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Abstract

The diffusion and trends in use of each substance is a basic information in policy planning of strategies aiming at deterrence of drug abuse or in the organization of the fight against drug trafficking. The actual diffusion of illicit drugs in a population is hardly measurable, but, among the various measures available, the analysis of waste water plants represents one of the most reliable source of data. We analyzed waste water in order to monitor illicit drug use by local population. We investigated the use of cocaine and heroin in the city of Florence, Italy, over a 1-year (July 2006-June 2007) period using state-of-the-art measuring techniques from waste water samples. Cocaine, benzoylecgonine, and morphine were determined in water samples by gas chromatography-mass spectrometer, and the amount of illicit substance was estimated. Data indicate for cocaine a bimodal distribution (December and March), while heroin showed a main peak in April. The heroin-to-cocaine use ratio in terms of estimated doses per month ranged from 0.11 to 0.76, representing new evidence of wider distribution of cocaine than heroin in Florence. Waste water analysis can become a valuable tool in monitoring use of illicit drugs over time. In particular, it can highlight changes in the magnitude and relative use of illicit drug at a population level thereby becoming useful to develop strategies against drug trafficking and abuse. If routinely performed, it can be part of Epidemiologic Surveillance Programmes on drug abuse.

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... WBE has grown in popularity at a time when LC-MS/MS has become more reliable and more widely available. As a result, there are only six published, peer-reviewed GC-MS methods for illicit drug biomarkers that have been applied to municipal wastewater (3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8). Only four studies determined the residual level of drugs of abuse in raw wastewater and back-calculated the consumption rate of drugs in communities (4,5,7,8). ...
... As a result, there are only six published, peer-reviewed GC-MS methods for illicit drug biomarkers that have been applied to municipal wastewater (3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8). Only four studies determined the residual level of drugs of abuse in raw wastewater and back-calculated the consumption rate of drugs in communities (4,5,7,8). In keeping with other WBE studies, COC is the most common biomarker investigated, and all four WBE studies utilized COC's primary metabolite, benzoylecgonine (BE), to back-calculate the consumption rate of COC. ...
... The majority use columns that will sorb a variety of polar compounds, which is useful for analyzing a full suite of drugs as opposed to a specific type. These columns include the Bond Elut LRC and the Oasis HLB (3,5,11,(17)(18)(19)(20). Elution solvents in both cases tend to include mixtures of short-chained alcohol with a chloroalkane and a small amount of ammonium hydroxide. ...
... From all these studies one can quickly see that liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is the most commonly used technique for the determination of target opioids at trace levels in the environment [7,[35][36][37][38]. Only two studies, which analyzed morphine, codeine, methadone and heroin, were carried out by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) with derivatization [39,40]. And only three studies used high resolution mass spectrometry for their detection [34,41,42]. ...
... Almost all of the studies reviewed here carried out a 24-h composite sampling [22,31,35] in order to have a complete evaluation during a whole sampling day. In other cases, 2hcomposite samples [5] or grab samples [7,39,40] were taken. The collection and preservation of the samples to analyze opioids in wastewater was done following usual procedures for environmental wastewater and surface water monitoring: samples were collected in glass bottles, stored in the dark at less than 4 C and they were analyzed within 2 to 20 days. ...
... Several opioids have been detected in raw municipal wastewater as well as treated wastewater effluent [7][8][9]11,22,23,27,31,32,34,[38][39][40][41][42][45][46][47][48][49]52,53,[56][57][58][59] and receiving surface waters [5,7,8,11,23,38,40,47,48,[50][51][52] due to the incomplete removal of these drugs by conventional WWTP processes [22,58,[60][61][62]. A study done in The Netherlands [60] reported lower removal efficiencies for opioids, with average values of 23% and 37% for 6-acethylmorphine and codeine, respectively. ...
Article
Opioids are a class of controlled and illicit drugs (narcotics) that act on the nervous system to relieve pain or to create euphoria. Currently, the abuse and addiction to opioids is an epidemic, which is reflected by an exponential increase in deaths by overdose. The occurrence of opioids in the environment may be used both as a tool to estimate human consumption and for making regulatory decisions. This review interprets the last 15 years of opioid detections in wastewater, surface water and drinking-water sources worldwide, in order to establish baseline information for future years. Most opioid studies used liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry with targeted analytical techniques. The majority of the studies discussed a minor number of opioids, suggesting that a wide range of these compounds have not yet been identified, given the extensive prescription usage. The occurrence of opioids in environmental waters included mainly Europe, UK, the US and Canada. The most frequently detected opioids in wastewater, which is a major source of opioids in surface water, were morphine (5–1240 ng L⁻¹), codeine (3.1–1206 ng L⁻¹), methadone (0.9–732 ng L⁻¹) and methadone's metabolite, EDDP (0.12–1150 ng L⁻¹). These opioids were also found in surface waters, albeit at lower concentrations. Finally, a few non-targeted studies used high resolution accurate mass to determine the transformation products or metabolites, which is an important topic for future research.
... The comparison showed no differences in drug consumption, except for cocaine in WWTP1, although the two systems serve different populations (45 000 for WWP1 and 330 000 for WWTP2). We used pooled estimates of the WWTPs to compare our data with those obtained from other studies conducted in Italian cities (> 350 000 people) and in Palermo in recent years [17,18]. We estimated a prevalence of cocaine use in Palermo of 0.19 g/day/1,000 people, lower than those recorded in other recent Italian studies (0.43 in 2010, 0.26 in 2012 and 0.29 in 2014) [17]. ...
... However, this does not find confirmation in decreased flow of wastewater at the WTPs, probably due to an increase of water consumption during the summer period. As reported by other Authors [34,18], the choice of the sampling period is very important and have to include both winter and summer months to get a more accurate drug consumption estimate in the general population. ...
... Our findings are in line with those of other studies investigating how illicit drug loads vary in small catchments more than in large ones [18,[35][36][37]. Although we tried to identify significant differences in the consumption of drugs in different areas of Palermo, we didn't detect them except during the summer period in the city area served by WWTP1. ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction: A wastewater-based epidemiology approach was performed to estimate the drug consumption in Palermo city, the fifth largest city of Italy with a population of 671 696 inhabitants, and to investigate the monthly variability of drug loads in wastewater from different areas of the city. A seven-months detection campaign was conducted at the two wastewater treatment plants of the city. Methods: Following a pre-treatment, 32 samples of wastewater were analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Results: We estimated a mean cocaine use in Palermo of 0.19 g/day/1000 people, corresponding to 1.90 doses/1000 people and cannabinoids use of 2.85 g/day/1000 people, corresponding to 35.62 doses/1000 people. Amphetamines residues in wastewater were always recovered in concentrations lower than the limit of quantification. Conclusion: Our findings showed that drugs consumption in Palermo is in line with those of other Italian cities and that no significant differences on prevalence on cocaine and cannabinoids consumption were recorded in the different months of the survey, except for the summer period in a wastewater treatment plant of the city.
... In light of the known leisure use of these substances, a large number of studies have tried to study the potential fluctuations in drug concentrations between weekdays and weekends, during holiday periods and among seasons (Baker and Kasprzyk-Hordern, 2013;Berset et al., 2010;Bijlsma et al., 2009;Boleda et al., 2009;Gerrity et al., 2011;Huerta-Fontela et al., 2008aJones-Lepp et al., 2012;Loganathan et al., 2009;Mari et al., 2009;Metcalfe et al., 2010;Postigo et al., 2011b;Terzic et al., 2010;Valcárcel et al., 2013;van Nuijs et al., 2009van Nuijs et al., , 2011. However varying findings in terms of daily and seasonal variations have been found in these studies, being thus difficult to come to clear conclusions. ...
... Similar results were obtained in two previous studies conducted in the Llobregat River in the Northeast of Spain (Huerta-Fontela et al., 2008b) and in the Arno River in Florence, Italy (Mari et al., 2009) in which seasonal variations for cocainics were also investigated. Higher concentrations in winter than in summer and similar CO/BE ratios in both seasons were observed. ...
... The ubiquity and abundance of EPH in surface water could be explained by its therapeutic use (in addition to its illicit use) for treatment of asthma, influenza or hypotension, which is likely to be higher in winter. Similar results were obtained in previous studies (Boleda et al., 2009;Huerta-Fontela et al., 2008b;Mari et al., 2009;Terzic et al., 2010). A population increase in study areas during the summer season was observed in other studies (Boleda et al., 2010;Jones-Lepp et al., 2012), thus leading to higher measured concentrations in summer than those observed in winter. ...
... FA enrichment was carried out from rat plasma by n-BuCl extraction; quantitation with nitrogen phosphorus detection (NPD) [30] provided Blood [13,17,20,30,34,35,37,38,40,47,49,55,56,63,66,69,74] Hair [15,19,[43][44][45][46][47]54,57,75,77,78,80] Saliva [23,24,28,52,55,56,58,68,71] Environmental water's illicit pollutatnts [41,42,61,65] Seizure [18,26,32] Kidney [59,62,74] Miscellaneous Urine [16,19,[20][21][22]25,[27][28][29]33,36,[47][48][49][50]53,55,56,64,67,72,74,76] Standard [31,79] Liver [62,74] Nail [39] Breath [14] Placenta [60] Skin [70] Tooth [51] Muscle [74] In two approaches [31,32], the authors omit enrichment step. The GC-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS) method was designed and successfully used in the discrimination of GBL seizures, based on their 12 C/ 13 C ratio contents: suitable characteristics to identify the producer, the applied chemicals and the broad diversity of synthesis pathways [31]. ...
... Derivatizations with BSTFA were commonly applied for cannabinoids [34,35,37,38,45,47,52], opiates [36,39,[41][42][43]46,48,50,51], club drugs [40] and GHB [49,53]. ...
