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Grammatical understanding, literacy and text messaging in school children and undergraduate students: A concurrent analysis
Abstract
Recent research has demonstrated that use of texting slang when text messaging does not appear to impact negatively on children and young people's literacy and may even benefit children's spelling attainment. However, less attention has been paid to the impact of text messaging on children's and young people's understanding of grammatical forms. This study examined the interrelationships between 243 children and undergraduate students' grammatical violations made when text messaging and their performance on assessments of spoken and written grammatical understanding, orthographic processing and conventional spelling ability. The children were found to make significantly more capitalisation and punctuation errors, and to use unconventional punctuation more frequently that the adults, when the length of their messages was taken into account. For the primary and secondary school children there was no relationship between the tendency to make grammatical violations when texting and their understanding of conventional grammar or orthography. For the young adult sample, there was some evidence of an association between the tendency to make capitalisation and punctuation errors when texting, and poorer performance in selecting the grammatically correct orthographic representation of a pseudoword. This relationship remained after controlling for individual differences in undergraduates' IQ and spelling ability. Overall, there is little evidence that ungrammatical texting behaviour is linked to grammatical understanding or knowledge of orthographic representations of language in children. However, there is some evidence that young adults' violation of grammatical conventions when texting may be linked to limited understanding of grammatically-related orthographic conventions.
... As textisms are informal (unconventional spelling and grammatical shortcuts) and differ significantly from standardized English words or phrases in terms Frontiers in Psychology 04 frontiersin.org of orthography and spelling rules, there is concern that the long-term use of textisms may have a negative impact on children's normative literacy skills. A number of studies have examined the relationship between children's use of textisms and normative literacy, but most of them have demonstrated that children who use textisms more often score higher on literacy-related assessments (Waldron et al., 2015;Blom et al., 2017); these literacy skills include: word reading (Plester et al., 2009;Coe and Oakhill, 2011), phonological awareness (Plester et al., 2009;Wood et al., 2014) and spelling (Plester et al., 2009;Bushnell et al., 2011;Wood et al., 2014). Most textisms appear to be homophonous variant of standard English vocabularies, which implies that, for net-speak experienced speakers, English net-speak is closely related to standard words in the individual's psychological vocabularies, so that high proficiency in English net-speak implies high proficiency in standard English. ...
... As textisms are informal (unconventional spelling and grammatical shortcuts) and differ significantly from standardized English words or phrases in terms Frontiers in Psychology 04 frontiersin.org of orthography and spelling rules, there is concern that the long-term use of textisms may have a negative impact on children's normative literacy skills. A number of studies have examined the relationship between children's use of textisms and normative literacy, but most of them have demonstrated that children who use textisms more often score higher on literacy-related assessments (Waldron et al., 2015;Blom et al., 2017); these literacy skills include: word reading (Plester et al., 2009;Coe and Oakhill, 2011), phonological awareness (Plester et al., 2009;Wood et al., 2014) and spelling (Plester et al., 2009;Bushnell et al., 2011;Wood et al., 2014). Most textisms appear to be homophonous variant of standard English vocabularies, which implies that, for net-speak experienced speakers, English net-speak is closely related to standard words in the individual's psychological vocabularies, so that high proficiency in English net-speak implies high proficiency in standard English. ...
... Internet chatting activities ranked second in teens' Internet use in China (CNNIC, 2021), which means that teens have a lot of opportunities to use net-speak in Internet communication, and as researchers have pointed out, most teens are not satisfied with normative words and use net-speak more frequently in their Internet communication (Grace et al., 2012;Drouin and Driver, 2014;Wood et al., 2014). Clearly, the more frequently the Internet is used and the more experienced the teens are in using it, especially with the frequent use of communication mediated by Internet information technology, the more experienced they are in net-speak. ...
To examine the complex relationship between Internet use experience and character spelling performance among Chinese junior high school students, the study explored the multiple mediating roles of Pinyin input proficiency and net-speak experience. A total of 447 Chinese junior high school students aged 12–15 years old completed the Internet Use Experience and Pinyin Input Proficiency Assessment, the Net-speak Experience Questionnaire and the Chinese Spelling Test. The results showed that: (1) All investigated variables were significantly correlated with each other, but there was no direct relationship between Internet use and Chinese spelling performance. (2) Pinyin input proficiency and net-speak experience play a chain mediating role in the relationship between Internet use and Chinese character spelling performance. Teens’ Internet use experience indirectly and positively predicted Chinese character spelling performance through the mediation of Pinyin input method use and net-speak experience. The implication of this study is that Chinese children should be guided to engage in Internet activities that require Pinyin typing and use net-speak creatively in order to promote the traditional Chinese character spelling skills when instructing teenagers to engage in Internet activities.
... The writing style of text messages in English has been widely described by Thurlow and Brown (2003), Crystal (2008), , Kemp and Bushnell (2011), and De Jonge and Kemp (2012), Wood et al. (2014), Waldron et al. (2016) and Kemp and Grace (2017). The present work takes as major references the classifications of textisms provided by Lyddy et al. (2014) and Wood et al. (2014), which are based on previous classifications by De Jonge and Kemp (2012) and . ...
... The writing style of text messages in English has been widely described by Thurlow and Brown (2003), Crystal (2008), , Kemp and Bushnell (2011), and De Jonge and Kemp (2012), Wood et al. (2014), Waldron et al. (2016) and Kemp and Grace (2017). The present work takes as major references the classifications of textisms provided by Lyddy et al. (2014) and Wood et al. (2014), which are based on previous classifications by De Jonge and Kemp (2012) and . The classification used here has been organized by frequency order as follows: disregarded capitalization, accent stylization, letter/number homophones, missing punctuation, contractions, non-standard/phonetic spellings, g clippings, other clippings types, onomatopoeic/exclamatory expressions, shortenings, misspellings, initialisms, semantically unrecoverable words, emoticons, and typographic symbols. ...
... Research on the English language regarding the relationship between communicating by text message and linguistic competence (Drouin and Driver, 2014) has been undetaken according to user age: children ( Blom et al., 2017;Bushnell et al., 2011;Kemp and Bushnell, 2011;Wood et al., 2014), teenagers (Durkin et al., 2011;Gann et al., 2010;Turner et al., 2014), and young undergraduates (De Jonge and Kemp, 2012;Drouin, 2011;Kemp, 2010;Kemp and Grace, 2017;Ling and Baron, 2007;Powell and Dixon, 2011). Research mainly shows no detrimental effects of text messaging Durkin et al., 2011;Gann et al., 2010;Kemp, 2010;Kemp and Bushnell, 2011;Powell and Dixon, 2011;Wood et al., 2014). ...
This study examines undergraduates' perception of usage in smartphone text message and their relationship with the process of learning Spanish spelling. The aim is to establish whether subjects who have become competent language users in a digital environment accept the use of textisms and whether these textisms are perceived differently depending on their phonetic, lexical, and multimodal features. A total of 388 undergraduates from the Faculty of Education Science of the University of Seville participated in a non-experimental study of a descriptive type based on surveys. The data showed that both standard Spanish writing and digital usage coexisted harmoniously in participants' texts. However, a clear difference was established between textisms that modified Spanish writing rules and those that incorporated new elements not included in standard writing. Whereas textisms which modified the relationship between phonemes and graphemes were considered a challenge to standard writing as well as to academic literacy among young students (12-16), lexical textisms, emoticons, images, and videos were not considered harmful to standard Spanish. The study suggested that evolution of the writing rules set by the Spanish Academy could be influenced by the digital writing habits of young students.
... However, this is in sharp contrast to findings from several studies showing that children who used textese frequently did not perform poorly on spelling and tasks measuring literacy abilities (see [5] for a review). More recently, this research has been expanded to the effect of textese on children's grammar abilities in written language [2,[6][7][8]. Outcomes of some studies suggest a negative influence of textese on grammar [7]. Nevertheless, variability in coding of textese between studies and use of written tasks, which do not strictly represent grammar, may have masked the effect of textese on children's grammar abilities. ...
... As a result, this lack of grammatical conventions might leak into registers other than textese. To the best of our knowledge, only four studies have investigated effects of use of textese on children's use of grammar [2,[6][7][8]. These studies have focused on the use of grammar in written language and have shown mixed results. ...
... Other studies looking into children's grammar abilities did take into account children's message length when analyzing effects of use of textisms. Kemp et al. [7], Wood et al. [2] and Wood et al. [8] all studied the relationship between children's texting behavior based on natural messages sent over a 2-day period and their performance on a grammar assessment. Kemp et al. [7] found that primary school children's (8-10-year old) performance on a grammatical spelling choice task was related to the proportion of grammatical violations they made in their text messages: children who did not perform well on the spelling task made more grammatical violations than children who obtained a better spelling test score. ...
When sending text messages on their mobile phone to friends, children often use a special type of register, which is called textese. This register allows the omission of words and the use of textisms: instances of non-standard written language such as 4ever (forever). Previous studies have shown that textese has a positive effect on children's literacy abilities. In addition, it is possible that children's grammar system is affected by textese as well, as grammar rules are often transgressed in this register. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to investigate whether the use of textese influences children's grammar performance, and whether this effect is specific to grammar or language in general. Additionally, studies have not yet investigated the influence of textese on children's cognitive abilities. Consequently, the secondary aim of this study was to find out whether textese affects children's executive functions. To investigate this, 55 children between 10 and 13 years old were tested on a receptive vocabulary and grammar performance (sentence repetition) task and various tasks measuring executive functioning. In addition, text messages were elicited and the number of omissions and textisms in children's messages were calculated. Regression analyses showed that omissions were a significant predictor of children's grammar performance after various other variables were controlled for: the more words children omitted in their text messages, the better their performance on the grammar task. Although textisms correlated (marginally) significantly with vocabulary, grammar and selective attention scores and omissions marginally significantly with vocabulary scores, no other significant effects were obtained for measures of textese in the regression analyses: neither for the language outcomes, nor for the executive function tasks. Hence, our results show that textese is positively related to children's grammar performance. On the other hand, use of textese does not affect-positively nor negatively-children's executive functions.
... Horton et al. (2012) affirmed that using Facebook affects how students spell certain English words. Wood et al. (2014) added that text message language negatively affects students' grammatical construction. Alwagait et al. (2015) studied the effect of social media usage on students' scholastic performance in Saudi Arabia. ...
... This finding is in line with the previous study by Owusu-Acheaw and Larson (2015), which revealed that social media platforms negatively affected students' academic performance. The finding again supports Wood et al. (2014) and Tariq et al. (2012), whose results revealed that text message language affects students' grammatical construction and academic activities since frequent use of social networks consumes their time. However, Chris (2015) found that most students disagree that social media is detrimental to their academic performance. ...
This paper examines the impact of social media use on the academic performance of students in private tertiary institutions in Ghana. The descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. The Valley View University, Oyibi Campus, Accra, was used as a case study. The population for the study was 2,172. The simple random sampling technique was used to sample 388 students. The questionnaire was used to solicit data for the study. 388 copies of the questionnaire were administered to the students. However, 362 copies were filled correctly and used for the analysis. The data were analysed using the IBM Statistical Product and Service Solutions (IBM-SPSS) version 22.0. The findings revealed that entertainment and relaxation, posting pictures and chatting with friends were students' motivators for social media use. The study found out that the frequent use of social media had negatively affected the academic performance of some students. The study recommended that the Management of the University should motivate students to use the various social media platforms for educational activities rather than non-academic ones. The study also suggested that students should be advised to reduce the number of hours spent on social media platforms.
... La técnica empleada fue la revisión de documentación bibliográfica (Gómez, et al., 2014), la cual se realizó a través de dos rúbricas utilizadas en investigaciones previas (Londoño, Ramírez y Garay, 2019;Ramírez, Londoño y Uribe, 2020;Londoño y Uribe, 2021). La rúbrica utilizada con los DP posibilitó la identificación de aspectos textuales (Renkema & Schubert, 2018), estilísticos (Wood, Kemp, Waldron & Hart, 2014) y discursivos (van Eemeren & Grottendosrt, 2016), a través de 15 variables. De igual forma, esta rúbrica permitió una evaluación cualitativa del texto y una conversión numérica para el análisis de la información (Kuckartz, 2014). ...
... Además, es una evidencia de la influencia que sigue teniendo la perspectiva de la retórica moderna (Toulmin, 1958;Perelman y Olbrechs, 1989), en los procesos de argumentación dirigidos en la escuela, los colegios y las universidades (Wood, et al., 2014), donde se entiende que el objetivo de la argumentación es el convencimiento y que la formulación de los argumentos debe ser racional y responder a las circunstancias contextuales del público (Díaz, 2002), aspecto que también se relaciona con la aparición de las falacias argumentativas, en varios casos, por errores enunciativos o de inconstancia discursiva frente a aspectos posiblemente razonables (Zemach & Rumisek, 2016). ...
