convencido? Tomara que sim, para que eu possa te ver viver muito, saudável, tranquilo e feliz! Comer pouco e viver muito Via de regra, quem come muito tende a agir pouco; quem come mo-deradamente, tende a agir muito, em conseqüência do bem-estar e, portanto, de boa disposição que sempre sente; quem come pouco, se inclina ao repouso. Hoje em dia, o horário das refeições prende-se a circunstância as vezes incontornáveis, como o período de trabalho. Ainda assim, deve-mos, contudo, a bem da saúde, dedicar considerável espaço de tempo ao almoço E bom costume aproveitar essa folga para uma pequena sesta. As pessoas que se dão bem com essa prática devem cultivá-la, de vez que a mesma muito concorre, não só para o bem-estar geral mas também para o prolongamento da vida. Para viver mais e melhor e preciso escolher bem os ali-mentos, comer com moderação e mastigar bem.