... Opiates' analysis was successfully performed [36,39,[41][42][43]46,48,50,51], even in the identification and quantification as wastewater pollutants [41,42]; the GC-MS-SIM method, used to estimate drug consumptionvia 'back calculation'was carried out without any analytical performance definitions [42]. ...
Article
Derivatization, prior to the chromatographic analysis of the particularly polar herbicide - N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine (glyphosate, GLYP) and its main metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA)] - proved to be a key step: also in cases applying liquid chromatographic techniques.In this paper the analytical proposals for GLYP and AMPA are reviewed: performing analyses by chromatography. First sorting was based on the chromatographic separation method. Within the same chromatographic techniques, like gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (LC), distinction was made between GLYP and AMPA separations in their initial forms (without derivatization) and as various derivatives. The examined matrix, enrichment, derivatization, acquisition protocols, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantitation (LOQ) data were listed; additional herbicide(s), analyzed in a single run, were also shown. Special attention was paid to the selectivity and sensitivity properties of methods. Analytical performance characteristics were documented and commented in details.
... In light of the known leisure use of these substances, a large number of studies have tried to study the potential fluctuations in drug concentrations between weekdays and weekends, during holiday periods and among seasons (Baker and Kasprzyk-Hordern, 2013;Berset et al., 2010;Bijlsma et al., 2009;Boleda et al., 2009;Gerrity et al., 2011;Huerta-Fontela et al., 2008aJones-Lepp et al., 2012;Loganathan et al., 2009;Mari et al., 2009;Metcalfe et al., 2010;Postigo et al., 2011b;Terzic et al., 2010;Valcárcel et al., 2013;van Nuijs et al., 2009van Nuijs et al., , 2011. However varying findings in terms of daily and seasonal variations have been found in these studies, being thus difficult to come to clear conclusions. ...
... Similar results were obtained in two previous studies conducted in the Llobregat River in the Northeast of Spain (Huerta-Fontela et al., 2008b) and in the Arno River in Florence, Italy (Mari et al., 2009) in which seasonal variations for cocainics were also investigated. Higher concentrations in winter than in summer and similar CO/BE ratios in both seasons were observed. ...
... The ubiquity and abundance of EPH in surface water could be explained by its therapeutic use (in addition to its illicit use) for treatment of asthma, influenza or hypotension, which is likely to be higher in winter. Similar results were obtained in previous studies (Boleda et al., 2009;Huerta-Fontela et al., 2008b;Mari et al., 2009;Terzic et al., 2010). A population increase in study areas during the summer season was observed in other studies (Boleda et al., 2010;Jones-Lepp et al., 2012), thus leading to higher measured concentrations in summer than those observed in winter. ...
... Based on their concentrations in raw sewage, important conclusions can be deduced regarding the use of these compounds. Up to now, thanks to sewage-based epidemiology (SBE), estimation of consumption of drugs of abuse and alcohol have been accomplished in several European and overseas countries such as Italy (Zuccato et al., 2008;Mari et al., 2009), Croatia (Terzic et al., 2010), France (Karolak et al., 2010), Spain (Postigo et al., 2010;Mastroianni et al., 2014), Belgium (van Nuijs et al., 2011), Norway (Reid et al., 2011), Australia (Lai et al., 2013a), Greece (Ort et al., 2014), UK (Baker et al., 2014) United States (Subedi and Kannan, 2014), Canada (Yargeau et al., 2014) and China . In these studies, data originate mainly from sewage samples collected at sewage treatment plants (STPs) which serve a population N70,000 inhabitants. ...
... Among the three different investigated STPs, which was expected, only STP-A was found to be "positive" for COC, its major metabolite BE, and MDMA (Table 1). The mean ratio of COC/BE (Table S5) in the samples, when both compounds were detected, was calculated to be 0.40 and is in accordance with the value of 0.38 reported by van Nuijs et al. (2009c) in Belgium and 0.39 reported by Mari et al. (2009) in Italy. It should be noted that the COC/BE ratio of 1.46 on Wednesday (12th of February) was identified as an outlier and thus was not taken into account. ...
Article
The occurrence of 22 drugs of abuse, their metabolites, and the alcohol metabolite ethyl sulphate was investigated in raw sewage samples collected during the non-touristic season from three sewage treatment plants (STPs), which serve different sizes and types of population in the Greek island of Lesvos. Using the sewage-based epidemiology approach, the consumption of these substances was estimated. Five target analytes, cocaine (COC), benzoylecgonine (BE), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) and ethyl sulphate (EtS) were detected at concentrations above their limit of quantification, whereas the rest eighteen target compounds were not detected. THC-COOH was detected in most of the samples with concentrations ranging between < 20 and 90 ng L− 1, followed by EtS (range < 1700–12,243 ng L− 1). COC, BE, and MDMA were present only in the STP that serves Mytilene (the main city of the island), at mean concentrations of 3.9 ng L− 1 for COC (95% CI: 1.7–6.1), 9.4 ng L− 1 for BE (95% CI: − 1.6–23) and 3.2 ng L− 1 for MDMA (95% CI: 1.2–5.1). Back-calculations to an amount of used substance indicated more intense use of drugs among city population than rural and University population with average values of 9.5 and 1.2 mg day− 1 per 1000 inhabitants for COC (95% CI: − 1.43–20.4) and MDMA (95% CI: 0.52–1.85), respectively, and 2.8 g day− 1 per 1000 inhabitants for tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (95% CI: 2.4–3.1), the active ingredient of cannabis. Alcohol consumption was observed to be higher in the city population (5.4 mL pure alcohol per day per inhabitant) than in the rural population (3.4 mL pure alcohol per day per inhabitant), but the difference was not statistically significant. Consumption of THC differed significantly among the three STPs.
... This method proposed by Daughton and Thernes (1) was first implemented by the Zucatto research group (2)(3)(4) to estimate the DTR mass load level of cocaine in some Italian cities, based on the analysis of surface and wastewater samples. Such investigations have been conducted in the last few years in other European countries, such as Belgium (5)(6)(7), United Kingdom (8), Italy -Florence (9), Spain (10)(11)(12)(13)(14), Croatia (15), Switzerland (16) and also in Canada (17) and the United States of America (18). The application of wastewater analysis to the investigation of illicit drug use represents an innovative approach to the monitoring of the illicit drug problem. ...
... The autocorrelation of a time series indicates that there is a correlation between ecstasy and methamphetamine consumption. We are not able to compare these results with the results of other authors cited in this paper, because trends analysis has not been done by them (1,(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18). We can compare only the DTR mass loads of analyzed illicit drugs what is presented in Table 2 (26). ...
Article
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The aim of this study was to determine the monthly DTR mass load of amphetamine-type compounds in Poland as well as an investigation of cyclical behaviour by using time series analysis and especially trends analysis. Amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA (ecstasy) were detected in wastewater samples collected from the main Wastewater Treatment Plant in the city of Poznan using liquid chromatography / tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). Back-calculations used in the sewage epidemiology approach were applied to estimate the DTR mass load level of the drugs analyzed. Trends analysis was performed by fitting the data to a simple linear regression and then by using smoothing by means of a moving average (Mat lab 2013a). Trend analysis displays a steady tendency of increase or decrease throughout time series. When we plot the observation against time, we may notice that a straight line can describe the increase or decrease in the series as time goes on. Simple linear regression and method of last squares to estimate parameters of a straight-line model were used. Additionally, a lagged plot (autocorrelation plot) was used to investigate an appearance of correlation between amphetamines throughout time. Trends analysis showed the slight increase in consumption of amphetamine and decreasing trend in case of ecstasy and methamphetamine within the investigated period. There is also visible, strong correlation between ecstasy and methamphetamine consumption which cannot be stated in case of amphetamine. Trends analysis is a very useful tool to analyse the increasing or decreasing tendency in consumption of illicit drugs based on the DTR mass load data.
... THC, COC, BE, MOR, AMP, HER and METH. were the most commonly found compounds across all samples ( [25,32,5]; Maida et al., s. d.; [90,107,141,140]). Results highlighted also the contamination of NPS, mainly synthetic cathinones (Methcathinone, 3-methylmethcathinone and tryptamines) all over Italy. ...
Article
Full-text available
The emergence of psychoactive substances in wastewater is becoming alarming. The present review puts into evidence worldwide studies on drugs of abuse and psychoactive pharmaceuticals as environmental contaminants in order to raise awareness on their ecological risks. The present systematic review was written on the PRISMA checklist. A total of 556 publications were found, 125 research publications were extracted and discussed. Psychoactive substances have been detected and quantified in Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) in different part of the world. These substances are newly recognized classes of environmental pollutants and are receiving considerable attention because of their environmental impacts. Their presence in WWTPs effluents can be one of the sources of pollution into streams, rivers and lakes. Despite their low concentrations, effects on wildlife or human health cannot be disregarded. Regarding removal methods, several studies published in the scientific literature have assessed the effectiveness of their removal methods from polluted waste waters. Water pollution by psychoactive substances is endemic and ecotoxicity data are not negligible. Related toxic mechanism, and removal methods for these substances are still lacking. Further research efforts need to be undertaken towards a sustainable future.
... Given that reported poisonings involving psychedelics in particular tend to be rare compared with other illegal drugs (Gummin et al. 2021;SAMHSA 2013), other methods of data collection may be more effective in determining seasonal variation in psychedelic use. For example, wastewater analysis has increased in popularity among many studies investigating seasonality of drug use, although most have focused on psychostimulants such as ecstasy and cocaine (Fontes et al. 2019;Krizman-Matasic et al. 2019;Mari et al. 2009;Mendoza et al. 2014;Psichoudaki et al. 2022). Few wastewater studies have focused on detection of lysergic compounds, possibly in part because LSD is potent at very low doses (in the μg range) and thus it is difficult to detect (Mendoza et al. 2014;Postigo, López de Alda, and Barceló 2010). ...