Este artículo presenta los resultados obtenidos en la descripción de las habilidades retóricas y argumentativas en los derechos de petición interpuestos por estudiantes en el año 2019 en una institución universitaria de Antioquia, Colombia. Para ello se analizaron las cartas descriptivas vigentes de los programas de comprensión y producción textual de dicha Institución cuyos cursos corresponden a los primeros semestres de los diferentes programas académicos y se revisaron 31 textos canónicos y recurrentes, relacionados con la retórica y la argumentación. De allí, se identificaron 6 categorías teóricas y se construyeron a partir de los autores trabajados en las cartas descriptivas analizadas. Posteriormente, se describieron aspectos textuales, estilísticos y discursivos de 40 derechos de petición interpuestos por estudiantes en la institución en mención a través de una rúbrica validada en investigaciones previas. Finalmente, se evidenciaron las categorías teóricas en los DP analizados. Además, se identificaron algunas potencialidades en los aspectos textuales y estilísticos, pero con restricciones discursivas significativas. Palabras clave: argumentación, falacias argumentativas, manipulación discursiva, participación ciudadana 1 Este artículo presenta resultados de la investigación postdoctoral Afianzamiento de las habilidades argumentativas de los jóvenes universitarios de la Facultad de Ciencias Sociales de la Institución Universitaria de Envigado realizada con el Cinde y la Universidad de Manizales (Colombia), la cual se desarrolla en el marco de la investigación Descripción de las habilidades retóricas y argumentativas en los derechos de petición interpuestos por estudiantes en la IUE, realiza en el 2021, bajo el auspicio de la Oficina de Investigaciones de la IUE a través de la modalidad de iniciativa propia.
... However, a number of studies have challenged that assertion. Several studies for the English language and the links between digital norm and linguistic competence proved that use of IM had no prejudicial effects (BUSHNELL; KEMP; MARTIN, 2011;DROUIN, 2011;GANN;BARTOSZUK;ANDERSON, 2010;WOOD;JOSHI, 2009;POWELL;DIXON, 2011;WOOD et al., 2014). Also, Verheijen, Spooren, and Kemenade (2020) concluded that use of language in social networks improved written competence when examined in Dutch students from different education levels. ...
... However, a number of studies have challenged that assertion. Several studies for the English language and the links between digital norm and linguistic competence proved that use of IM had no prejudicial effects (BUSHNELL; KEMP; MARTIN, 2011;DROUIN, 2011;GANN;BARTOSZUK;ANDERSON, 2010;WOOD;JOSHI, 2009;POWELL;DIXON, 2011;WOOD et al., 2014). Also, Verheijen, Spooren, and Kemenade (2020) concluded that use of language in social networks improved written competence when examined in Dutch students from different education levels. ...
This work examines the perception held by pre-service teachers of Spanish in Chile and Argentina of the digital written norm in IM, together with their opinion regarding the influence of textisms on secondary students' acquisition of orthographic competence. The study uses a transactional approach based on surveys and uses and applies a descriptive non-experimental design. Results, when compared with studies for the European Spanish variant, showed that pre-service teachers in Chile and Argentina considered use of textisms as harmful to secondary students' development of orthographic competence, despite their own frequent use of textisms. However, one of the main findings is a certain degree of tolerance of specific types of textisms in digital writing, as was a more integrative approach to those written variables on the part of participants in Argentina.
Abstract Este trabalho examina a percepção que os professores espanhol em formação no Chile e na Argentina têm da norma escrita digital em mensagens instantâneas, juntamente com sua opinião sobre a influência dos textismos na aquisição de competência ortográfica por parte dos alunos do ensino médio. O estudo utiliza uma abordagem transacional baseada em pesquisas e usos e aplica um design descritivo não experimental. Os resultados, quando comparados com estudos da variante espanhola européia, mostraram que professores de pré-serviço no Chile e na Argentina consideraram o uso de textos como prejudicial ao desenvolvimento da competência ortográfica dos alunos do ensino médio, apesar de seu próprio uso frequente de textos. Entretanto, uma das principais conclusões é um certo grau de tolerância de tipos específicos de textos na escrita digital, assim como uma abordagem mais integrativa dessas variáveis escritas por parte dos participantes na Argentina.
... In addition to the fact that all different age groups enter the virtual environment with different densities, young adults aged 18-30 are most active in the virtual environment (Markoc & Sari Haksever, 2019). The main reasons why people are present online are (1) communicating with existing social networks, (2) expanding their social networks (Gastelum & Whattam, 2013), (3) getting news on the agenda (Boyd & Ellison, 2007;Phua et al. ., 2011;Rathnayake & Winter, 2017), (4) to learn about subjects they have not yet experienced (Borja, 2005;Cox & McLeod, 2014), (5) to have a pleasant time, (6) to feed in personal interests (Papic & Noonan) (2001), (7) to develop their creativity (Lau et al., 2016) (Tuan & Tu, 2013;Wood et al., 2014). ...
... SNSs not only provide environments to users to express themselves in their social network but also provide opportunities to organize political activism (Rathnayake & Winter, 2017), transfer public opinion to large firms, increase participation, reduce training costs (Gallego et al., 2016;Papic & Noonan, 2001). SNSs enable young adults to develop themselves in subjects that they have not yet experienced yet (Borja, 2005), conduct research in areas of interest (Cox & McLeod, 2014), increase their creativity (Lau et al., 2016), and develop their language and reading skills (Tuan, 2013;Wood et al., 2014). The person, who actively shares in a group on Social Networking Sites (Cappello, 2019) and follows the lives of others, develops a sense of belonging to that community (Sponcil & Gitimu, 2013;O'Leary, Wilson & Metiu, 2014). ...
Third Places are spaces where people can participate in a social network by discussing everyday events with the community, apart from home or work, as Oldenburg (1989) defined. Coffee shops, libraries, parks, and open spaces are the third classically defined places by Ray Oldenburg. According to the definition of Oldenburg; It is neutral, inclusive, communicative, and accessible, has regular goers, prominent with social ties, and gives the feeling of fun and comfort of the house. Along with developing internet technologies, virtual environments have emerged that match Oldenburg's definition. By creating profiles on social networking sites, people can follow or share topics of interest to them. Twitter, a social networking site (SNS), provides users with a virtual environment that allows them to talk and discuss with other users. This study aims to consider Twitter in the context of Oldenburg's Third Place Theory. In this context, firstly, the concept of third place is defined in the literature. Then, the usage areas of virtual media and social networking sites and the opportunities they offer to the people are revealed. As a case study, the extent to which the virtual environment provided by Twitter provides the opportunity for the Third Place concept, and it conforms to the parameters defined by Oldenburg, was discussed. Twitter meets the eight features of Oldenburg’s third place. In the context of long distances, economic crises, limited time and the opportunities offered by technology; it has been demonstrated that interest in the virtual environments for the third place and socialization needs of the people will increase gradually.
... Scientific results differ, as: (a) No negative impact has been found. The authors show that the users have a pluricompetence to switch between traditional and digital writing according to the register (e.g.: Anderson & Elsner, 2014;Bernicot, Goumi, Bert-Erboul, & Volckaert-Legrier, 2014;De Jonge & Kemp, 2012;Maskens, Cougnon, Roekhaut, & Fairon, 2015;Plester, Wood, & Joshi, 2009;Wood, Jackson, Plester, & Wilde, 2009;Wood, Kemp, Waldron, & Hart, 2014) for good spellers (e.g.: Lanchantin, Simoës-Perlant & Largy, 2012a;Plester, Wood, & Bell, 2008;Powell & Dixon, 2011). (b) Some authors showed that nothing can be concluded for bad spellers as some modifications can be confused with misspellings (Bouillaud, Chanquoy, & Gombert, 2007;Febvrel & Hureau, 2008;Lanchantin et al., 2012a). ...
... Our results add another argument to the claim that digital writing is not responsible of the deterioration of traditional writing. This is because no connection between the use of digital writing and the quality of spelling production is shown (De Jonge & Kemp, 2012;Plester et al., 2008;Powell & Dixon, 2011;Wood et al., 2009;Wood et al., 2014). ...
The increased use of digital writing led to the appearance of written content that may differ from the standards of spelling. Writing instant messages leads to the production of two different types of written forms that differ from standard spelling: (a) those that can be confused with misspellings and (b) those that cannot. We showed that the production of the second type of modifications has no effect on spelling production. Our research protocol allowed comparing two corpora (written in 1974 and 2012). These results showed that when a modification has no orthographic equivalent, its use cannot damage the quality of spelling production. When it does, the effect on spelling may be negative.
... Bernicot, Goumi, Bert-Erboul, and Volckaert-Legrier (2014) started from a natural corpus of texts written by French-speaking pre-adolescents to show the same findings. Partially confirming these results, Wood, Kemp, Waldron, and Hart (2014a) showed no link at all about the use of modification and grammatical and spelling levels for children, but a negative correlation among adult students. This would mean that population specifics are key, as writers' spelling levels seem to be highly important. ...
... For example, Plester, Wood, and Bell (2008) mention in the conclusion of their study that there may be no deleterious effect for good spellers (after having analyzed performance in a translation exercise, from sentences to texts and vice versa). These results have to be completed with studies showing that the use of modification is positively correlated to high skills in literacy (e.g., Drouin & Davis, 2009;Kemp, 2010;Wood, Jackson, Plester, & Wilde, 2009;Wood et al., 2014a;Wood, Kemp, & Waldron, 2014b) or that the higher the literacy level, the more modification produced in DW (Drouin, 2011;Kemp & Bushnell, 2011;Wood, Jackson, Hart, Plester, & Wilde 2011b;Wood et al., 2011). ...
It is hard to make a clear status about the link between instant messaging and spelling. We dug into 2 areas that found no clear answer in the literature. In a first study, we compared the amount of modified words produced in instant messaging by French and American adolescents (both orthographies are opaque but cultural and economic aspects differ). Results showed the first produced more modified words than the latter. These aspects would matter to explain the amount of modified words. In a second study, we compared the amount of misspellings on paper and modified pseudo-words in instant messaging. There were 3 groups (made of good and poor French spellers) for 3 exposure phases (12 weeks): not exposed to instant messaging; exposed during 6 weeks; exposed during 12 weeks. Results showed poor spellers produced more misspellings than good spellers-only for the second group. There would be a risk for poor spellers whose spelling is being consolidated. Resumo É difícil estabelecer um status claro sobre o link entre mensagens instantâneas e ortografia. Nós cavamos em 2 áreas que não encontraram nenhuma resposta clara na literatura. Em um primeiro estudo, comparamos a quantidade de palavras modificadas produzidas em mensagens instantâneas por adolescentes franceses e americanos (as duas ortografias são opacas, mas os aspectos culturais e econômicos são diferentes). Os resultados mostraram que o primeiro produziu mais palavras modificadas que o segundo. Esses aspectos seriam importantes para explicar a quantidade de palavras modificadas. Em um segundo estudo, comparamos a quantidade de erros ortográficos no papel e modificamos pseudo-palavras em mensagens instantâneas. Havia 3 grupos (compostos de bons e maus spellers franceses) por 3 fases de exposição (12 semanas): não expostos a mensagens instantâneas; exposto durante 6 semanas; expostos durante 12 semanas. Os resultados mostraram que os soletradores fracos produziram mais erros ortográficos do que bons soletradores-apenas para o segundo grupo. Haveria um risco para os soletradores pobres, cuja ortografia está sendo consolidada. Palavras-chave: ortografia, adolescente, mensagens de texto, mensagens instantâneas 3
... La norma escrita en las conversaciones de WhatsApp de estudiantes universitarios de posgrado que la bibliografía especializada en general no encuentra relación entre ambos fenómenos o los asocia positivamente en el contexto de las lenguas inglesa y francesa (Bouillaud, Chanquoy y Gombert, 2007;Plester, Wood y Bell, 2008;Durkin, Conti-Ramsden y Walker, 2011;Kemp y Bushnell, 2011;Wood et al., 2011;Bernicot et al., 2014;Lanchantin, Simoës-Perlant y Largy, 2014;Turner, Abrams, Katíc y Donovan, 2014;Wood et al., 2014). En el caso del español, esta idea se refuerza por la evidencia de que algunos textismos recogidos en la tabla 1 coinciden con las faltas de ortografía más frecuentes de nuestra lengua; por ejemplo, la omisión de las tildes o la supresión de h y de los signos de puntuación (Real Academia Española y Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, 2010). ...
... Con respecto a la comprensión lectora, Drouin (2011) aprecia que quienes envían mensajes de texto suelen ser lectores hábiles, aunque el uso de textismos en determinados contextos no tiene una relación positiva con la alfabetización. En el mismo sentido, el estudio de Wood et al. (2014) encuentra algunas evidencias de que los mensajes de texto que se escriben alterando las estructuras sintácticas de la lengua inglesa se relacionan con una comprensión limitada de las convenciones ortográficas asociadas con la gramática. ...
The objective of this study is to analyze the characteristics of written norms in the synchronic digital conversations of graduate students at Universidad de Sevilla, and the relation to academic writing. To reach this end, an examination was made of 529 of the students’ WhatsApp chats and 38 of their academic texts. The textual analysis showed that the digital norm they utilized was characterized by the use of textisms and by the multi-modality of texts in a significantly smaller proportion than among younger and less-educated individuals, with no impact on the appearance of spelling errors in academic writing. In conclusion, the digital norm among adult graduate students is characterized by a progressive approach to standard writing in Spanish and is not related to an increase in spelling errors in formal texts.
... Further research is providing a more detailed picture of how texting relates to grammar. Wood, Kemp, Waldron, et al. (2014) developed a coding system that identified all the textisms that violated grammatical conventions. The categories included unconventional orthographic forms (e.g., smiley faces for punctuation), capitalization and punctuation errors (e.g., im for I'm), word reduction textisms (e.g., hafta, wanna), word omission (e.g., Coming too?), the incorrect use of grammatical homonyms (e.g., there for their), and the use of ungrammatical word forms (e.g., is you going? for are you going?). ...
... Wood, Kemp, Waldron, et al. (2014) collected examples of naturalistic sent text messages from primary school, secondary school, and adult cohorts at the start of a one-year period. When the data collected at the start of the study were analyzed, it was found that the proportion of grammatical errors in children's sent text messages was not significantly related to their performance on two tasks of grammatical skill, although it was negatively correlated with scores on one of the tasks in adults. ...
This chapter provides an overview of the current research on the use of text messaging and its relation to specific academic abilities, including spelling, reading, phonology, grammar, and general literacy skills. It discusses adult and child cohorts separately because of the striking differences that have been found between the two groups, and some suggestions are provided as to why these differences might exist. “Textese” is a term used to describe the abbreviated or slang format that many people use while texting. In methodological terms, the researchers who have studied the use of texting and textisms have used a variety of task types. These include self-report, translation studies, scenario studies, and naturalistic studies. Given that textism use is related to spelling, and spelling contributes to general writing ability, future researchers could consider the links between texting and general writing skill in more detail.
... This is supported by a study conducted by Horton, Alloway, and Dawson (2012) which revealed that the use of Facebook had an effect on the spelling of some of the students. Wood et al (2014), in another study also noted that the use of texting language harms the grammatical understanding of students. ...
... This is also supported by Horton, Alloway, and Dawson (2012), whose study revealed that the use of Facebook had an effect on the spelling of some of the students. Wood et al (2014), in another study also noted that the use of texting language harms the grammatical understanding of students. ...
This study looks at social media network participation and academic performance in senior high schools. The study was aimed at identifying social media network sites and their usage among students, how students networked and participated on social media networks, time invested by students on social networks, the effects of social media on students’ grammar and spelling as well as the effects of social network participation on the student’s academic performance within the context of the social learning and the use and gratification theories.
To achieve the objectives of the research, the study used a mixed method approach which involved the survey of students in four senior high schools and interviews of heads of the senior high schools. The study revealed that majority of respondents used Whatsapp and Facebook for making friends and chatting. In addition, majority of respondents experienced negative effects such as poor grammar and spelling, late submission of assignment, less study time and poor academic performance due to the heavy participation on social media networks. Furthermore, there was a high addiction rate among students in the usage of social media networks. Nevertheless, there were cases where others experienced improvement in their readings skills as a result of participation on social media networks. Also, respondents shared ideas, discussed and shared examination questions among themselves on social media networks.
The study recommended the strict enforcement of Ghana Education Service rule on electronic devices usage in schools, promotion of social media usage for academic purpose, counselling for addicted students and the use of the right grammar and spelling when participating on social networks.
... Horton, Alloway, and Dawson (2012) found compromised spelling skills among students due to Facebook usage. Wood, Kemp, Waldron, and Hart (2014) observed a decline in grammatical understanding among students who frequently use texting language. Nonetheless, Mehmood and Taswir (2013) also noted that students who actively engage on social media networks tend to have improved reading abilities, as reported by a significant portion of respondents in their study. ...
Recent trends show that students are increasingly ignoring their academics, raising concerns about the impact of social media on academic achievement. This study investigated social media's impact on the academic achievement of pre-service teachers at colleges in the Northern Region of Ghana. A quantitative descriptive survey design was used for the study. Through convenience sampling strategy, 272 pre-service teachers were selected from three Colleges of Education, out of a total target population of 1,483. Data collection was done using questionnaires. The results highlighted that students commonly utilize social media platforms to access course-related materials, yet it was observed that social media usage has led to a reduction in study hours and sleep duration. Furthermore, significant gender disparities were identified in the effects of social media. To address these issues, it was recommended that guidance and counseling services be enhanced to better support students in managing their academic pursuits and sleep patterns amidst the influence of social media.
... Horton, Alloway, and Dawson (2012) found compromised spelling skills among students due to Facebook usage. Wood, Kemp, Waldron, and Hart (2014) observed a decline in grammatical understanding among students who frequently use texting language. Nonetheless, Mehmood and Taswir (2013) also noted that students who actively engage on social media networks tend to have improved reading abilities, as reported by a significant portion of respondents in their study. ...
Recent trends show that students are increasingly ignoring their academics, raising concerns about the impact of social media on academic achievement. This study investigated social media's impact on the academic achievement of pre-service teachers at colleges in the Northern Region of Ghana. A quantitative descriptive survey design was used for the study. Through convenience sampling strategy, 272 pre-service teachers were selected from three Colleges of Education, out of a total target population of 1,483. Data collection was done using questionnaires. The results highlighted that students commonly utilize social media platforms to access course-related materials, yet it was observed that social media usage has led to a reduction in study hours and sleep duration. Furthermore, significant gender disparities were identified in the effects of social media. To address these issues, it was recommended that guidance and counseling services be enhanced to better support students in managing their academic pursuits and sleep patterns amidst the influence of social media.
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... Previous research on the relationship between text messages and grammar revealed diverging results. Some cautioned against the transgressions of grammatical patterns in texting (Wood et al., 2014), while others advocated grammatical advancement through texting (Moghari & Marandi, 2017;Ruge, 2012). However, texting was found to improve vocabulary in previous studies (Baleghizadeh & Oladrostam, 2010;Moore & Cuevas, 2021). ...
Limited opportunities for language practice, especially productive skills, have constantly been a concern voiced by language learners. Recent technological advancements have addressed this need through mobile applications. One such application is Tandem: Language Exchange , bringing together language learners with similar goals worldwide to practice their language of interest. To this end, this review evaluated the app in focus: An introduction, utilizing the technology for language teaching and challenges in using the technology for language teaching, and a conclusion. Following this framework, the evaluation revealed that the app provided customized learning preferences and fostered productive skills practice, multimodal feedback, and intercultural awareness. However, the misuse of the app, the participants’ linguistic expertise, the potential emergence of cultural issues, and data security raised concerns over its use. Ultimately, the review recommended the app as an educational opportunity and an entertaining digital learning environment.
... For example, while people across the adult lifespan now use mobile messaging apps, younger adults exhibit a stronger preference for such texting compared to older adults (Pew Research Center 2015). Research shows differences in the manner of usage as well: children commonly use textese and textism (omission of words and nonstandard, abbreviated use of words) when communicating with others through online texting, although this usage does not have a negative impact on their grammar and other literacy abilities, or executive function abilities (Plester et al 2009;van Dijk et al 2016;Wood et al 2014). Older adults often prefer specific addressee details and no emoticons (Kuerbis et al 2017). ...
Technology has transformed how people interact with one another. According to two recent Pew Research Center surveys (2021a; 2021b), 97 per cent of United States adults have a cell phone, 85 per cent have a smartphone, 93 per cent use the Internet, and 77 per cent have broadband Internet access at home. The Internet has opened countless doors by providing unprecedented access to information and connecting people. While we know from laboratory research that context and collaboration can influence memory, little is known about how virtual collaboration affects memory and whether in-person studies generalise to virtual contexts. In this article, we discuss the challenges, value, and broader relevance of extending laboratory-based memory research to online platforms. In doing so, we report a virtual collaborative memory paradigm , where we examine individual and social remembering in a fully online, chat-based setting, and present data from two completely virtual experiments. In Experiment 1, online participants studied a word list and, in a chatroom, recalled the words either alone (as controls) or with two other participants. Surprisingly, collaborative inhibition – the robust finding of lower recall in collaborative groups than controls – disappeared. This outcome occurred because participants who worked alone recalled less than what we see in in-person studies. In Experiment 2, where instructions were modified and an experimenter was present, individual performance improved, resulting in collaborative inhibition. We reflect on the contextualised nature of this effect in online settings, for both collaborative and individual remembering, and on the implications for the study of memory in the digital age.
... It turns out that texting and writing on social media hurts kids. Wood et al. (2014) found this out. Mehmood and Taswir (2013) found that students' use of social media influences their writing. ...
The study aimed to determine the impact of social media language (also known as net language) on the formal writing skills of Mount Mary College of Education students. This study involved a total of 150 students, 60 of whom were males and 90 of whom were females, who were studying English language and French at the time of the study. The study employed a phenological research design, and a purposive sample technique was used to choose the thirty (30) participants that took part in it. The responses were mark quiz papers and group tasks, and the results were analysed. The study concluded that when people write individually, social media does have an impact on their formal writing. Students who work in groups, on the other hand, are not affected by this. Another finding of the survey was that respondents employ a wide range of social media lingo, including clipping, abbreviation, alphanumeric homophony, vowel deletion, graphone, and other slang terms, among other things. According to the results of the survey, most people type in social media or internet language when they communicate on social media to make it easier for them to communicate.
... A study conducted by Alloway et al. (2013), revealed that the use of Facebook had an effect on the spelling of some students. Also, in another study, Wood et al. (2014), noted that the use of texting language harms the grammatical understanding of students. It can also result in miscommunication because writing can be lacking in the opportunities for expression, explanation and clarification that are found in face-to-face interactions (Wang, 2011). ...
This research determines the relationship between the paragraph writing performance and the social media exposure of the pre-service teachers of the College of Teacher Education at Cagayan State University located in the Northern Philippines. The respondents are fourth year college students who specialize in TLE, English, Social Science and Mathematics. Through a descriptive quantitative research design, this research finds out that the pre-service teachers need improvement in mechanics, grammar, vocabulary and language use. Respondents who are generally exposed to social media once or twice a week, who use mostly their mobile phones at home in accessing the Facebook and messenger for searching different sources for information and learning prove to help improve their written outputs especially in their grammar and writing mechanics.
... Некоторое время назад также были популярны работы, в которых изучались текстовое поведение в социальных сетях, а именно использование текстизмов (например, «4 you», «2 you», «2 B or not to be»), и связь текстового поведения с навыками чтения, грамотностью и т.д. Было показано, что, несмотря на популярность в англоязычных СМИ мнения об увлечении текстизмами как об опасной тенденции для литературного развития и грамотности детей, исследования не подтверждают эту точку зрения (Wood et al., 2014). Результаты показывают, что дети, использующие больше текстизмов, демонстрируют лучшие способности в вербальных рассуждениях и орфографии, лучше читают, имеют больший словарный запас (Plester et al., 2008(Plester et al., , 2009). ...
The article examines the relationship between characteristics of text messages, composed by users of social network (VKontakte), and intelligence. The analysis is conducted on the regional level: we compared the regional IQ with the text parameters averaged over the users living in one region. The text parameters include formal, grammatical and emotional indexes. The regional IQ is computed as an average z-score of the Unified State Examination score (high school entrants, 2018) and IQ score of the attendees to the volunteer military service. Four text parameters that can be considered as markers of the text cognitive complexity (mean word length, mean sentence length, percent of the parenthetic words and phrases, percent of the simple propositions) predicted regional IQ independently and explained 60% of its variance. Emotional index correlates with regional IQ, but does not predict regional IQ independently of cognitive complexity markers. Moreover, we revealed correlations between regional IQ and literacy of VKontakte users. The significancy of these results is creating the new IQ measure, which allows evaluating regional IQ and its dynamics by means of text analysis. The method has an advantage over the traditional psychometric IQ measures in this field of research. © 2021 National Research University Higher School of Economics. All rights reserved.