Article
Few epidemiological studies have focused on seasonal variation in the use of common psychedelics and party drugs among nightclub and festival attendees, typically those who attend electronic dance music (EDM) events. We sought to determine whether the use of different drug types varies seasonally within this population. Across 15 seasons from summer 2017 through fall 2022, we surveyed 3,935 adults entering randomly selected nightclubs and festivals in New York City regarding their past-month use of cocaine, MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, commonly known as ecstasy), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin (shrooms), and ketamine. Multivariable models were used to compare adjusted odds ratios for drug use within each season with the grand mean of combined seasons. Summer was associated with higher odds for use of LSD (aOR 2.72; 95% CI, 1.88-3.93) and psilocybin (aOR 1.65; CI, 1.12-2.43), independent of increases in psilocybin use over time (p < .001). A significant increase in use of ketamine (p = .014) and significant decreases in use of cocaine (p = .002) and ecstasy (p = .002) were found across time, but multivariable models did not detect seasonal variations. Summer is a risk factor for use of common psychedelics among people who attend EDM events. Therefore, the summer months may be the best time to disseminate information about harm reduction for psychedelic drug users.
... Target analytes can be quantified at trace levels (ng/L) by applying specific, accurate and precise bioanalytical methods such as solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) (Andrés-Costa et al., 2017;Baker and Kasprzyk-Hordern, 2011a;Botero-Coy et al., 2018;Fatta et al., 2007). Although WBE is a relatively new scientific discipline, it has rapidly realised its potential to provide independent, timely, low cost/resource and complementary epidemiologic information on the exposure to and consumption of xenobiotics at high spatial and temporal resolutions (Banta-Green et al., 2009;Huerta-Fontela et al., 2008;Karolak et al., 2010;Kasprzyk-Hordern et al., 2009;Mari et al., 2009;Metcalfe et al., 2010;Postigo et al., 2010;Terzic et al., 2010;van Nuijs et al., 2009;Zuccato et al., 2005). This is reflected in the increasing numbers of publications in this field (Fig. S1) (P. ...
Article
The medical and societal consequences of the misuse of pharmaceuticals clearly justifies the need for comprehensive drug utilization research (DUR). Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) employs the analysis of human metabolic excretion products in wastewater to monitor consumption patterns of xenobiotics at the population level. Recently, WBE has demonstrated its potential to evaluate lifestyle factors such as illicit drug, alcohol and tobacco consumption at the population level, in near real-time and with high spatial and temporal resolution. Up until now there have been fewer WBE studies investigating health biomarkers such as pharmaceuticals. WBE publications monitoring the consumption of pharmaceuticals were systematically reviewed from three databases (PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar). 64 publications that reported population-normalised loads or defined daily doses of pharmaceuticals were selected. We document that WBE could be employed as a complementary information source for DUR. Interest in using WBE approaches for monitoring pharmaceutical use is growing but more foundation research (e.g. compound-specific uncertainties) is required to link WBE data to routine pharmacoepidemiologic information sources and workflows. WBE offers the possiblity of i) estimating consumption of pharmaceuticals through the analysis of human metabolic excretion products in wastewater; ii) monitoring spatial and temporal comsumption patterns of pharmaceuticals continuously and in near real-time; and iii) triangulating data with other DUR information sources to assess the impacts of strategies or interventions to reduce inappropriate use of pharmaceuticals.
... There are few to no Iraqi studies that correlate seasons to the prevalence of hepatitis yet in USA seasonality of illicit drugs has been reported to be higher in winter than in summer among the USA teens (12-17 years of age). Additionally, a recent longitudinal study of cocaine and cocaine metabolites revealed a clear seasonal difference indicative of human seasonal cocaine use patterns [20,21]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Viral hepatitis has gained little attention and funding from global health policymakers. Every year one million people die from viral hepatitis related chronic consequences. Iraq, a country of intermediate endemicity for hepatitis B rates has noted an increase with a stated prevalence rate of 1.6% among the general population.
... Cocaine has been quantified in aquatic matrices in many countries and sampled at sewage treatment stations and freshwater environments in Australia, Colombia, Greece, England, France, Spain, Canada, Italy, and Belgium (Van Nujis et al. Mari et al. 2009;Metcalfe et al. 2010;Postigo et al. 2010;Nefau et al. 2013;Baker and Baker and Kasprzyk-Hordern 2013;Borova et al. 2014;Hernández et al. 2015;Lai et al. 2016). In Brazil, cocaine has been detected in drinking water (22 ng L −1 ) (Campestrini and Jardim 2017) and in a river in the Brazilian Amazon (5900 ng L −1 ) (Thomas et al. 2014). ...
Article
Full-text available
The presence of cocaine and its metabolites and by-products has been identified in different aquatic matrices, making crack cocaine the target of recent studies. The aim of this study was to evaluate the sublethal effects of crack on the brown mussel Perna perna. Mussels were exposed to three concentrations of crack cocaine (0.5, 5.0, and 50.0 μg L⁻¹) for 168 h. Gills, digestive glands, and hemolymph were extracted and analyzed after three different exposure times using a suite of biomarkers (EROD, DBF, GST, GPX, LPO, DNA damage, ChE, and lysosomal membrane stability [LMS]). After 48 and 96 h of exposure, EROD, DBF, GST, GPX activities and DNA strand breaks in the gills increased significantly after 48 and 96 h of exposure. Alterations in LMS were also observed in the mussels exposed to all crack concentrations after 96 and 168 h. Our results demonstrated that crack cocaine is metabolized by CYP-like and GST activities in the gills. GPX was not able to prevent primary genetic damage, and cytotoxic effects in the hemocytes were also observed in a dose- and time-dependent response. Our study shows that the introduction of illicit drugs into coastal ecosystems must be considered a threat to marine organisms.
... The recent interest towards these contaminants is reflected by a limited number of publications (Table A1). The majority of present studies deals with the occurrence of IDs in urban wastewater (Castiglioni et al., 2006bZuccato et al., 2008aZuccato et al., , 2011Mari et al., 2009) confirming that treatments at the WWTPs are not able to eliminate these pollutants. Concentrations of IDs in Italian urban wastewater are in the order of ng L −1 and therefore it is likely that these compounds, traveling long distances, may contaminate surface water and groundwater. ...
Article
Vegetation filters (VFs), a type of land application system, are a robust technology based on natural treatment mechanisms for the removal of wastewater contaminants. Their capacity to attenuate emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) has not yet been evaluated. The present study reports the results of a 2-year EOC monitoring carried out using a poplar VF receiving wastewater primarily treated by an Imhoff tank. The compounds selected included analgesics, a �-adrenergic blocker, stimulants, an anticonvulsant, an anti-depressant, an anti-inflammatory, an antibiotic and analgesic and stimulant metabolites. EOCs were analysed in the Imhoff tank effluent, in the infiltrated water at a depth of 90 cm and in the groundwater at a depth of 10 m. The results demonstrated that EOC attenuation was more significant in the first 90 cm than in the rest of the soil profile. The removal efficiency for all of the selected EOCs was higher than 90% with the exception of ketoprofen, which may pose a higher threat of groundwater contamination. The observed attenuation correlated with the hydrophobicity and charge state of the EOCs. The higher persistence of the metabolites 4-AAA and 4-FAA shows that progression in the degradation pathway does not always imply a mitigation of contamination.
... Moreover, the concentration of MDMA is 14.2 ± 14.5 ng/L in Milano and 13.6 ± 12.6 ng/L in Lugano, respectively. In contrast, Mari et al. (2009) reported lower concentration of cocaine, between 50 and 90 ng/L, in two WWTPs located near Florence (Italy). As shown in the literature, the concentration of the illicit drugs varies from one country to another, due to the different consumption of illicit drug and also sewage volume entering the WWTP. ...
Article
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Pot experiments were set up to simulate the soil contamination by three initial concentrations of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) (S1, 100 mg/kg; S2, 200 mg/kg; S3, 300 mg/kg). The content of SMX in soil and its accumulation in lettuce were analysed. Additionally, the effects of SMX on soil microorganisms and antibiotic resistance genes were studied by Illumina high-throughput sequencing and droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR). The results demonstrated that the SMX content in soil reduced by 97%, 86% and 75% in the S1, S2 and S3 treatment groups after 120 days, respectively. The accumulated SMX in lettuce was positively correlated with the initial concentration of SMX in soil. SMX contamination significantly reduced the bacterial diversity and altered the composition of bacterial and fungal communities in soil. The dominant bacterial and fungal genera in the SMX-contaminated soil were obviously different from those in the control soil. The relative abundance of sul1 (sulfonamide resistance gene) remarkably increased in the SMX-contaminated soil, while that of other ARGs, such as sul2 and tetracycline and quinolone resistance genes, showed no significant change.
... Gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) (Mari et al., 2009;Gonz alez-Mariño et al., 2010) in general provides high levels of selectivity and sensitivity. However, derivatization of the target compounds is often necessary for most IDBs in order to make them compatible with GC. ...