... A number of studies have sought to establish the taxonomy of textisms in digital communication in the languages that bear some relation to the Portuguese. In the context of the English language, Plester et al. (2009), de Jonge and Kemp (2012), Lyddy et al. (2014), and Wood et al. (2014) offer a full account of the differential traits of writing in text messages. The same can be said of the French language, in particular the studies conducted by Bouillaud et al. (2007) and Bernicot et al. (2014). ...
... Similarly, iGens' frequent use of shorthand in text messages has come to invade their academic writing (C. Wood, Kemp, Waldron, & Hart, 2014). It also appears that elementary, high school, and college students' ability to engage in quality discussions is suffering and can benefit significantly from direct intervention (Murphy et al., 2018). ...
The purpose of this article is to look anew at the concepts of reading, reading development, and reading research as they exist beyond the boundaries of the “science of reading” controversy. The context for this reconceptualization is reading in the digital age and the challenges that today’s readers confront daily. Those challenges include information saturation, the proliferation of misleading and malicious online content, the struggle to use valid evidence to support claims, and the tendency to treat complex issues in an overly simplistic fashion. How these concerns pertain to the ongoing “science of reading” debate is also considered. The author concludes with an overview of three recommendations for addressing the challenges faced by readers in this digital age. If they are to be realized, these recommendations require the consolidated effort of reading researchers, reading educators, school leaders, parents, policymakers, and students themselves.
... As a matter of fact, Wood et al. (2014a) argue that new media and technology including short message service (SMS), instant messaging (IM) and texting, and the use of slangs do not seem to ...
The aim is to assess the impact of YouTube videos about academic writing and its skills on the writing performance of students. Theoretical perspectives from constructivism and associated learning models are used to inform the purpose of the research. The contextual setting is matriculation students awaiting admission to higher institutions. The population is 40 students belonging to a class aimed at assisting disadvantaged students in their academic writing in Scottsville, Province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The students are broken into two groups-control/traditional teaching and the treatment/YouTube facilitated groups. Consequently, a dominant qualitative approach is adopted using focus group discussion, interviews and tests to identify underlying patterns, methods and approaches to best fit academic writing guides and videos to improve user experiences of the media for academic writing. The fundamental results show that positive characterisations of user experiences include innovation, surprise, playfulness and stimulation whereas the narratives that are not satisfying are categorised as dissatisfaction, frustration, dissolution, disappointment, anger, confusion and irritation. Ultimately, the major findings of the research have the potential to improve user experiences on the platform by highlighting how and when the positive and negative experiences of users occur and a mapping of the differences in the academic writing performance between the two groups and best practices. Finally, the results have implications for pedagogy-the fitting of YouTube videos to academic writing instruction.
... Earlier studies on texting and literacy have just focused mostly on violations of the spelling and representation of individual words in text messages, and the relationship between such violations and other conventional literacy skills, usually spelling and reading (Wood, et al., 2013). There is a need for more research to examine the relations between texting expressions and grammatical understanding, between texting abbreviations and second or foreign language learners, between Internet language and classroom practices, between the modern devices and curriculum expectations, and between the virtual society and language acquisition theory. ...
Al Shlowiy, A. (2014). Texting abbreviations and language learning. International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 7(3), 455-468. ISSN: 1944-6934.
... Harman and Sato (2011) show a negative correlation between number of SMS text messages and academic scores. Wood, Kemp, Waldron, and Hart (2014) find that the text messages of children at both primary and secondary school were rife with grammatical violations. ...
Overindulgence in social networking, in general, and texting, in particular, is much in practice. It is cutting across various population boundaries and has almost assumed an endemic proportion. Its consequential impact on the standard language has acquired greater importance. This paper aims to determine the perceptions and attitudes of English Second Language (ESL) learners at Aligarh Muslim University towards the consequences of texting on Standard English. The data were collected through a five-point scale questionnaire from ninety students who were enrolled at Aligarh Muslim University during the academic year 2010-2011. The respondents completed a 16-item questionnaire. The students from which the data were collected were grouped according to their levels. The results indicate the negative impact of this new usage of the language in breaking the rules of English language and influencing their literacy. Moreover, the questionnaire results from respondents' point of view show that regardless of their heavy use of texting, most respondents have a negative attitude towards texting and they viewed it as a threat to Standard English.
... Harman and Sato (2011) show a negative correlation between number of SMS text messages and academic scores. Wood, Kemp, Waldron, and Hart (2014) find that the text messages of children at both primary and secondary school were rife with grammatical violations. ...
Overindulgence in social networking, in general, and texting, in particular, is much in practice. It is cutting across various population boundaries and has almost assumed an endemic proportion. Its consequential impact on the standard language has acquired greater importance. This paper aims to determine the perceptions and attitudes of English Second Language (ESL) learners at
Aligarh Muslim University towards the consequences of texting on Standard English. The data were collected through a five-point scale questionnaire from ninety students who were enrolled at Aligarh Muslim University during the academic year 2010-2011. The respondents completed a 16-item questionnaire. The students from which the data were collected were grouped according to their levels. The results indicate the negative impact of this new usage of the language in breaking the rules of English language and influencing their literacy. Moreover, the questionnaire results from respondents' point of view show that regardless of their heavy use of texting, most
respondents have a negative attitude towards texting and they viewed it as a threat to Standard English.
... This is also supported by Horton, Alloway, and Dawson (2012), whose study revealed that the use of Facebook had an effect on the spelling of some of the students. Wood et al (2014), in another study also noted that the use of texting language harms the grammatical understanding of students. ...
The study comparatively analyzed social media usage and academic performance in public and private senior high schools. The issue of social media and academic performance has been a very debatable topic with regard to its effect. This study further explores the relation between private and public schools in relation to social media use and academic performance. The objectives of the study was to find out activities performed by students on social media, its effect on spelling during examination, and to find out if participation affected students grades before and after using social media. The study used the survey method to solicit responses from two public senior schools and two private senior high schools. The study revealed that majority of respondents from the private schools used Whatsapp and Facebook more often. Also, respondents from the private schools spent more hours online as compared to counterparts in the public schools. In addition, a higher proportion of respondents from the private schools experienced drop in grades as compared to their counterparts in the public schools. The study therefore recommends a strict enforcement of rules in private schools, counselling for addicted students etc.
... Faulkner and Culwin [9] studied young adults' naturalistic text messaging behavior, finding a message was, on average, 11.05 words, or about 50 characters. Wood et al. [51] studied school children and college undergraduates text messaging behavior, finding that punctuation and capitalization were often omitted, the latter even at the beginning of sentences and for proper nouns. Thus, we find that our phrases were consistent with types of short messages occurring in everyday text messaging use. ...
With the ubiquity of mobile touchscreen devices like smartphones, two widely used text entry methods have emerged: small touch-based keyboards and speech recognition. Although speech recognition has been available on desktop computers for years, it has continued to improve at a rapid pace, and it is currently unknown how today's modern speech recognizers compare to state-of-the-art mobile touch keyboards, which also have improved considerably since their inception. To discover both methods' “upper-bound performance,” we evaluated them in English and Mandarin Chinese on an Apple iPhone 6 Plus in a laboratory setting. Our experiment was carried out using Baidu's Deep Speech 2, a deep learning-based speech recognition system, and the built-in Qwerty (English) or Pinyin (Mandarin) Apple iOS keyboards. We found that with speech recognition, the English input rate was 2.93 times faster (153 vs. 52 WPM), and the Mandarin Chinese input rate was 2.87 times faster (123 vs. 43 WPM) than the keyboard for short message transcription under laboratory conditions for both methods. Furthermore, although speech made fewer errors during entry (5.30% vs. 11.22% corrected error rate), it left slightly more errors in the final transcribed text (1.30% vs. 0.79% uncorrected error rate). Our results show that comparatively, under ideal conditions for both methods, upper-bound speech recognition performance has greatly improved compared to prior systems, and might see greater uptake in the future, although further study is required to quantify performance in non-laboratory settings for both methods.
... Some studies focused on Facebook usage and its positive impact on academic performance (Junco, 2012a;Tuan & Tu, 2013). Many studies found positive impacts of social media and networking on language and reading (Tuan & Tu, 2013;Wood, Kemp, Waldron, & Hart, 2014). ...
This study uses structural equations modeling to test a hypothetical social network model with applications to a sample of 34,896 school children in Abu Dhabi. The main independent constructs in the model are related to children’s attitude with regard to social networking, reasons for using social networks, things done on social networks, and topics used. The dependent constructs cover perceived school performance and social effects of social networking. The study will describe the relations among the various constructs. The effect of other variables, such as parental knowhow, is also investigated. Our work has improved our insight in the social networking model. Results support the idea of reciprocal relations among perceived performance, learning from social networking, and the effect of social networking. Evidence for a model that includes opposite pathways implies that the problem of social networking constructs, its antecedents, and possible consequences should be examined with caution.
... The researchers concluded that these results show that there could be a link between certain aspects of grammatical skill and unconventional grammar use in text messages. In a related study, Wood et al. (2014a) examined similar age groupings of British children, adolescents, and university students in order to concurrently analyse the potential impact of textese use on their understanding of grammatical forms. The researchers found that the children's and the adolescents' ungrammatical texting behaviour was not connected to their understanding of grammar. ...
An extensive amount of research has been performed in recent years into the widespread practice of text messaging in youth. As part of this broad area of research, the associations between youth texting and literacy have been investigated in a variety of contexts. A comprehensive, semi-systematic review of the literature into texting and literacy was conducted, with a particular focus on quantitative empirical studies. Media reports, teacher surveys, and qualitative studies were also taken into consideration as part of this wide-ranging examination of previous research into this phenomenon. There were no clear positive or negative links discovered between adolescent texting practices and literacy, with the research findings in this study area best summarized as mixed and inconclusive. More studies in this research area are required, especially of an experimental or longitudinal kind. In addressing the debate on the impact of texting on literacy, research analyses as well as media reports would benefit from a more balanced presentation of existing findings.
... Some findings indeed suggest negative associations between texting measures and literacy related outcomes (Plester, Wood, & Bell, 2008;Wood, Kemp, & Waldron, 2014) and grammatical abilities (Cingal & Sundar, 2012;Kemp, Wood, & Waldron, 2014). However, most studies show positive correlations between texting measures and literacy outcomes and demonstrates that children who text more and use more textese score better at assessments of literacy skills (Bernicot, Goumi, Bert-Erboul, & Volckaert-Legrier, 2014;Bushnell, Kemp, & Martin, 2011;Coe & Oakhill, 2011;Plester et al., 2008;Plester, Lerkkanen, Linjama, Rasku-Puttonen, & Littleton, 2011;Plester, Wood, & Joshi, 2009;Wood, Meachem, Bowyer, Jackson, Tarczynski-Bowles, & Plester, 2011;Wood, Jackson, Hart, Plester, & Wilde, 2011; see also Verheijen, 2013; for an overview) and no (Wood, Kemp, & Waldron, 2014;Wood, Kemp, Waldron, & Hart, 2014b) or positive associations between texting measures and grammatical skills (Van Dijk, van Witteloostuijn, Vasi c, Avrutin, & Blom, 2016). ...
... Pseudoword orthographic choice task (see Wood et al., 2014, for a detailed description). This task assessed participants' ability to understand grammatical spelling rules. ...
An investigation into the impact of predictive text use upon the literacy skills of primary school, secondary school and university cohorts was conducted over the course of a year. No differences in use of text abbreviations (‘textisms’) were found between predictive text users and nonusers. However, secondary school children who used predictive text made more genuine spelling errors than nonusers. Predictive text was related to use of some specific grammatical violations in school-age children's text messages but was not related overall to the tendency to make grammatical errors when texting. University students, however, made significantly fewer grammatical errors in their text messages when they used predictive text. Over the course of a year, predictive text use was variable for all age groups. Consistency of predictive text use was unrelated to grammatical understanding, spelling or orthographic processing for primary and secondary school cohorts. Predictive text use was negatively related to morphological awareness for adult participants.
... Parmi les recherches n'ayant pas mis en évidence de lien entre les compétences littératiennes et l'utilisation de l'écrit numérique,Wood, Kemp, Waldron et Hart (2014) rapportent néanmoins des différences entre enfants et adultes. En effet, leurs résultats soulignent une absence de corrélation chez l'enfant scolarisé mais un lien entre l'emploi de modifications et les niveaux grammatical et orthographique de jeunes étudiants. ...
This paper is about SMS texting and its impact on students' grammatical competence and English performance.