Article
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The analysis of illicit drugs in urban wastewater is the basis of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), and has received much scientific attention because the concentrations measured can be used as a new non-intrusive tool to provide evidence-based and real-time estimates of community-wide drug consumption. Moreover, WBE allows monitoring patterns and spatial and temporal trends of drug use. Although information and expertise from other disciplines is required to refine and effectively apply WBE, analytical chemistry is the fundamental driver in this field. The use of advanced analytical techniques, commonly based on combined chromatography-mass spectrometry, is mandatory because the very low analyte concentration and the complexity of samples (raw wastewater) make quantification and identification/confirmation of illicit drug biomarkers (IDBs) troublesome. We review the most-recent literature available (mostly from the last 5 years) on the determination of IDBs in wastewater with particular emphasis on the different analytical strategies applied. The predominance of liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry to quantify target IDBs and the essence to produce reliable and comparable results is illustrated. Accordingly, the importance to perform inter-laboratory exercises and the need to analyze appropriate quality controls in each sample sequence is highlighted. Other crucial steps in WBE, such as sample collection and sample pre-treatment, are briefly and carefully discussed. The article further focuses on the potential of high-resolution mass spectrometry. Different approaches for target and non-target analysis are discussed, and the interest to perform experiments under laboratory-controlled conditions, as a complementary tool to investigate related compounds (e.g., minor metabolites and/or transformation products in wastewater) is treated. The article ends up with the trends and future perspectives in this field from the authors' point of view.
... Cocaine was not quantified in the dry season, due to the higher LOQ, compared to the rainy season; therefore, seasonal trends can't be assessed for the current study. However, seasonal trends in the concentrations of cocaine and its metabolite were observed in European rivers (Mendoza et al., 2014;Huerta-Fontela et al., 2008;Mari et al., 2009), which could have been due to degradation of the compounds by solar irradiation (Mendoza et al., 2014) or microbial activity. ...
Article
Reservoirs located in urban areas suffer specific pressures related to human activities. Their monitoring, management, and protection requirements differ from reservoirs situated in non-urbanized areas. The objectives of this study were: (a) to determine the concentrations of select pesticides and emerging pollutants (EPs) present in an urban reservoir; (b) to describe their possible spatial distributions; and (c) to quantify the risks for aquatic life and safeguard drinking water supplies. For this purpose, the Guarapiranga reservoir was studied as an example of a multi-stressed urban reservoir in a tropical region. A total of 31 organic compounds (including pesticides, illicit drugs, pharmaceuticals, and endocrine disruptors) were analyzed twice over a period of one year, together with classical indicators of water quality. The physical and chemical data were treated using principal component analysis (PCA) to identify possible temporal or spatial patterns. Risk assessment was performed for biota and drinking water use, comparing maximum environmental concentrations (MECs) with the predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs) or drinking water quality criteria (DWC), respectively. The results demonstrated the presence of pesticides and EPs, as well as pollution by high levels of nutrients and Chlorophyll a (Chl. a), during the study period. The nutrients and Trophic State Index (TSI) showed gradients in the reservoir and regional distributions, while the pesticides and EPs only clearly showed this pattern in the dry season. The concentrations and distributions of the pesticides and EPs therefore showed seasonality. These findings suggested that the two groups of pollutants (EPs + pesticides and nutrients) possessed different sources and behavior and were not always correlated in the reservoir studied. In the studied period, no risk was observed in raw water for drinking water use, but carbendazim, imidacloprid, and BPA showed risks for the biota in the reservoir.
... Thus, observations below the detection limit are treated as random variables that are restricted by the prior and below the specified detection limit. We assume the concentration of TOC i follow a gamma distribution (Mari et al., 2009) and parameterize the likelihood in terms of its mean and variance following Ntzoufras (2009). The gamma distribution was selected to model concentrations of TOCs because it can only take on any positive real value. ...
Article
We collaborated with 26 groups from universities across the United States to sample 42 sites for 33 trace organic compounds (TOCs) in water and sediments of lotic ecosystems. Our goals were 1) to further develop a national database of TOC abundance in United States lotic ecosystems that can be a foundation for future research and management, and 2) to identify factors related to compound abundance. Trace organic compounds were found in 93% of water samples and 56% of sediment samples. Dissolved concentrations were 10-1000× higher relative to sediment concentrations. The ten most common compounds in water samples with detection frequency and maximum concentration were sucralose (87.5%, 12,000ng/L), caffeine (77.5%, 420ng/L), sulfamethoxazole (70%, 340ng/L), cotinine (65%, 130ng/L), venlafaxine (65%, 1800ng/L), carbamazepine (62.5%, 320ng/L), triclosan (55%, 6800ng/L), azithromycin (15%, 970ng/L), diphenylhydramine (40%, 350ng/L), and desvenlafaxine (35%, 4600ng/L). In sediment, the most common compounds were venlafaxine (32.5%, 19ng/g), diphenhydramine (25%, 41ng/g), azithromycin (15%, 11ng/g), fluoxetine (12.5%, 29ng/g) and sucralose (12.5%, 16ng/g). Refractory compounds such as sucralose may be good indicators of TOC contamination in lotic ecosystems, as there was a correlation between dissolved sucralose concentrations and with the total number of compounds detected in water. Discharge and human demographic (population size) characteristics were not good predictors of compound abundance in water samples. This study further confirms the ubiquity of TOCs in lotic ecosystems. Although concentrations measured rarely approached acute aquatic-life criteria, the chronic effects, bioaccumulative potential, or potential mixture effects of multiple compounds are relatively unknown.
... Recently, many reports estimating illicit drug abuse using 'sewage epidemiology' have been published in many European countries, such as Belgium [75,85,86], United Kingdom [87,88], Italy -Florence [89], Spain [90][91][92], Croatia [76], Switzerland [93], Norway [94], Poland [95][96][97], Sweden [98], and also in Canada [99] and the United States of America [100][101][102][103]. ...
Article
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Concern for the natural environment increasingly devotes more attention to growing potential hazards resulting from the release of various substances. Currently, one of the main problems associated with environmental pollution is the derivation of organic compounds from wastewater. Substances derived from sewage leaks into the environment in the form of a multicomponent mixtures often enhances the toxic effects caused by these compounds. While analyzing the reports in the literature of the last two decades it can be seen that substantial efforts are devoted to the determination of selected trace contaminants present in wastewater. Among the most marked there are endocrine disrupting compounds, residues of pharmaceuticals and personal care products, plastics and sunscreens. Recently, a new group of compounds joined the aforementioned contaminants, namely drugs, whose legality and availability is increasing every year. Exposure to these type of compounds, named in the literature as emerging contaminants (ECs), involves, among others, such effects as hormonal imbalance, reduction of the survivability of aquatic organisms and reproductive problems. This paper provides a review of the types of emerging organic groundwater contaminants (EGCs) which are beginning to be found in the natural environment in many countries all around the world.
... The recent interest towards these contaminants is reflected by a limited number of publications (Table A1). The majority of present studies deals with the occurrence of IDs in urban wastewater (Castiglioni et al., 2006bZuccato et al., 2008aZuccato et al., , 2011Mari et al., 2009) confirming that treatments at the WWTPs are not able to eliminate these pollutants. Concentrations of IDs in Italian urban wastewater are in the order of ng L −1 and therefore it is likely that these compounds, traveling long distances, may contaminate surface water and groundwater. ...
Conference Paper
This work provides the first review of the occurrence of 161 emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) and 137 pesticides, in surface and groundwater of Italy. The reported EOCs belong to the group of industrials, pharmaceuticals, estrogens and illicit drugs. The reviewed research works have been published between 1997 and 2013. Results show that the more frequently studied EOCs are pesticide (16), pharmaceuticals (15), industrials (13), estrogens (7) and illicit drugs (2). Among the reported contaminants, those occurring with the highest concentrations in both surface and groundwater are pesticides (up to 106 ng L-1) and industrials (up to 105 ng L-1). Reported maximum concentrations of pharmaceuticals in surface water are about 103 ng L-1. Whereas in the groundwater, this class of contaminants were rarely detected suggesting different contaminant sources and pathways and different degradation rates in comparison to pesticides and industrials. Both estrogens and illicit drugs appeared in surface water with concentrations lower than 50 ng L-1. Groundwater concentrations for estrogens were measured to be below the detection limits, whereas illicit drugs have so far not been studied in groundwater. Apart from the national reconnaissance study carried out by the ISPRA Institute in 2013, groundwater of several regions from Southern Italy has not been collected for EOC determination. Excluding pesticides, the same applies for surface water. The present review reveals the serious contamination status of Italian surface and groundwater especially by pesticides, industrials and to a lower extent by pharmaceuticals. Moreover, this study highlights the necessity to foster the research on EOC occurrence in Italian water resources, in particular in Southern Italian areas where a very limited number of investigations exists
... Levels of illicit drugs and metabolites measured in influent wastewaters of WWTPs of the Llobregat River basin are in-line with those reported for these substances in the peer-reviewed literature. Figure 2 summarizes the concentrations found in influent and effluent wastewaters of the Llobregat River basin of those substances for which more data are available, and compares them with the levels measured in other Spanish areas, e.g., the Eastern Coast [21,26], North Western [27,28], the Ebro River basin [29], Catalonia [18] and South Eastern [30], and other European countries, like Switzerland [31], Ireland [32], Belgium [33][34][35][36], Italy [23,37,38], Germany [39], Croatia [40], France [41], and United Kingdom [42,43]. As it can be observed in Fig. 2, levels of these compounds in influent wastewaters are similar to those reported in other Spanish areas, but for MDMA, AM, METH, EDDP, and THC-COOH, for which comparatively lower levels were reported in the Llobregat River basin. ...
Chapter
Recently, the study of illicit drugs and metabolites in the aquatic environment has become a matter of scientific interest. An increasing number of studies have been carried out worldwide in this area of research in the last years. The Llobregat River basin has been one of the investigated areas in Spain. Its water quality has been shown to be affected by the presence of this type of emerging contaminants, often to a larger extent than other rivers, due to its marked Mediterranean character and urban and industrial pressures. This chapter reviews the occurrence of illicit drugs and their metabolites in both wastewaters and surface waters along the Llobregat River basin, and the analytical methodologies developed for their determination. Measured levels of these substances in the Llobregat River basin are compared with the levels found in other Spanish and European areas. Since treated wastewaters constitute the main source of illicit drugs and metabolites to the natural receiving waters, and surface waters are used for water supply purposes, the reported removal of these substances in wastewater treatment plants and drinking water treatment plants along the basin is also reviewed. Finally, the use of influent wastewater levels to estimate illicit drug use in riverine populations is also discussed.