What makes electronics for general use, also referred to as ‘consumer tech’, so widespread and ubiquitous? Digital products and services are ideated, designed and marketed according to four fundamental characteristics: speed, simplicity, customization and gratuity. First, digital technology relates to time in an inverse proportionality ratio. The shorter the interval between the action performed by the user (and the expected result consequential to that action) the higher the level of satisfaction with the service. Second, technology and simplicity are bound together in a direct proportionality ratio. Users’ incompetence ceases to be a limitation with digital products and services; it becomes an asset. Third, digital singularity consists of digital services and products tailored on the needs of individual users. Fourth and finally, gratuity induces consumers to believe that digital technology is affordable and will become cheaper over time. The preference given by consumers to products and services designed according to these four parameters, may be represented as an ‘opportunity cost’, with important consequences on their expectations towards digital technology.KeywordsConsumer techKairologic timeDigital accelerationismInstant gratificationTime povertyTechnostressGenerative AIInfo-polyglotsFool-proof technologyDigital singularityLo-fi technologyDigital lethargy
Handwriting is a perceptual-motor skill, acquired through repetitive practice. Handwriting production is most often characterized by performance speed (also termed ‘production fluency’, often assessed using text-copying tasks and legibility. Studies have found that handwriting legibility develops quickly during first grade (ages 6–7 years), reaching a plateau by second grade. In some cultures, depending on practice level, by third grade, handwriting becomes automatic, organized, and available as a tool to facilitate the development of ideas. However, handwriting is not a straightforward motor skill and has been linked with reading development. Measures of motor proficiency that correlate with handwriting production in school-aged children show an indirect effect on handwriting via reading-related skills, such as orthography, underscoring reading as a mediator of the association between motor proficiency and handwriting production. Many processes are common to reading and writing. In particular, both are related to the acquisition of a common writing system, comprised of symbols, and share common motor procedures, such as those related to directionality. In this chapter, we focus on the practice required for the acquisition of a written symbol, that is, a letter, and to the association between the ability to acquire single letter writing, handwriting, and reading.
This study assesses the negative effect of social media text messaging on the Standard Written English of Nigerian undergraduates. Data is elicited from the written English of undergraduates from the three most popularly used social media websites in Nigeria; namely, Facebook, Whatsapp and Instagram. The data is analyzed using a simple percentage. The results are presented in tabular form. The study reveals that the use of social media text messaging prevalent on social media platforms has impacted negatively, the Standard of written English of Nigerian university undergraduates. The study further observes that the major areas of deviation found in the written English language of the undergraduates include: wrong punctuation, wrong spelling, breaking of concord/agreement rules, code-mixing and code-switching, etc. The study shows that to a large extent, the use of text messages has affected adherence to Standard written English of undergraduates in Nigeria. The study, therefore, recommends that urgent pragmatic measures are needed to curb the problem. Specifically, the study recommends the following measures as checks: to awaken the consciousness of the undergraduates to the importance of the use of the Standard English language in their communication; to urge the media to use its functions as a watchdog of society to sensitize the public and condemn the profuse use of social media text at the expense of the use of Standard English and to enlighten undergraduates to use Standard English in all forms of their formal communication to uphold the continued development of Standard English usage in the universities and society at large.
Cryptography is the art of securing information by applying encryption and decryption on data to be transmitted which ensures that the original message can be understood only by the right person A Random Number Generator (RNG) may be a machine (or) physical device designed to get a sequence of numbers or symbols that lack pattern (i.e.) seem indiscriminately. Computational Intelligence (CI) is one of the popular approaches of Artificial Intelligence (AI). The purpose of CI is used to optimize the complex problems. Optimization is used role in optimizing the objective function. The optimization algorithms are mainly used to optimizing the numerical functions. Swarm Intelligence (SI), can be defined as the searching behavior of intelligent swarms. SI mainly comes under evolutionary computing. Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) is one of the popular swarm intelligent approaches which are used for optimizing the numerical functions to find the best solution out of the solution space. Numerical function optimization plays an important. ABC is also known as population-based search procedure. Also, the original ABC algorithm combines both local search methods and global search methods that are being performed by the employed and onlooker bees for balancing the exploration and exploitation capacity. This paper proposes the concept of evolutionary algorithms, Artificial Bee Colony
Algorithm (ABC). ABC focuses on only the best possible solution. The Random key is generated using ABC which produces a numeric key, it is essential for a key to possess randomness for key strength. The generated random key results produced by this algorithm to be tested for serial test and run test. This technique is observed to give fast and improved performance results having practical and feasible implementation.
Digital technology has an increasing influence on writing processes. In this context, the question arises whether changes in writing mode (i.e., handwriting vs. computer‐keyboard typing) also require changes in writing assessments. However, data directly comparing writing mode influences in children with and without developmental writing deficits are scarce. This study investigated the influence of writing mode in German‐speaking, typically developing children and children with developmental dyslexia (DD) from two different levels. Results showed on a general level that writing mode influenced overall spelling accuracy, writing time, and self‐corrections comparably in children with and without DD. On a rule‐specific level, outcomes for writing time and self‐corrections substantiated these findings. However, as regards spelling accuracy, a mode effect was only apparent for capitalization, whereas other spelling rules were resistant to writing mode influences. Present findings suggest that a mode effect is present only for typing specific aspects (e.g., capitalization) rather than reflecting a general influence on orthographic principles (e.g., grapheme–phoneme assignment, morphologic principles). These mode‐specific aspects seem to comparably affect the writing performance of typically developing children and children with DD. We recommend writing assessments to consider that different writing modes may influence individual spelling rules differently.
Introduction
Text messages are particularly popular among young people. Studies have focused on the links between writers’ unconventional spelling and literacy skills. Creativity gives the possibility to cope with the numerous changes people have to face.
Objective
The present research aimed to examine the relation between the creative potential of texters (text-message writers) and their use of textisms (a change in a word's orthographic form as compared to traditional writing).
Method
Two corpora were compiled: one of 285 elicited text messages and one of 580 naturalistic text messages produced in daily-life situations by undergraduates (n = 29, 20–23 years of age). Two types of textisms were measured: those consistent with traditional written code and those breaking with traditional written code. Four scores of creative potential were considered: graphic divergent thinking, verbal divergent thinking, graphic integrative thinking and verbal integrative thinking.
Results
The results showed negative correlations between the level of creativity and the density of textisms. Overall, texters who were creative in divergent thinking produced fewer textisms breaking with traditional written code.
Conclusion
The results of our study are discussed with regard to the texters’ flexibility and ability to adapt or appropriately address their interlocutor.
The advent of mobile phones has undoubtedly revolutionized the communication process to a large extent, adding to that the overcrowded social media sites and has changed the way people interact with one another. With the introduction of text messaging feature, conversation has become skewed among a large number of youngsters. It has greatly influenced kids and teenagers who view the new add-on as "cool" and become obsessed with it. In less than a decade, teenagers using cell phones and other gadgets such as tablets and laptops have increased considerably. Adolescents like to communicate with their parents over the phone, whereas they love to text to their friends. While texting, the teenagers do not focus on the basic spellings and grammar and even sometimes misspell some words deliberately to appear "cool". This can cause a great damage to their education as some teenagers tend to write in the same way, they text messages. They cannot help it, because after texting messages for a long period of time day in and day out, the writing style is stored in their brain permanently and they commit the mistakes without their knowledge. This research paper deals with the consequences of such a trend. Key Words-Texting and messaging, trend among teenagers, corruptive influence of texting on spelling and grammar, 'cool', impact on education and social interaction.
Extending previous research (Cunningham, 2014), which investigated social network site (SNS) comments composed in digital African American Language (DAAL), this research analyzes text messages composed among three, male DAAL interlocutors. This study draws from grounded theory, content analysis, digital language (DL) research, and linguistics scholarship on African American Language (AAL) in order to examine the patterns and frequencies of AAL and DL features found among 380 text messages. Comparing the text message results to Cunningham (2014)’s SNS findings, this study suggests significant ways that DAAL follows predictable, identifiable, and similar linguistic and paralinguistic patterns.
Spelling variation seems to go hand in hand with grammatical variation in certain historical texts. This article presents a method of quantifying spelling variation as a linguistic variable whose relation with relevant grammatical and contextual variables can be statistically measured. Based on the normalization of the non-standard word forms and the subsequent calculation of edit distance between the normalized and attested word forms, the method is applicable to morphologically tagged historical text corpora and is here tested on an early medieval documentary Latin corpus with notable spelling variation. To justify the proposed method, several methodological issues of both philological and technical nature are discussed. The latter part of the article illustrates the potential of the method by way of a case study on the relationship between spelling variation and the use of non-standard prepositions in documentary Latin and by examining the chronological variation of spelling in its historical context. There appears to be a statistically significant dependence between non-standard spelling and the use of non-standard prepositions. It is also argued that the diachronic spelling distribution may be indicative of a spelling reform, in addition to reflecting an already known administrative change relative to scribal practices. Thus, the proposed method of quantifying spelling variation proves to offer interesting insights into the linguistic and historical reality underlying the text corpus.
Using social media to construct a digital, professional presence for the job search is a necessity in today's labor market. Millennials are skilled in using social media for personal purposes but cannot immediately intuit how to use familiar social media outlets in professional contexts. Writing instructors can guide students in enacting an online, professional presence through digitally mediated communication practices that increasingly are seen as valuable in the workplace. Instead of training students away from using “textese,” instructors should help students develop an abbreviated writing style that is strategic, consistent, and responsive to the needs of their audience. Twitter is the best social media platform in which to help students achieve these learning goals. This chapter provides readers with a description of a capstone, problem-based learning assignment in which students use Twitter to market their professional selves, network, and improve their digital workplace writing skills.
This study analyses the perception of the norm used in text messages among Italian university students, and its effects on the acquisition of orthographic competence in adolescent speakers. 107 graduate students from 48 provinces participated in the survey. Data were collected administering a 39 item ad hoc questionnaire. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to gather construct validity of the developing instrument. The classification for italiano digitato textisms is confirmed by psycometric properties. The qualitative analysis showed a high degree of rejection in the educational context, although this writing norm was not considered as prejudicial to texts drafted by the participants of the study. The results revealed that the participants have a negative assessment of textisms related to the graphic and phonological level, while they accept textisms related to lexical and semantic level. Also, the dialectalisms are confirmed as relevant textisms in Italian digital writing.
Employing an explanatory design, this study set out to investigate the morphosyntactic structures of the SMS language of Communication English I students, and the types of SMS language features used in their written work at a university of technology in South Africa. The study randomly sampled 90 undergraduate students (M = 40; F = 50) enrolled for a national diploma programme during the first academic semester in 2013. Their ages ranged from 19–22 years; they all spoke English as a second language, whilst having one of the five black South African languages as their home language. The study had two types of data: participants’ mobile phone text messages (in two sets), and their writing samples. Two of the findings of the study are: the morphological structure of the textisms used in the participants’ text messages deviated from that applicable to formal, standard English, whereas much of their syntactic structure did not; and, the frequency and proportion of textisms in participants’ writing samples were lower than that reported in studies by Freudenberg (2009) and Rosen et al. (2010).
Research investigating whether people’s literacy skill is being affected by the use of text messaging language has produced largely positive results for children, but mixed results for adults. We asked 150 undergraduate university students in Western Canada and 86 in South Eastern Australia to supply naturalistic text messages and to complete nonword reading and spelling tasks. The Australian students also completed two further real word and nonword reading tasks, a spoonerisms task, a questionnaire regarding their reading history, and a nonverbal reasoning task. We found few significant correlations between literacy scores and both use of textisms (such as u for you) and measures of texting experience. Specifically, textism use was negatively correlated with spelling for the Canadian students, and with scores for timed nonword reading, spoonerisms, and Adult Reading History for the Australian students. Length of phone ownership was negatively correlated with spelling (Canadians), but positively correlated with Word Attack scores (Australians), whereas daily message sending volumes were negatively correlated with Word Attack scores (Australians). Australian students who thought that using textisms was more appropriate had poorer nonword reading and reported having had more difficulty learning to read, than those who found it less appropriate. We conclude that there is inconsistent evidence for negative relationships between adults’ use of textisms and their literacy skills, and that these associations may be influenced by attitudes towards the appropriateness of textism use. A model of the potential relationship between adults’ textism use and literacy skills is presented.