... [43] Additionally, a recent longitudinal study of cocaine and cocaine metabolites in wastewater reveal a clear seasonal difference indicative of human seasonal cocaine use patterns. [44] This observation could be a help to explaining seasonal occurrence of HCV or HBV. ...
... [44] Additionally, a recent longitudinal study of cocaine and cocaine metabolites in wastewater reveal a clear seasonal difference indicative of human seasonal cocaine use patterns. [45] This observation could be a help to explaining seasonal occurrence of HCV or HBV. ...
Article
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Viral hepatitis is an infection that has been reported to be present throughout the year, but some particular months are associated with higher incidences. The primary objective was to review and report on the current knowledge and evidence that existed on seasonality of different type of acute viral hepatitis worldwide in order to develop recommendations for future research, prevention and control. A systematic literature review was performed to identify all the primary reports and studies published during 1970-2013 on acute hepatitis A, B, C and E (AHA, AHB, AHC and AHE) in human subjects by searching PubMed, reference lists of major articles and correspondence with scientific experts. For each report or study included, the following information was extracted (as applicable to study): Location (country and setting), study population (number of cases, patients), seasonal or monthly rate and study duration. There is no definite and consistent seasonal pattern has been observed on AHA; AHB; AHE and AHC, although evidence points towards spring and summer peak for hepatitis A, B, C and E. Multiple source of transmission such as; summer travel to an endemic area, swimming habits of the population in hot months, increase sexual contact, tattoo, poor hygiene and environmental sanitation and food habits (feco-oral transmission of viral hepatitis) probably exists and should be further investigated through analytical and epidemiological.
... Nevertheless, the procedure needs to be standardized to make comparison of results in many countries more reliable, but the methodology gives an objective insight into the level and profile of illicit drugs consumed by local community in real time. Recently, many reports concerning the estimation of illicit drug abuse using 'sewage epidemiology' have been published in many European countries, such as Belgium [6][7][8], United Kingdom [9], Italy -Florence [10], Spain [11][12][13], Croatia [14], Switzerland [15] and also in Canada [16] and the United States of America [17][18][19]. ...
Article
According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction Annual Report 2011 in many European countries amphetamines or ecstasy is the second most commonly used illicit substance after cannabis. More reliable and objective method based on the ‘sewage epidemiology’ was applied to estimate the level of amphetamines consumption in Poland. Amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA (ecstasy) were determined in wastewater samples collected from the main Wastewater Treatment Plant in the Polish city of Poznan (about 687,000 people) using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). Back-calculations used in the ‘sewage epidemiology’ approach were applied to estimate the level of consumption of analyzed drugs. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to check the monthly differences between determinations. Two-year profiles of consumption for amphetamine methamphetamine and ecstasy were calculated. Results from our city indicate that consumption of amphetamines is one order of magnitude lower than in Western Europe. Therefore, there is a different profile of amphetamines consumption. Consumption of amphetamine is several times lower, but the consumption of ecstasy is relatively high. ANOVA analysis confirmed significant differences between monthly loads of determined illicit drugs
... Nevertheless, the procedure needs to be standardized to make comparison of results in many countries more reliable, but the methodology gives an objective insight into the level and profile of illicit drugs consumed by local community in real time. Recently, many reports concerning the estimation of illicit drug abuse using 'sewage epidemiology' have been published in many European countries, such as Belgium [6][7][8], United Kingdom [9], Italy -Florence [10], Spain [11][12][13], Croatia [14], Switzerland [15] and also in Canada [16] and the United States of America [17][18][19]. ...
Article
The aim of the study was to determine the profile of amphetamines consumed by a community in Poland. Amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA (ecstasy) were detected in wastewater samples collected from the main Wastewater Treatment Plant in the city of Poznań (about 687 000 people) using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). Back-calculations used in the sewage epidemiology approach were applied to estimate the level of consumption of the drugs being analyzed. These types of studies were carried out for the first time in Poland for a considerable period--from June 2009 to December 2010. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) confirmed significant monthly differences in amphetamine consumption. The concentration of amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA in wastewater samples and the levels of their consumption were lower than reported in other European countries, but unexpectedly, the ratio of consumed methamphetamine to MDMA and the consumption level of methamphetamine were relatively high. This study shows that sewage epidemiology is a promising tool, especially when combined with classical methods, to estimate illicit drugs use in a particular population. Therefore, efforts should be made to monitor the profiles and consumption levels of drugs and to extend the scope of the research to other illicit substances, especially cannabinoids and cocaine.
... The recent interest towards these contaminants is reflected by a limited number of publications (Table A1). The majority of present studies deals with the occurrence of IDs in urban wastewater (Castiglioni et al., 2006bZuccato et al., 2008aZuccato et al., , 2011Mari et al., 2009) confirming that treatments at the WWTPs are not able to eliminate these pollutants. Concentrations of IDs in Italian urban wastewater are in the order of ng L −1 and therefore it is likely that these compounds, traveling long distances, may contaminate surface water and groundwater. ...
Article
This paper provides the first review of the occurrence of 161 emerging organic compounds (EOCs) in Italian surface water and groundwater. The reported EOCs belong to the groups of industrials, pharmaceuticals, estrogens and illicit drugs. Occurrence of 137 pesticides was also reported. The reviewed research works have been published between 1997 and 2013. The majority of the studies have been carried out in Northern Italy (n. 30) and to a lower extent in Central Italy (n. 13). Only a limited number of research studies report EOC concentrations in water resources of Southern Italy. The EOCs that have been more frequently studied are in the following descending order, pesticides (16), pharmaceuticals (15), industrials (13), estrogens (7) and illicit drugs (2). Research activities investigating the EOC occurrence in surface water are more numerous than those in groundwater. This is consistent with the higher complexity involved in groundwater sampling and EOC detection. Among the reported EOCs, industrials and pesticides are those occurring in both surface water and groundwater with the highest concentrations (up to 15×106 and 4.78×05ngL-1, respectively). Concentrations of pharmaceuticals in surface water reach a maximum of 3.59×103ngL-1, whereas only the antimicrobial agent josamycin has been encountered in groundwater with a concentration higher than 100ngL-1. Both estrogens and illicit drugs appeared in surface water with concentrations lower than 50ngL-1. Groundwater concentrations for estrogens were measured to be below the detection limits, whereas illicit drugs have so far not been studied in groundwater. The present review reveals the serious contamination status of Italian surface water and groundwater especially by pesticides, industrials and to a lower extent by pharmaceuticals and the necessity to foster the research on EOC occurrence in Italian water resources, in particular in Southern Italy where a limited number of investigations currently exist.
... The clear advantage of a sewage driven approach, compared to traditional epidemiological studies, is that the use of illicit drugs by populations of various spatial scales can be readily and objectively quantified. The application of such an approach also makes it relatively easy to temporally track and hence grasp temporal trends with which an upstream population uses various illicit drugs (Mari et al., 2009;Metcalfe et al., 2010;van Nuijs et al., 2011b). Furthermore, trends in the use of various illicit drugs obtained through the application of a sewage-based approach appear to be in agreement with those obtained through the application of methodologies and/or approaches that have been traditionally used for such purposes (Reid et al., 2012). ...
... Forensic intelligence based on such cases may assist in uncovering migrants-smuggling organisations and in monitoring forgery methods coming from overseas. Another example stems from the analysis of wastewater to investigate the global drug use [39][40][41][42][43]. This analysis provides an objective representation of the illicit drug market that can be used in the planning of strategies to deter drug abuse. ...
Article
Forensic intelligence is a distinct dimension of forensic science. Forensic intelligence processes have mostly been developed to address either a specific type of trace or a specific problem. Even though these empirical developments have led to successes, they are trace-specific in nature and contribute to the generation of silos which hamper the establishment of a more general and transversal model. Forensic intelligence has shown some important perspectives but more general developments are required to address persistent challenges. This will ensure the progress of the discipline as well as its widespread implementation in the future. This paper demonstrates that the description of forensic intelligence processes, their architectures, and the methods for building them can, at a certain level, be abstracted from the type of traces considered. A comparative analysis is made between two forensic intelligence approaches developed independently in Australia and in Europe regarding the monitoring of apparently very different kind of problems: illicit drugs and false identity documents. An inductive effort is pursued to identify similarities and to outline a general model. Besides breaking barriers between apparently separate fields of study in forensic science and intelligence, this transversal model would assist in defining forensic intelligence, its role and place in policing, and in identifying its contributions and limitations. The model will facilitate the paradigm shift from the current case-by-case reactive attitude towards a proactive approach by serving as a guideline for the use of forensic case data in an intelligence-led perspective. A follow-up article will specifically address issues related to comparison processes, decision points and organisational issues regarding forensic intelligence (part II).