The so called 'net generation' is popularly assumed to be naturally media literate and to be necessarily reinventing conventional linguistic and communicative practices. With this in mind, this essay centres around discursive analyses of qualitative data arising from an investigation of 159 older teenagers' use of mobile telephone text-messaging-or SMS (i.e. short-messaging services). In particular, against a backdrop of media commentaries, we examine the linguistic forms and communicative functions in a corpus of 544 participants' actual text-messages. While young people are surely using their mobile phones as a novel, creative means of enhancing and supporting intimate relationships and existing social networks, popular discourses about the linguistic exclusivity and impenetrability of this particular technologically-mediated discourse appear greatly exaggerated. Serving the sociolinguistic 'maxims' of (a) brevity and speed, (b) paralinguistic restitution and (c) phonological approximation, young people's messages are both linguistically unremarkable and communicatively adept.
The perpetual use of mobile devices by adolescents has fueled a culture of text messaging, with abbreviations and grammatical shortcuts, thus raising the following question in the minds of parents and teachers: Does increased use of text messaging engender greater reliance on such ‘textual adaptations’ to the point of altering one’s sense of written grammar? A survey (N = 228) was conducted to test the association between text message usage of sixth, seventh and eighth grade students and their scores on an offline, age-appropriate grammar assessment test. Results show broad support for a general negative relationship between the use of techspeak in text messages and scores on a grammar assessment, with implications for Social Cognitive Theory and Low-Road/High-Road Theory of Transfer of Learning. These results indicate that adolescents may learn through observation in communication technologies, and that these learned adaptations may be transferred to standard English through Low-Road transfer of learning. Further mediation analyses suggest that not all forms of textual adaptation are related to grammar assessment score in the same way. ‘Word adaptations’ were found to be negatively related to grammar scores, while ‘structural adaptations’ were found to be non-significant.
While instant messaging (IM) via computers is well entrenched in the United States, text messaging on mobile phones is a more recent technology in America. To investigate the emergence of American texting, this study compared text messages and IMs produced by American college students with respect to transmission length, emoticons and lexical shortenings, and sentential punctuation. We examine our findings in light of other statistical studies of texting and IM, and with respect to personal computer use in the United States that predates text messaging.
Background The fastest growing market of mobile phone users has been reported to be pre-teen children and the Ofcom Media Literacy Audit (2006) of over 1500 UK children reported that 49% of 8-11 year olds had their own mobile phone. However, whilst the expanding availability of this technology is apparent, its effects upon its users are not as clear. Questions have been raised about the effect of text messaging on standard literacy, and answered largely through speculation and anecdote. Detailed, objective answers to this question have important implications for the education of school age users of mobile technologies. There has been much media speculation regarding the effect that texting may have upon children's literacy (see Crystal, 2008). Many have reported unintentional intrusions of abbreviations used in texting (so-called 'textisms') in inappropriate contexts, an issue particularly cited in relation to children's school work (BBC, 2005). Thurlow (2006) has reported a critical discourse analysis of over 100 media articles focused on texting, drawing out several themes of high profile concern to the journalists. The flavour of these was decidedly negative and often exaggerated, published with little regard to the actual uses of text messaging. This gives cause for concern, as influential media articles could be used to inform educational policy decisions in the absence of empirical evidence. We argue that texting allows children to experiment with language in an informal and playful manner. Indeed, Crystal (2006) describes this light hearted use of language as ludic, language play freed from the heavy constraints of standard language. Experimentation may enhance the development of key skills involved in the acquisition of literacy. Texting sees children explicitly demonstrating an understanding of how words can be manipulated, segmented and blended to allow for succinct and successful communication. Indeed, many of the abbreviations that children use when texting are phonological reductions, such as 'wot' and 'nite'. This form of abbreviation suggests the role that phonological awareness - awareness of the sound structures in spoken language - may play in mastering text language. Phonological awareness is consistently associated with success in literacy development (Adams, 1990). Arguably, the word play that children have in texting offers a rudimentary and informal learning platform from which they can develop sensitivity, confidence and flexibility with phonology and orthography, which may in turn benefit developing literacy skills.
This article presents an analysis of Instant Messaging (IM), a one-to-one synchronous medium of computer-mediated communication. Innumerable articles in the popular press suggest that increasing use of IM by teens is leading to a break- down in the English language. The analyses presented here are based on a unique corpus involving 72 teenagers and over a million words of natural, unmonitored IM. In addition, a corpus of speech from the same teenagers is examined for comparison. Targeting well-known IM features and four areas of grammar, we show that IM is firmly rooted in the model of the extant language. It reflects the same structured heteroge- neity (variation) and the same dynamic, ongoing processes of linguistic change that are currently under way in contemporary varieties of English. At the same time, IM is a unique new hybrid register, exhibiting a fusion of the full range of variants from the speech community—formal, informal, and highly vernacular. Teenagers in the early twenty-first century are using home com- puters for communication at unprecedented rates in ever-expanding virtual communities. A particularly favorite medium, at least when we conducted this research, was Instant Messaging (IM). IM is "a one-to-one synchronous form of computer-mediated communication" (Baron 2004, 13). It is "direct, immediate, casual online contact" (Schiano et al. 2002). In essence, IM is real-time "interactive written discourse" (Ferrara, Brunner, and Whittemore
The Net Generation has adopted textisms as shortcuts in electronic communication. Two studies investigated whether the reported use of textisms in daily electronic communication is related to the quality of writing. Seven hundred and eighteen young adults were queried about how often they used linguistic and contextual textisms, instant messaging, monthly cell minutes, and monthly text messaging. In Study 1 they wrote a formal letter to a company and in Study 2 they were asked to write both a formal letter and provide an informal writing sample on happiness. Textism use was quite low, a finding that was consistent with previous research on texting and instant messaging. The data reflected negative associations between reported textism use in daily communications and formal writing and positive associations between textisms use and informal writing. These relationships varied by gender and level of education, varying most strongly among those without a college education. The results are discussed in terms of Low-Road/ High-Road Transfer of Situated Learning Theory.
Written communication in instant messaging, text messaging, chat, and other forms of electronic communication appears to have
generated a “new language” of abbreviations, acronyms, word combinations, and punctuation. In this naturalistic study, adolescents
collected their instant messaging conversations for a 1-week period and then completed a spelling test delivered over instant
messaging. We used the conversations to develop a taxonomy of new language use in instant messaging. Short-cuts, including
abbreviations, acronyms, and unique spellings were most prevalent in the instant message conversation, followed by pragmatic
signals, such use of emoticons, emotion words, and punctuation, and typographical and spelling errors were relatively uncommon.
With rare exceptions, notably true spelling errors, spelling ability was not related to use of new language in instant messaging.
The taxonomy provides an important tool for investigating new language use and the results provide partial evidence that new
language does not have a harmful effect on conventional written language.
KeywordsSpelling-Instant messaging
The relationships of self-reported text messaging frequency and knowledge of text message abbreviations with spelling ability were investigated. Two studies were conducted in which the college student participants provided self-reports of text messaging frequency, responded to a test of knowledge of text message abbreviations, and completed a standardized spelling test. In both studies, self-reported text messaging frequency was not predictive of scores on the spelling test. Knowledge of text message abbreviations was positively correlated with spelling scores. In the second study, spelling ability was positively correlated with processing time to identify abbreviations as real. The results were not consistent with the idea that better knowledge of text messaging is predictive of lower spelling ability. Instead, individuals with better knowledge of abbreviations tended to be better spellers.
Growth curve analyses showed that (a) word-level phonological and orthographic awareness show greatest growth during the primary grades but some additional growth thereafter, and (b) three kinds of morphological awareness show greatest growth in the first three or four grades but one-derivation-continues to show substantial growth after fourth grade. Implications of the findings for the role of three kinds of linguistic awareness-phonological, orthographic, and morphological-in learning to read and spell words are discussed. A case is made that phonological awareness, while necessary, is not sufficient for learning to read English-all three kinds of linguistic awareness that are growing during the primary grades need to be coordinated and applied to literacy learning. This finding and a review of the research on linguistic awareness support the conclusion that the recommendations of the National Reading Panel need to be amended so that the research evidence supporting the importance of both orthographic and morphological awareness, and not only phonological awareness, is acknowledged. Moreover, evidence-based strategies for teaching each of these kinds of linguistic awareness and their interrelationships need to be disseminated to educational practitioners.
The spelling of many words in English and in other orthographies involves patterns determined by morphology (e.g., ed in past regular verbs). The authors report a longitudinal study that shows that when children first adopt such spelling patterns, they do so with little regard for their morphological basis. They generalize the patterns to grammatically inappropriate words (e.g., sofed for soft). Later these generalizations are confined to the right grammatical category (e.g., keped for kept) and finally to the right group of words (regular verbs). The authors conclude that children first see these spelling patterns merely as exceptions to the phonetic system and later grasp their grammatical significance. The study included two new measures of grammatical awareness, both involving analogies, that predicted success with spelling inflectional morphemes in later sessions.
Well thought out and timely. This is the leading group in the world working on texting and literacy, and they have a strong track record of publications. It would also be the first book, as they say, to deal with the subject at an academic level. The focus on education is important, as this is where most of the anxieties lie. It will be a major step forward in creating a new climate.
University students made spelling recognition judgements on conventional spellings and misspellings of words. Regardless of how confident they were of their spelling, they could distinguish reliably between the conventional spelling and misspellings when they could spell the word, but they could not distinguish between the conventional spelling and their own misspelling when they could not spell the word. Students also read words that they could not spell as rapidly and as accurately as words that they could spell in a silent reading task. Finally, subjective confidence in spelling was associated with consistency of spelling across trials. Overall, there was no evidence for the claim of a separate reading representation containing orthographic information superior to that in a spelling representation. Instead, the results support the view that a common representation underlies both reading and spelling. Some representations may be incomplete, thus preventing precise spelling, but allowing identification by partial cues.
In this study, we examined texting behaviours, text message characteristics (textese) of actual sent text messages and the relationships between texting, textese and literacy abilities in a sample of 183 American undergraduates. As compared to previous naturalistic and experimental studies with English-speaking adults, both texting frequency and textism density (proportion of textese) were greater, but category density analyses were similar to a recent experimental study with undergraduates. Interestingly, whilst overall textism density was negatively related to reading and spelling, some textism categories (e.g., omitted apostrophes) were negatively related to literacy skills, while others (e.g., accent stylisation) were positively related to literacy skills. The use of predictive texting was a moderator in this relationship. Our results may help explain the discordant findings between children and adults with regard to textese use and literacy skills, and also highlight the importance of conducting analyses of category density and predictive texting in studies of texting and literacy.
The purpose of this research was to examine whether adults rely on morphemic spelling rules or word‐specific knowledge when spelling simple words. We examined adults' knowledge of two of the simplest and most reliable rules in English spelling concerning the morphological word ending ‐s. This spelling is required for regular plural nouns (e.g., bricks, bees) and third‐person singular present tense verbs (e.g., kicks, sees), but not for similar sounding one‐morpheme words (e.g., mix, breeze). In Study 1, 205 young adults' understanding of these rules was tested. These were adults who were recruited for training in skilled and semiskilled jobs. They were asked in four different choice tasks to choose the appropriate spelling of pseudowords whose endings were determined by their morphological sentence contexts (e.g., Jim wants only one grix). Only 7.4% of individual participants' choices were significantly above chance in at least three of the four pseudoword categories tested. In Study 2, 72 undergraduate students completed the same tasks, and 83% achieved above chance performance on at least three categories. Taken together, these results suggest that many adults depend on word‐specific knowledge, rather than spelling rules, when spelling even very simple words. They also throw some doubt on the generality of conclusions about people's use of morphology in literacy tasks that have been drawn from previous research, which has depended very heavily on testing samples consisting entirely of undergraduate participants.
يهدف هذا البحث إلى دراسة إمكانية اعتماد البالغين على القواعد المورفيمية أو على المعرفة الخاصة بالكلمة أثناء تهجئة كلمات بسيطة. قمنا بفحص معرفة البالغين فيما يخص اثنين من أبسط القواعد وأكثرها وثوقا في التهجئة الانجليزية فيما يتعلق بالمورفيم اللاحق ‐ s – المطلوب بالنسبة للجمع السالم (Bricks،Bees) وتصريف الأفعال في مفرد الغائب في المضارع (Kicks،Sees)، لكن ليس بالنسبة للكلمة المنتهية بمورفيم واحد له نفس الصوت (Mix،Breeze). خلال هذه الدراسة تم اختبار فهم 1205شابا بالغا لهذه القواعد. تم اختبار هؤلاء البالغين من أجل التدريب على وظائف تتطلب المهارة أو شبه المهارة. طُلب منهم في أربعة مهام اختيارية مختلفة أن يختاروا التهجئة المناسبة لكلمات مزيفة تحدد نهايتها حسب السياقات المورفولوجية للجملة ( مثلا Jim wants only one grix:;). 7،4 في المائة فقط من اختيارات المشاركين قد حصلت على احتمالات عالية في ثلاث من الكلمات الأربعة الزائفة التي اختبروا فيها. في دراسة أنجز 2،75 طالبا جامعيا المهام نفسها، وحقق 83 في المائة احتمالات عالية في ثلاث فئات على الأقل. إذا جمعنا هذه النتائج، فإنها توحي أن الكثير من البالغين يعتمدون على المعرفة الخاصة بالكلمة بدلا من قواعد الإملاء، حتى في الكلمات البسيطة للغاية، كما أنهم يشكون قليلا في تعميم الاستنتاجات حول استخدام الناس المورفولوجيا في مهام القراءة والكتابة التي تم استخلاصها من البحوث السابقة، والتي اعتمدت اعتمادا شديدا على فحص نماذج تتكون كلها من الطلاب الجامعيين المشاركين.