Article
In light of the current COVID-19 pandemic caused by the virus SARS-CoV-2, there is an urgent need to identify and investigate the various pathways of transmission. In addition to contact and aerosol transmission of the virus, this review investigated the possibility of its transmission via microplastics found in sewage. Wastewater-based epidemiological studies on the virus have confirmed its presence and persistence in both influent sewage as well as treated ones. The hypothesis behind the study is that the huge amount of microplastics, especially Polyvinyl Chloride and Polyethylene particles released into the open waters from sewage can become a good substrate and vector for microbes, especially Polyvinyl Chloride and Polyethylene particles, imparting stability to microbes and aiding the "plastisphere" formation. A bibliometric analysis highlights the negligence of research toward plastispheres and their presence in sewage. The ubiquity of microplastics and their release along with the virus into the open waters increases the risk of viral plastispheres. These plastispheres may be ingested by aquatic organisms facilitating reverse zoonosis and the commercial organisms already reported with accumulating microplastics through the food chain poses a risk to human populations as well. Reliance of high population density areas on open waters served by untreated sewage in economically less developed countries might bring back viral transmission.
Article
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Molecular analysis of public wastewater has great potential as a harbinger for community health and health threats. Long-used to monitor the presence of enteric viruses, in particular polio, recent successes of wastewater as a reliable lead indicator for trends in SARS-CoV-2 levels and hospital admissions has generated optimism and emerging evidence that similar science can be applied to other pathogens of pandemic potential (PPPs), especially respiratory viruses and their variants of concern (VOC). However, there are substantial challenges associated with implementation of this ideal, namely that multiple and distinct fields of inquiry must be bridged and coordinated. These include engineering, molecular sciences, temporal-geospatial analytics, epidemiology and medical, and governmental and public health messaging, all of which present their own caveats. Here, we outline a framework for an integrated, state-wide, end-to-end human pathogen monitoring program using wastewater to track viral PPPs.
Article
Many studies attest to the pollution of wastewaters by organic molecules including drug of abuse (DAs) residues and new psychoactive substances (NPS) at trace levels. The occurrence of these emerging micropollutants in influent wastewaters (IWW) from three Tunisian Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) was assessed. Influent wastewater composite samples (24 h) were collected over 7 consecutive days in November 2019. The determination and quantification of 11 drug of abuse or their metabolites was performed by the application of an optimized multi-residue method liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). MDMA, THC and the cocaine metabolite benzoyl ecgonine were the most detected substances across the three investigated sewage plants. A new wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach was applied in this study to estimate illicit drug consumption. This innovative approach was used to calculate and to assess collective drug consumption of illicit drug at a community level, based on the concentration of selected illicit substances and their major metabolites in influent wastewater. The average MDMA consumption found in the selected cities ranged between 35,8-1531,1 mg day- 1/1000 inhabitants and increased during the weekends. Cocaine consumption varied from 24.5 to 179.8 mg day- 1/1000 inhabitants. Complementary qualitative investigation of new psychoactive substances was monitored for the first time for an African country, examining the occurrence of 33 NPS in wastewaters samples. Out of 33 totals screened NPS across all sampling sites, 16 were tentatively identified with this approach. The 16 detected NPS covered most of the representative and used molecules of different NPS classes; including synthetic opioids, synthetic cathinones, amphetamines derivatives and synthetic cannabinoids.
Chapter
New designer drugs, access to databases, and changing availability of samples for analysis have changed the face of modern forensic toxicology in recent years. Forensic Toxicology: Drug Use and Misuse brings together the latest information direct from experts in each sub-field of the discipline providing a broad overview of current thinking and the most innovative approaches to case studies. The text begins with an in-depth discussion of pharmaco­epidemiology, including information on the value of nationwide databases in forensic toxicology. The use and abuse of drugs in driving, sport and the workplace are then discussed by industry experts who are conducting case work in their field. Not only are new drug groups discussed (NPS), but also their constantly changing impact on drug legislation. Synthetic cannabinoids, khat and mephodrone are discussed in detail. Following a section devoted to legislation and defence, readers will find comprehensive chapters covering sample choice reflecting the increasing use of hair and oral fluid, and also the less commonly used sweat and nail analysis. New and old case examples are compared and contrasted in the final part of the book, which will enable readers to understand how drugs impact on each other and how the interpretative outcome of a case are dependent on many aspects. From use of pharmaceutical drugs in a clinical setting, through smart drugs to new psychoactive drugs, this book documents the wide range in which drugs today are abused. This book will be an essential resource for postgraduate students in forensic toxicology, and for researchers in forensic toxicology laboratories who need the latest data and knowledge.
Article
Psychoactive substances are ubiquitous in the environment at low concentrations, and tobacco, cannabis, etc. are all widely-existing examples. Given their potent biological activity, psychoactive substances are suspected to be harmful to the environment, and reports of their ecological risks are gradually increasing. Since the 1990s, the investigations into psychoactive substances have made remarkable progress, yet some research fields still need to be modernised. For example, the unification of standardised analytical methods as well as the supplementation of occurrence literature. In addition, a relatively lagging risk evaluation system caused by a lack of toxicity data is particularly in need of improvement. The purpose of this article is to develop a review of current research on psychoactive substances, including analytical methods, distribution in environmental compartments, and ecological risk assessment, as well as to point out deficiencies and development prospects and to offer motivation for enhancing the research level in this field.
Article
Wastewater-based epidemiology is a new approach to monitor drug abuse. It involves collecting wastewater, analysis of residues of drugs or its metabolites in wastewater, and back-calculation of drug consumption by taking into account wastewater flow, stability of drug target residues in wastewater, and excretion rates of drugs/metabolites. Wastewater-based epidemiology has the advantages of being inexpensive and yielding more consistent and near real-time results. It has the great potential to supplement the existing drug monitoring methods. It can be used to build large-scale (regional, national, or even continental) monitoring networks that would yield spatial patterns and temporal trends in drug abuse. This paper described in detail the principle and procedures of this wastewater-based approach. Application of this approach across the globe was also reviewed. The uncertainties involved in the approach and knowledge gaps were identified. Finally, necessity, benefits, and feasibility to set up nation or province-wide monitoring networks based on wastewater analysis in China were discussed.
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O descarte de drogas ilícitas no Brasil ocorre com impactos negativos ambientais, de saúde e de segurança. O objetivo do presente trabalho é expor o sistema jurídico-ambiental brasileiro de gestão de resíduos sólidos em geral e dos resíduos sólidos de saúde, exatamente para demonstrar o processo de disposição final ambientalmente adequado destes resíduos ou rejeitos, obtendo-se assim, um parâmetro para identificação da gravidade dos riscos ambientais inerentes ao incorreto descarte de drogas ilícitas, já que há lacuna na legislação brasileira sobre a correta disposição de resíduos gerados pelo uso de drogas legais ou ilegais pela pessoa física. Será utilizada uma abordagem sistêmica para a análise do presente tema, valendo-se da interdisciplinaridade que articule saberes do direito, da engenharia sanitária, da educação básica e da saúde, convergentes para um modelo de sustentabilidade ambiental.
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This review critically evaluates the types and concentrations of key illicit drugs (cocaine, amphetamines, cannabinoids, opioids and their metabolites) found in wastewater, surface water and drinking water sources worldwide and what is known on the effectiveness of wastewater treatment in removing such compounds. It is also important to amass information on the trends in specific drug se as well as the sources of such compounds that enter the environment and we review current international knowledge on this. There are regional differences in the types and quantities of illicit drug consumption and this is reflected in the quantities detected in water. Generally, the levels of illicit drugs in wastewater effluents are lower than in raw influent, indicating that the majority of compounds can be at least partially removed by conventional treatment processes such as activated sludge or trickling filters. However, the literature also indicates that it is too simplistic to assume non-detection equates to drug removal and/or mitigation of associated risks, as there is evidence that some compounds may avoid detection via inadequate sampling and/or analysis protocols, or through conversion to transformation products. Partitioning of drugs from the water to the solids fraction (sludge/biosolids) may also simply shift the potential risk burden to a different environmental compartment and the review found no information on drug stability and persistence in biosolids. Generally speaking, activated sludge-type processes appear to offer better removal efficacy across a range of substances, but the lack of detail in many studies makes it difficult to comment on the most effective process configurations and operations. There is also a paucity of information on the removal effectiveness of alternative treatment processes. Research is also required on natural removal processes in both water and sediments that may over time facilitate further removal of these compounds in receiving environments.
Chapter
Within the last decade, illicit drugs (IDs) or “drugs of abuse” (DAs), as newly recognized classes of environmental contaminants, have received considerable attention with respect to their potent psychoactive properties and their environmental impact. However, despite the fact that the number of studies focusing on the occurrence of IDs in water resources is constantly increasing, information on their known and unknown metabolites and/or TPs, their occurrence, distribution, fate and effects on the environment is to a large extent still unknown. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the present state of knowledge on the introduction and behavior of these chemicals in natural and engineering systems and highlight research needs and gaps. It draws attention to their transformation, the increasing contamination by their metabolites/TPs in different environmental matrices, and their potential adverse effects in the environment. Furthermore, existing research on analytical developments with respect to sample treatment, separation and detection of IDs and their metabolites/TPs is described. Although not a complete literature review, this chapter summarizes key studies relating to the analysis and occurrence of these compounds in water resources, with special emphasis on recently published research.