本研究旨在考查成年人在拼写简单词时，是依赖词素拼写规则，还是依赖对个别单词的认识。作者考查成年人对两项最简单及最可靠的英语拼写规则的认识，该两项规则是有关以「s」为最后一个词素组成部分的单词拼写。这种拼写规则，常用于复数名词（如 bricks、bees）及第三身单数现在时态动词（如 kicks、sees），但却不适用于发音类似的单词素单词（如 mix、breeze）。在第一项研究里，205名年轻成年人接受对这些拼写规则认识的测试。他们都是应招募参加熟练和半熟练工作培训的成年人。在四项不同的选择试题中，他们要为一些假字(pseudowords) 选择适当的拼写，这些假字的最后一个词素是由假字所属的句子结构情况而决定（例如：Jim only wants one grix）。结果显示，研究参与者在该四项试题中，能选对至少三项而不是出于偶然的，只有7.4%。在第二项研究里，72名大学本科生完成同样的测试，而有83%能选对至少三项而不是出于偶然的表现。上述两项研究的综合分析结果显示，许多成年人在拼写甚至非常简单的单词时，他们不是遵循词素拼写规则，而是依赖对个别单词的认识。综合分析结果亦显示，以前的研究，全都依赖从大学本科生采样取得的参与测试者数据，因此，其对人们在读写作业中使用词法所作出的一般性结论，是令人质疑的。
Cette recherche avait pour but de voir si les adultes s'appuient sur les rígles d'écriture morphémiques ou sur leur connaissance du lexique quand ils ont à écrire des mots simples. Nous avons examiné la connaissance qu'ont les adultes des rígles les plus simples et les plus fiables concernant le morphíme s final. Cette graphie s'impose dans le cas des noms pluriels réguliers (bricks, bees) et dans celui de la troisiíme personne singulier des verbes (kicks, sees), mais pas dans celui de mots monomorphémiques ayant un son semblable au s (mix, breeze). Dans la premiíre étude, on a testé la compréhension de ces rígles auprís de 205 jeunes adultes recrutés en vue d'une formation à des emplois qualifiés et semi‐qualifiés. Dans quatre tâches de choix différentes ils ont eu à choisir entre l'écriture correcte de pseudo‐mots dont la terminaison était déterminée par le contexte morphologique de la phrase (ex. Jim wants only one grix). Seuls 7,4% des choix individuels des participants ont été significativement supérieurs au hasard pour au moins 3 des 4 catégories de pseudo‐mots testées. Dans la seconde étude, 72 étudiants de licence ont réalisé les mêmes tâches, et 83% ont répondu plus qu'au hasard dans au moins 3 catégories. Considérés simultanément, ces résultats laissent penser que beaucoup d'adultes ont des connaissances liées au vocabulaire plutôt qu'à des rígles d'écriture quand ils ont à écrire même des mots trís simples. Ils jettent aussi un doute sur la généralité des conclusions relatives à la façon dont les gens utilisent la morphologie dans des tâches de littératie provenant de recherches antérieures effectuées en grande partie avec des échantillons pour les tests composés entiírement d'étudiants de licence.
Цель исследования состояла в том, чтобы проверить, на что полагаются взрослые при написании простых слов: на знание морфологии или на знание конкретных слов. В частности, авторы изучали, чем оперируют взрослые при написании окончания –s, которое употребляется при образовании множественного числа существительных (bricks, bees) и глагольных форм в третьем лице единственного числа в простом настоящем времени (kicks, sees), но не употребляется при образовании фонетически сходных моно‐морфемных форм (mix, breeze). В первом исследовании 205 молодых людей, занимающихся квалифицированным или полуквалифицированным трудом, были проверены на знание этих правил. Им предложили четыре различных типа заданий на выбор верного написания “псевдослов”, окончания которых определялись их местом и морфологическим значением в конкретном предложении (например, Jim wants only one grix). Только у 7,4% участников количество верных ответов было статистически значимо при выборе по крайней мере трех из четырех предложенных категорий “псевдослов”. Во втором исследовании те же самые задания выполняли 72 студента начальных курсов. В их случае попаданий оказалось заметно выше – 83%. В целом, эти результаты говорят о том, что при написании даже простейших слов многие взрослые опираются при выборе на знание конкретных слов, а не правил. Кроме того, полученные результаты бросают тень на непреложность прозвучавшего ранее вывода о роли морфологических знаний для становления грамотности. Этот вывод был сделан исследователями, которые всецело опирались на данные, полученные при тестировании студентов младших курсов.
El propósito de esta investigación fue el de ver si los adultos dependen de las reglas morfológicas de ortografía o del conocimiento de palabras específicas al escribir palabras simples. Estudiamos el conocimiento de los adultos de dos de las reglas más simples y fiables de la ortografía inglesa sobre la ‐s morfológica al final de palabras. Dicha ortografía se necesita en el inglés para los sustantivos regulares plurales (bricks, bees) y la conjugación en tercera persona singular de los verbos (kicks, sees), pero no para palabras de fonemas que suenan casi iguales (mix, breeze). En el Estudio 1, se examinó la comprensión de dichas reglas de 205 adultos. Dichos adultos habían sido reclutados para ser entrenados para posiciones especializadas y semi calificadas. Se les pidió, en cuatro diferentes tareas, que escogieran la ortografía correcta de pseudopalabras cuyos finales eran señaladas por el contexto morfológico de la oración (e.g., Jim wants only one grix). Sólo un 7.4% de las selecciones de cada participante resultó ser mucho mejor que si hubieran escogido al azar en por lo menos 3 de las 4 categorías de pseudopalabras examinadas. En el Estudio 2, se les pidió a 72 estudiantes que hicieran las mismas tareas, y el 83% logró hacer mejor que al azar en por lo menos 3 de las categorías. En conjunto, estos resultados sugieren que muchos adultos dependen de su conocimiento de palabras específicas, en vez de reglas de ortografía, al escribir hasta palabras muy simples. También nos hace dudar de las conclusiones generalizadas sobre el uso de la morfología en tareas de alfabetización a las que se han llegado en previos estudios que han dependido mayormente de muestras de estudio en las que sólo han participado subgraduados.
The media buzzes with assertions that the popular use of text-message abbreviations, or textisms (such as r for are) is masking or even causing literacy problems. This study examined the use and understanding of textisms, and links with more traditional language skills, in young adults. Sixty-one Australian university students read and wrote text messages in conventional English and in textisms. Textism messages were faster to write than those in conventional English, but took nearly twice as long to read, and caused more reading errors. Contrary to media concerns, higher scores on linguistic tasks were neutrally or positively correlated with faster and more accurate reading and writing of both message types. The types of textisms produced, and those least well understood by participants, are also discussed.
Laughter “punctuates” speech, occurring during pauses, at phrase boundaries, and before and after statements and questions—the places where punctuation would be placed in a transcript of a conversation. Such punctuation indicates that language is dominant over laughter in competition for the vocal tract because laughter seldom interrupts spoken phrases. The punctuation effect is shown here to extend to emoticon placement in website text messages, a nonvocal linguistic medium. As in earlier studies of speaking and manual signing, the phrase structure of language was preserved, indicating the regulation of emotional expression by a common, higher-order linguistic process.
Has the cell phone forever changed the way people communicate? The mobile phone is used for â?real timeâ coordination while on the run, adolescents use it to manage their freedom, and teens â?textâ to each other day and night. The mobile phone is more than a simple technical innovation or social fad, more than just an intrusion on polite society. This book, based on world-wide research involving tens of thousands of interviews and contextual observations, looks into the impact of the phone on our daily lives. The mobile phone has fundamentally affected our accessibility, safety and security, coordination of social and business activities, and use of public places. Based on research conducted in dozens of countries, this insightful and entertaining book examines the once unexpected interaction between humans and cell phones, and between humans, period. The compelling discussion and projections about the future of the telephone should give designers everywhere a more informed practice and process, and provide researchers with new ideas to last years.
This paper reports on an intervention study that considered the impact of text messaging on 9- to 10-year-old children's literacy skills. One hundred and fourteen children who had never owned a mobile phone before were recruited and randomly allocated to either the intervention or control conditions. All children were pre- and post-tested on a range of reading, spelling and phonological awareness measures. Children in the intervention group were given access to a mobile phone (enabled for text messaging only) for weekends and during half-term break for a 10-week period. It was found that there were no significant differences between the two groups of children in terms of their literacy attainment during that period. However, within the mobile phone group, there was evidence that use of text abbreviations was positively related to gains in literacy skills. Moreover, after controlling for individual differences in IQ, and the children's performance at pre-test, textism usage was able to account for a significant amount of variance in post-test spelling scores. These results show that text messaging does not adversely affect the development of literacy skills within this age group, and that the children's use of textisms when text messaging is positively related to improvement in literacy skills, especially spelling.
The Wide-Range Achievement Test (WRAT) was developed in the 1930s by psychologist Joseph Jastak and first published for operational use in 1946. Two subsequent revisions of the WRAT were issued in 1984 (WRAT-R) and 1993 (WRAT 3; Wilkinson, 1993). The current edition—WRAT 4—retains the focus of the previous editions by providing norm-referenced measures of reading, spelling, and mathematics computation. Designed for use with individuals age 5–94 years, the WRAT 4 contains four subtests: word reading, sentence comprehension, spelling, and mathematics computation. The reading and sentence comprehension tests must be administered individually, whereas the spelling and mathematics computation tests may be administered either individually or in small groups. The administration time required is 15–45 minutes, depending on the age of the test taker. The various editions of the WRAT have enjoyed widespread use due to their ease of administration and scoring and the amount of information obtained in a relatively brief amount of testing time.
Keywords:
achievement tests;
WRAT/WRAT 4;
achievement assessment
The term "emoticons" -short for "emotion icons" -refers to graphic signs, such as the smiley face, that often accompany computer-mediated textual communication. They are most often characterized as iconic indicators of emotion, conveyed through a communication channel that is parallel to the linguistic one. In this article, it is argued that this conception of emoticons fails to account for some of their important uses. We present a brief outline of speech act theory and use it to provide a complementary account of emoticons, according to which they also function as indicators of illocutionary force. We conclude by considering how our analysis bears upon broader questions concerning language, bodily behavior, and text.
This study investigated the use of text-message abbreviations (textisms) in Australian adolescents and young adults, and relations between textism use and literacy abilities. Fifty-two high school students aged 13–15 years, and 53 undergraduates aged 18–24 years, all users of predictive texting, translated conventional English sentences into textese using two methods: writing messages down and typing them into mobile phones. Participants produced a variety of textisms, and in both translation methods, adolescents and young adults used textisms in nearly identical ways. This was true for the proportion and types of textisms used, textism categories produced and consistency with which textisms were spelled. The use of textisms was negatively correlated with scores for reading, nonword reading, spelling and morphological awareness, but some of these relationships were accounted for by participants' usual text-messaging frequency. For these age groups, concerns that frequent texting may mask or even contribute to poor linguistic skills cannot be dismissed.
It has previously been reported that exposure to visually presented correctly and incorrectly spelled words has a significant effect on subsequent spelling accuracy. Previous research investigating this process in skilled adult readers has shown very robust effects that encountering a misspelling has a detrimental effect on spelling accuracy whereas encountering a correct spelling has a beneficial effect. This effect is considered to be mediated via an implicit priming mechanism. In the current study, children with a mean age of 10 years were tested using a similar procedure to the experiments with adults but the results revealed a qualitatively different pattern. Children showed a significant beneficial effect following presentation of a correct spelling but no measurable effect of encountering a misspelling on subsequent spelling accuracy. The fact that children's spelling output was also found to be affected by depth of encoding at the point of presentation points towards an explanation of children using explicit rather than implicit processing of prior information.