Article
Illicit drugs were recently indicated as emerging contaminants since they have been detected in waste, surface and drinking water and in the airborne particulates in several European countries and USA. In analogy with pharmaceuticals, the main source of contamination for illicit drugs is human consumption. The residues of drugs of abuse persisting in consumers' urine can reach sewage treatment plants (STPs) in detectable amounts, escaping degradation, and can be released into surface water. The first investigations of illicit drugs in the environment were carried out in U.S.A. in 2004 for amphetamines, and in Italy in 2005 for cocaine and its main urinary metabolite (benzoylecgonine, BE). Several other substances were later measured in water and air, including cannabinoids, cocaine and its metabolites, opioids, amphetamines, ephedrine, ketamine, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and some related opioid pharmaceuticals. The first step to measure illicit drugs in the environment consists in the preconcentration of analytes operated mainly by solid phase extraction (SPE). Considering the complexity of the environmental matrices and the low concentrations of the analytes, mass spectrometry is the most powerful technique to detect illicit drugs simultaneously with high specificity and accuracy. Therefore, the technique used most frequently is high-pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS-MS). Illicit drugs were frequently detected at concentrations up to the μg/L range in STP influents (untreated wastewater) in Europe and U.S.A. Cocaine and its major metabolite BE were investigated in the largest number of countries (Spain, Italy, Switzerland, UK, Belgium, Germany, Ireland and U.S.A.), and were the most abundant compounds. Other substances measured at high concentrations were several stimulatory drugs, including amphetamines and ephedrine, opioids, and the main metabolite of cannabis, 11-nor-9-carboxy- δ9-THC (THC-COOH). Despite the fact that illicit drugs are generally well removed in STPs (removal higher than 60%), several substances were still detected at concentrations up to the hundreds of ng/L in STPs effluents. Treated wastewater is generally discharged into surface water (rivers, lakes, sea) or undergoes further treatment to produce drinking water. Substantial amounts of illicit drugs therefore direclty enter surface water or drinking water treatment plants. These substances were still detectable in rivers and lakes up to tenths of ng/L in several countries, and trace amounts of BE, methadone and its main metabolite, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), were still present in finished drinking water in a Spanish drinking water treatment plant. Traces of illicit drugs were also detected in airborne particulate in several of the world's cities, indicating the possible distribution of these substances in the air compartment, despite their polarity and high water solubility. The amounts of illicit drugs detected in wastewater could roughly reflect the amounts consumed. Our group recently proposed a novel approach (sewage epidemiology) for estimating drug consumption in a community by the direct measurement of the residues of the illicit drugs in urban wastewater. This method can give evidence-based estimates of drug use in a defined area with the unique ability to monitor local consumption in real time and promptly identify changes..
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Illicit drugs are metabolized or eliminated unchanged in the urine and/or feces then join the sewer system. The quantification of these products in wastewater disposal has two advantages: firstly, to assess the contamination of the environment and also contribute to the estimation of illicit drug consumption in a catchment. Analytical methods adapted to the complex organic load of wastewater have been developed and validated to assess the levels of contamination of influents and effluents from 26 sewage treatment plants in France for seventeen compounds (illicit drugs and metabolites). The results of the analysis were used to evaluate the elimination of these compounds depending on the treatment technologies used in wastewater treatment plants. Concentrations in the influent were used to estimate the illicit drug consumption by back calculation and showed qualitative and quantitative differences of drug use among urban areas in metropolitan France and overseas. In the last part, toxicology studies on a bacterial model and behavioural studies with an animal model have been conducted with concentration levels close to the levels found in surface water and no significant effect was observed.
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Drugs of abuse are increasingly consumed worldwide. Such consumption could be back-calculated based on wastewater content. The West Indies, with its coca production and its thriving illicit drug market, is both a hub of world cocaine trafficking and a place where its consumption is prevalent particularly in the form of crack. The present study will firstly investigate Caribbean consumption by a daily 5 to 7day sampling campaign of composite wastewater samples from the four wastewater treatment plants of the Martinique capital, including working and non-working periods. The local consumption of cocaine is ten to thirty times higher than OECD standards because of the prevalence of crack. The excretion coefficient for crack consumption and the impact of temperature on drug stability need further investigation. However, the low diversity of illicit drugs consumed and the crack prevalence suggest practices driven by the transiting of drugs for international trafficking.
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DRUGS OF ABUSE IN WATERS AND WASTEWATERS: OCCURRENCE, ANALYTICAL DETERMINATION AND FORENSIC APPLICATIONS. Drugs of abuse are commonly used outside medical or legal settings where their production, marketing and consumption are subject to legal summons and/or intervention. Classified as emerging contaminants, these substances have been recently detected in samples of environmental concern, such as waters and wastewaters. This review presents the state-of-the-art on the methodological approaches used in sample preparation, the main techniques applied in analytical determination at trace levels, as well as the use of information related to the drug or its metabolite concentration in sewage samples to empirically estimate the consumption of drugs of abuse in a city or region.
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This paper presents, for the first time, community-wide estimation of drug and pharmaceuticals consumption in England using wastewater analysis and a large number of compounds. Among groups of compounds studied were: stimulants, hallucinogens and their metabolites, opioids, morphine derivatives, benzodiazepines, antidepressants and others. Obtained results showed the usefulness of wastewater analysis in order to provide estimates of local community drug consumption. It is noticeable that where target compounds could be compared to NHS prescription statistics, good comparisons were apparent between the two sets of data. These compounds include oxycodone, dihydrocodeine, methadone, tramadol, temazepam and diazepam. Whereas, discrepancies were observed for propoxyphene, codeine, dosulepin and venlafaxine (over-estimations in each case except codeine). Potential reasons for discrepancies include: sales of drugs sold without prescription and not included within NHS data, abuse of a drug with the compound trafficked through illegal sources, different consumption patterns in different areas, direct disposal leading to over estimations when using parent compound as the drug target residue and excretion factors not being representative of the local community. It is noticeable that using a metabolite (and not a parent drug) as a biomarker leads to higher certainty of obtained estimates. With regard to illicit drugs, consistent and logical results were reported. Monitoring of these compounds over a one week period highlighted the expected recreational use of many of these drugs (e.g. cocaine and MDMA) and the more consistent use of others (e.g. methadone).
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In 1961, James and Stein exhibited an estimator of the mean of a multivariate normal distribution having uniformly lower mean squared error than the sample mean. This estimator is reviewed briefly in an empirical Bayes context. Stein's rule and its generalizations are then applied to predict baseball averages, to estimate toxomosis prevalence rates, and to estimate the exact size of Pearson's chi-square test with results from a computer simulation. In each of these examples, the mean square error of these rules is less than half that of the sample mean.
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The social and medical problems of drug abuse are a matter of increasing global concern. To tackle drug abuse in changing scenarios, international drug agencies need fresh methods to monitor trends and patterns of illicit drug consumption. We tested a sewage epidemiology approach, using levels of excreted drug residues in wastewater, to monitor collective use of the major drugs of abuse in near real time. Selected drug target residues derived from use of cocaine, opiates, cannabis, and amphetamines were measured by mass spectrometry in wastewater collected at major sewage treatment plants in Milan (Italy), Lugano (Switzerland), and London (United Kingdom). The amounts of drug residues conveyed to the treatment plants, reflecting the amounts collectively excreted with urine, were used to estimate consumption of the active parent drugs. Reproducible and characteristic profiles of illicit drug use were obtained in the three cities, thus for the first time quickly revealing changes in local consumption (e.g., cocaine consumption rose significantly on weekends in Milan). Profiles of local drug consumption based on waste-water measurements are in line with national annual prevalence estimates. Patterns and trends of drug abuse in local communities can be promptly monitored by this tool, a convenient new complement to more complex, lengthy survey methods. In principle, searching the sewage for excreted compounds relevant to public health issues appears to have the potential to become a convenient source of real-time epidemiologic information.
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The authors used "internal validity analysis" to evaluate the performance of various capture-recapture methods. Data from studies with five overlapping, incomplete lists generated subgroups whose known sizes were compared with estimates derived from various four-source capture-recapture analyses. In 15 data sets unanalyzed previously (five subgroups of each of three new studies), the authors observed a trend toward mean underestimation of the known population size by 16-25%. (Coverage of the 90% confidence intervals associated with the method found to be optimal was acceptable (13/15), despite the downward bias.) The authors conjectured that (with the obvious exception of geographically disparate lists) most data sets used by epidemiologists tend to have a net positive dependence; that is, cases captured by one source are more likely to be captured by some other available source than are cases selected randomly from the population, and this trend results in a bias toward underestimation. Attempts to ensure that the underlying assumptions of the methods are met, such as minimizing (or adjusting adequately) for the possibility of loss due to death or migration, as was undertaken in one exceptional study, appear likely to improve the behavior of these methods.
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This study aims to determine the magnitude and characteristics of problematic cocaine consumption in the city of Barcelona, Spain. Capture-recapture with a single source was used to estimate prevalence. Log-linear regression models with interaction terms were fitted to the total sample and to subgroups according to other drugs consumed. Emergency room indicator data were obtained from the Barcelona Drug Information System. Drug-related emergencies of Barcelona residents for 1999 were analyzed. During 1999, a total of 4,035 drug-related emergencies were seen in Barcelona hospitals. Of these, 1,656 (41%) involved cocaine consumption; 41% of these patients had consumed cocaine with an opiate; 29% used cocaine with other substances; and 30% used cocaine alone. It was estimated that there was a total of 25,988 problematic cocaine users (95% confidence interval 11,782-58,064), yielding a rate of 31.27 per 1,000 inhabitants aged 15 to 54 years (95% confidence interval 14.2-69.9). The number of cocaine-related emergencies was high enough to allow capture-recapture to be applied, thus obtaining an estimate of the prevalence of problematic cocaine consumption, and high enough to characterize users according to different profiles. The use of capture-recapture with a single source can be interesting for problems related to the urban context.