THIS STUDY examined the functions of Instant Messaging (IM) among seven youths who regularly used this digital technology in their daily lives. Grounded in theories of literacy as a social and semiotic practice, this research asked what functions IM served in participants' lives and how their social identities shaped and were shaped by this form of digital literacy. To answer these questions, we conducted interviews and videotaped IM sessions, adapting a verbal reporting procedure to document the IM strategies used. Data analysis involved using qualitative coding procedures informed by grounded theory (Strauss, 1987; Strauss & Corbin, 1990), which led to three patterns related to the functions of IM: language use, social networks, and surveillance. On the level of language use, participants manipulated the tone, voice, word choice, and subject matter of their messages to fit their communication needs, negotiating multiple narratives in the process. On the level of social networks, they designed their practice to enhance social relationships and statuses across contexts. And on the level of surveillance, they circulated texts across buddies, combated unwanted messages, assumed alternative identities, and overcame restrictions to their online communication. These functions revealed that the technological and social affordances of IM, particularly related to patterns of circulation and the hybrid nature of textuality, give rise to a performative and multivoiced social subject. Based on our findings, we discuss new conceptual directions for envisioning the reaching and learning of literacy in digitally mediated times.
This paper reports on two studies which investigated the relationship between children's texting behaviour, their knowledge of text abbreviations and their school attainment in written language skills. In Study One, 11–12-year-old children provided information on their texting behaviour. They were also asked to translate a standard English sentence into a text message and vice versa. The children's standardised verbal and non-verbal reasoning scores were also obtained. Children who used their mobiles to send three or more text messages a day had significantly lower scores than children who sent none. However, the children who, when asked to write a text message, showed greater use of text abbreviations ('textisms') tended to have better performance on a measure of verbal reasoning ability, which is highly associated with Key Stage 2 (KS2) and 3 English scores. In Study Two, children's performance on writing measures was examined more specifically. Ten to eleven-year-old children were asked to complete another English to text message translation exercise. Spelling proficiency was also assessed, and KS2 Writing scores were obtained. Positive correlations between spelling ability and performance on the translation exercise were found, and group-based comparisons based on the children's writing scores also showed that good writing attainment was asso-ciated with greater use of textisms, although the direction of this association is nor clear. Overall, these findings suggest that children's knowledge of textisms is not associated with poor written language outcomes for children in this age range.
Abstract In this study, I examined reported frequency of text messaging, use of textese and literacy skills (reading accuracy, spelling and reading fluency) in a sample of American college students. Participants reported using text messaging, social networking sites and textese more often than was reported in previous (2009) research, and their frequency of textese use varied across contexts. Correlational analyses revealed significant, positive relationships between text messaging frequency and literacy skills (spelling and reading fluency), but significant, negative relationships between textese usage in certain contexts (on social networking sites such as MySpace™ and Facebook™ and in emails to professors) and literacy (reading accuracy). These findings differ from findings reported in recent studies with Australian college students, British schoolchildren and American college students. Explanations for these differences are discussed, and future directions for research are presented.
Abstract A study was carried out to explore whether or not there is a relationship between children's reading ability and text-messaging behaviour. The aims of this study were to compare good and poor readers on their amount of usage of mobile phones, the frequency and type of text devices they used, and the speed at which they could read messages in ‘text’ versus those written in formal English. Ten- and 11-year-olds completed three assessments: a questionnaire, two writing tasks and a reading task. The results showed that, overall, poor readers spent more minutes per day using their phones. Despite their less frequent use of phones, the good readers used more textisms in their written text message and were faster at reading all the messages.
As a way of tracking popular framing of CMC, this article critically reviews an inter- national corpus of 101 print-media accounts (from 2001 to 2005) of language-use in technologies such as instant messaging and text messaging. From the combined perspec- tive of folk linguistics and critical discourse analysis, this type of metadiscourse (i.e., discourse about discourse) reveals the conceptual and ideological assumptions by which particular communication practices come to be institutionalized and understood. The article is illustrated with multiple examples from across the corpus in order to demon- strate the most recurrent metadiscursive themes in mediatized depictions of technologi- cally or computer-mediated discourse (CMD). Rooted in extravagant characterizations of the prevalence and impact of CMD, together with highly caricatured exemplifications of actual practice, these popular but influential (mis)representations typically exagger- ate the difference between CMD and nonmediated discourse, misconstrue the ''evolu- tionary'' trajectory of language change, and belie the cultural embeddedness of CMD.
This article focuses on preteen British children's use of text messaging, particularly the abbreviations and characteristic language used within text messages. We look not only at the language style used by the children, but at the ways in which it relates to their traditional literacy skills, as measured through standardized tests and assessments. We have found repeated positive relationships between use of text register language and traditional literacy skills, and we give here a preview of our latest, longitudinal work, which allows those relationships to be studied directionally, enabling us to draw causal conclusions.
Recent studies have shown evidence of positive concurrent relationships between children's use of text message abbreviations ('textisms') and performance on standardized assessments of reading and spelling. This study aimed to determine the direction of this association. One hundred and nineteen children aged between 8 and 12 years were assessed on measures of general ability, reading, spelling, rapid phonological retrieval, and phonological awareness at the beginning and end of an academic year. The children were also asked to provide a sample of the text messages that they sent over a 2-day period. These messages were analyzed to determine the extent to which textisms were used. It was found that textism use at the beginning of the academic year was able to predict unique variance in spelling performance at the end of the academic year after controlling for age, verbal IQ, phonological awareness, and spelling ability at the beginning of the year. When the analysis was reversed, reading and spelling ability were unable to predict unique variance in textism usage. These data suggest that there is some evidence of a causal contribution of textism usage to spelling performance in children aged 8-12 years. However, when the measure of rapid phonological retrieval (rapid picture naming) was controlled in the analysis, the relationship between textism use and spelling ability just failed to reach statistical significance, suggesting that phonological access skills may mediate some of the relationship between textism use and spelling performance.
Recent negative media attention surrounding the use of text speak (shorthand abbreviations of words such as gr8 for “great”) and the potentially detrimental effects of text speak on literacy prompted this study of texting and literacy in 80 college students. Thirty-four text speak users and 46 nontext speak users were assessed on their proficiency and familiarity with text speak as well as their standardized literacy levels and misspellings of common text speak words. Results showed that while text speak users were more proficient with the vocabulary, both groups showed familiarity with text speak. More important, there were no significant differences between the two groups in standardized literacy scores or misspellings of common text speak words. Thus, our analyses showed that the use of text speak is not related to low literacy performance. Nonetheless, more than half of the college students in this sample, texters and nontexters alike, indicated that they thought text speak was hindering their ability to remember standard English. These conflicting findings are discussed within a framework of future directions for research.
This small-scale study compared 10 to 13-year-old dyslexic children's use of text message abbreviations with that of reading age- and chronological age-matched controls. There were no significant differences in the proportion of textisms used between the dyslexic children and the two control groups, although a preference for non-phonetic text abbreviations was observed in the dyslexic group. Unlike the controls, there was little evidence of an association between phonological awareness and textism use in children with dyslexia. These results are discussed in relation to strategy use by dyslexic children when decoding text.
This paper presents a study of 88 British 10-12-year-old children's knowledge of text message (SMS) abbreviations ('textisms') and how it relates to their school literacy attainment. As a measure of textism knowledge, the children were asked to compose text messages they might write if they were in each of a set of scenarios. Their text messages were coded for types of text abbreviations (textisms) used, and the ratio of textisms to total words was calculated to indicate density of textism use. The children also completed a short questionnaire about their mobile phone use. The ratio of textisms to total words used was positively associated with word reading, vocabulary, and phonological awareness measures. Moreover, the children's textism use predicted word reading ability after controlling for individual differences in age, short-term memory, vocabulary, phonological awareness and how long they had owned a mobile phone. The nature of the contribution that textism knowledge makes to children's word reading attainment is discussed in terms of the notion of increased exposure to print, and Crystal's (2006a) notion of ludic language use.
Deficits in the underlying phonological processes involved in the encoding, storage and retrieval of the phonological segments of language have been hypothesized to result in less-specified or impoverished lexical representations for poor readers (e.g., Elbro, Nielsen, & Petersen, 1994). To explore this issue, the central goal of this study was to examine the quality of the phonological representations of adult poor readers (n = 25) in comparison to two control groups, adult skilled readers (n = 25) and younger reading-age controls (n = 25), through the use of three tasks: confrontation naming, spelling, and pseudoword repetition. A test/retest paradigm was used to assess consistency of naming and spelling performance. The results confirm weakness in phonological representations of words for adult less-skilled readers. On the confrontation naming task, the less-skilled readers were less accurate and made more phonological errors than the other groups. The less-skilled readers also produced less consistent naming responses. On the spelling measure, the less-skilled readers were significantly less accurate than the two control groups, as well as less consistent. Relevant to the study, the spelling accuracy performance of the less-skilled readers was influenced by inaccurate naming significantly more often than for the control groups. Performance on the pseudoword repetition measure further verified the phonological deficits of the less-skilled readers whose performance was significantly below the skilled readers and the reading-age controls. The results of this study indicate that basic deficits in the phonological representations of words are related to reading ability. This finding has implications for educational strategies for the older student, as well as for younger, beginning readers.
There has been much discussion about whether certain aspects of human learning depend on the abstraction of rules or on the acquisition of frequency-based knowledge. It has usually been agreed, however, that the spelling of morphological patterns in English (e.g., past tense -ed) and other languages is based on the acquisition of morphological rules, and that these rules take a long time to learn. The regular plural -s ending seems to be an exception: Even young children can spell this correctly, even when it is pronounced /z/ (as in bees). Reported here are 3 studies that show that 5- to 9-year-old children and adults do not usually base their spellings of plural real-word and pseudo-word endings on the morphological rule that all regular plurals are spelled with -s. Instead, participants appeared to use their knowledge of complex but untaught spelling patterns, which is based on the frequency with which certain letters co-occur in written English.
English spelling is highly inconsistent in terms of simple sound-to-spelling correspondences but is more consistent when context is taken into account. For example, the choice between ch and tch is determined by the preceding vowel (coach, roach vs. catch, hatch). We investigated children's sensitivity to vowel context when spelling consonants in monosyllabic nonwords. Second graders (7-year-olds) tended to use vowel context correctly when spelling word-final consonants (codas). This use of context was progressively stronger for third and fifth graders as well as for college students. The increase is not due to differences in vocabulary because the contextual patterns are similar in reading materials targeted at all four age groups. Vowel letters (graphotactics) had a stronger influence than did vowel pronunciation. Children also used vowel context when spelling word-initial consonants (onsets); this effect was as strong for second graders as for adults. Thus, novice spellers take advantage of graphotactic information.
Language of the Internet The Stanford handbook for language engineers (pp. 59–127) Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications Growth in phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness in Grades 1 to 6
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Does exposure to orthography affect children's spelling accuracy Functions of the non-verbal in CMC: emoticons and illocutionary force
- M Dixon
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- S C Herring
Dixon, M., & Kaminska, Z. (2007). Does exposure to orthography affect children's spelling accuracy? Journal of Research in Reading, 30, 184–197. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-9817.2007.00337.x. Dresner, E., & Herring, S. C. (2010). Functions of the non-verbal in CMC: emoticons and illocutionary force. Communication Theory, 20, 249–268.
Score reliability: Contemporary thinking on reliability issues
- B Thompson
Thompson, B. (2003). Score reliability: Contemporary thinking on reliability issues. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Generation txt? The sociolinguistics of young people's text-messaging. Discourse Analysis Online Retrieved from http://extra.shu.ac.uk/daol/articles From statistical panic to moral panic: the metadiscursive construction and popular exaggeration of new media language in the print media
- C Thurlow
Thurlow, C. (2003). Generation txt? The sociolinguistics of young people's text-messaging. Discourse Analysis Online. Retrieved from http://extra.shu.ac.uk/daol/articles/v1/n1/ a3/thurlow2002003.html. Thurlow, C. (2006). From statistical panic to moral panic: the metadiscursive construction and popular exaggeration of new media language in the print media. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11, 667–701. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00031.x.
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- P Woronoff
Woronoff, P. (2007). Cell phone texting can endanger spelling. Retrieved 10 January 2013 from http://www.articlesbase.com/cell-phones-articles/call-phone-texting-can-endanger-spelling-276413.html. C. Wood et al. / Computers & Education 70 (2014) 281–290
Children and parents: Media use and attitudes report
- Ofcom
Ofcom. (2012a). Children and parents: Media use and attitudes report. Retrieved from http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/research/media-literacy/oct2012/main.pdf.
Ofcom. (2012b). The communications market. Retrieved from http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/research/cmr/cmr12/UK_1.pdf.