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Cocaine use seems to be increasing in some urban areas worldwide, but it is not straightforward to determine the real extent of this phenomenon. Trends in drug abuse are currently estimated indirectly, mainly by large-scale social, medical, and crime statistics that may be biased or too generic. We thus tested a more direct approach based on 'field' evidence of cocaine use by the general population. Cocaine and its main urinary metabolite (benzoylecgonine, BE) were measured by mass spectrometry in water samples collected from the River Po and urban waste water treatment plants of medium-size Italian cities. Drug concentration, water flow rate, and population at each site were used to estimate local cocaine consumption. We showed that cocaine and BE are present, and measurable, in surface waters of populated areas. The largest Italian river, the Po, with a five-million people catchment basin, steadily carried the equivalent of about 4 kg cocaine per day. This would imply an average daily use of at least 27 +/- 5 doses (100 mg each) for every 1000 young adults, an estimate that greatly exceeds official national figures. Data from waste water treatment plants serving medium-size Italian cities were consistent with this figure. This paper shows for the first time that an illicit drug, cocaine, is present in the aquatic environment, namely untreated urban waste water and a major river. We used environmental cocaine levels for estimating collective consumption of the drug, an approach with the unique potential ability to monitor local drug abuse trends in real time, while preserving the anonymity of individuals. The method tested here--in principle extendable to other drugs of abuse--might be further refined to become a standardized, objective tool for monitoring drug abuse.
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The authors present findings from a Bayesian analysis of Scotland's four primary capture-recapture data sources for 2000 that was carried out to estimate numbers of current injecting drug users by region (Greater Glasgow vs. elsewhere in Scotland), sex (male vs. female), and age group (15-34 years vs. > or =35 years). A secondary goal of the analysis was to obtain Bayesian estimates and credible intervals for the demographic influences on Scotland's drug-related death rate per 100 current injectors. Incorporation of informative priors altered the models with highest posterior probability. Expert opinion on how demography influenced Scottish drug injectors' propensity to be listed in different data sources was taken into account, along with external information about European injectors' drug-related death rates and male:female ratios. Higher drug-related mortality was confirmed in older drug injectors and those outside of Greater Glasgow. Female injectors' lower drug-related death rate was not sustained beyond 34 years of age. The authors recommend that demographic influences be accommodated in behavioral capture-recapture estimation, especially when it is a prelude to secondary analysis, such as the analysis of drug-related death rates presented here.
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A solid phase extraction (SPE) method has been developed and applied in conjunction with a previously reported liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) procedure for the determination of illicit drugs and abused pharmaceuticals in treated wastewater and surface water samples at the ng L(-1) level. A full method validation was also performed and determined levels of analytical sensitivity were found to lie in the 1-10 ng L(-1) range using river water as a test sample matrix and a sample size of 500 mL. The developed procedure was successfully applied for the determination of the chosen analytes in wastewater treatment plants in Dublin, Ireland and rapidly expanding commuter towns in the surrounding counties. Cocaine was detected in 70% of the collected samples in the range of 25-489 ng L(-1), its primary metabolite, benzoylecognine (BZE) was also detected in the range of 22-290 ng L(-1). Other substances detected included morphine, Tempazepam and the primary metabolite of methadone.
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A validated method based on solid-phase extraction (SPE) and liquid chromatography–ion trap tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is described for the determination of cocaine (COC) and its principal metabolites, benzoylecgonine (BE) and ecgonine methyl ester (EME), in waste and surface water. Several SPE adsorbents were investigated and the highest recoveries (95.7 ± 5.5, 91.8 ± 2.2 and 72.5 ± 5.3% for COC, BE and EME, respectively) were obtained for OASIS HLB® cartridges (6 mL/500 mg) using 100 mL of waste water or 500 mL of surface water. Extracts were analysed by reversed-phase (RP) or hydrophilic interaction (HILIC) LC-MS/MS in positive ion mode with multiple reactions monitoring (MRM); the latter is the first reported application of the HILIC technique for drugs of abuse in water samples. Corresponding deuterated internal standards were used for quantification. The method limits of quantification (LOQs) for COC and BE were 4 and 2 ng L−1, respectively, when RPLC was used and 1, 0.5 and 20 ng L−1 for COC, BE and EME, respectively, with the HILIC setup. For COC and BE, the LOQs were below the concentrations measured in real water samples. Stability tests were conducted to establish the optimal conditions for sample storage (pH, temperature and time). The degradation of COC was minimal at −20 °C and pH = 2, but it was substantial at +20 °C and pH = 6. The validated method was applied to a set of waste and surface water samples collected in Belgium. Figure While human and veterinary pharmaceutical compounds have been monitored in the environment for more than 10 years, the detection of drugs of abuse in waste and surface water samples has only recently surfaced. The measurement of cocaine and metabolites in environmental water samples is an innovative approach for the estimation of cocaine consumption by the general population.
Chapter
Subjectivity and ContextBayes Theorem for Two HypothesesComparing Simple Hypotheses: Likelihood Ratios and Bayes FactorsExchangeability and Parametric Modelling*Bayes Theorem for General QuantitiesBayesian Analysis with Binary DataBayesian Analysis with Normal DistributionsPoint Estimation, Interval Estimation and Interval HypothesesThe Prior DistributionHow to Use Bayes Theorem to Interpret Trial ResultsThe "Credibility" of Significant Trial Results*Sequential Use of Bayes Theorem*PredictionsDecision-makingDesignUse of Historical DataMultiplicity, Exchangeability and Hierarchical ModelsDealing with Nuisance Parameters*Computational IssuesSchools of BayesiansA Bayesian ChecklistFurther ReadingKey PointsExercises
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1. Exposure measurement 2. Methods of exposure measurement 3. Exposure measurement error and its effects 4. Validity and reliability studies 5. Reducing measurement error and its effects 6. The design of questionnaires 7. The personal interview 8. Use of records, diaries, and proxy respondents 9. Measurements in the human body or its products 10. Measurements in the environment 11. Response rates and their maximization 12. Ethical issues
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The technique of iterative weighted linear regression can be used to obtain maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters with observations distributed according to some exponential family and systematic effects that can be made linear by a suitable transformation. A generalization of the analysis of variance is given for these models using log-likelihoods. These generalized linear models are illustrated by examples relating to four distributions; the Normal, Binomial (probit analysis, etc.), Poisson (contingency tables) and gamma (variance components). The implications of the approach in designing statistics courses are discussed.
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To estimate the prevalence of crack cocaine use in 12 London Boroughs (and London as a whole). Twelve London Boroughs, 2000-01. (1) Covariate capture-recapture techniques applied to three data sources of subjects reporting crack cocaine use: specialist drug treatment (2905), arrest referral (1188) and accident and emergency and community survey (531); and (2) ratio-estimation multiplier, using an estimate of number of injecting drug users and proportion that use crack cocaine. After matching, 4117 individuals aged 15-44 were identified. The best-fitting model estimated 16 855 unobserved crack cocaine users, giving an overall estimate of approximately 21 000 [95% confidence interval (CI) 13 000-43,000] and a prevalence of 1.5% (95% CI 1.0-3.2%). Prevalence of crack cocaine use was 2.4% (95% CI 1.5-5.0%) among men and 0.7% (95% CI 0.5-1.0%) among women, and similar by age groups 15-29 and 30-44 years. Overall, approximately 11 900 (57%) of the estimated number of crack cocaine users were also opiate users. In London as a whole there may be 46,000 (1.3%) crack cocaine users aged 15-44 years, with 28 000 (1.9%) in inner London-four times higher than estimates from population surveys. Some corroboration was provided by the ratio-estimation method, which estimated 23 000 users in the 12 Boroughs. Capture-recapture can be applied to crack cocaine and obtain better estimates than population surveys. The size of the crack cocaine-using population in London is large, although currently the majority are also opiate users. Given that half of current users are under 30 the problems associated with crack cocaine use are likely to increase in the future.
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Residues of illicit drugs and their metabolites that are excreted by humans may flow into and through wastewater treatment plants. The aim of this study was to develop a method for the determination of cocaine, amphetamines, morphine, cannabinoids, methadone, and some of their metabolites in wastewater. Composite 24-h samples from urban treatment plants were enriched with deuterated internal standards before solid-phase extraction. High-pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry with multiple reaction monitoring was used for quantitation. Recoveries were generally higher than 80%, and limits of quantifications were in the low nanograms-per-liter range for untreated and treated wastewater. The overall variability of the method was lower than 10% for untreated and 5% for treated wastewater. The method was applied to wastewater samples coming from two treatment plants in Italy and Switzerland. Quantification ranges were found to be 0.2-1 microg/L for cocaine and its metabolite benzoylecgonine, 80-200 ng/L for morphine, 10 ng/L for 6-acetylmorphine, 60-90 ng/L for 11-nor-9-carboxy-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 10-90 ng/L for methadone and its main metabolite 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine, and lower than 20 ng/L for amphetamines. As previously reported for cocaine, this method could be useful to estimate and monitor drug consumption in the population in real time, helping social scientists and authorities to combat drug abuse.
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Ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray tandem mass spectrometry was used for the rapid and simultaneous analysis of 15 stimulatory drugs in water. Cocaine, amphetamine-related compounds, LSD, ketamine, PCP, fentanyl, and metabolites, among the controlled drugs, and nicotine, caffeine, and their metabolites, among the noncontrolled drugs, were studied. Chromatographic separation was achieved in less than 4.5 min, with improved peak resolution and sensitivity. Identification and quantification of the compounds of interest was performed by selected reaction monitoring, using an electrospray ionization source. Isotope dilution (except for paraxanthine) was used for quantitation. Quality parameters of the method were established, and limits of quantification were obtained for controlled drugs in surface waters from 0.1 to 3.1 ng/L and in wastewaters from 0.2 to 4.0 ng/L. Run-to-run and day-to-day precisions were evaluated in different water matrixes (Milli-Q water, surface water, wastewater). To assess the presence of these drugs in real water samples, the optimized method was applied to the analysis of wastewater and surface river water. The analysis of several samples from wastewater treatment plants in northeast Spain revealed the presence of drugs such as cocaine and amphetamine-related compounds, in both influent and effluent samples. Cocaine metabolite and MDMA (ecstasy) were also found in surface waters while nicotine and caffeine were detected in all the analyzed samples. The results obtained demonstrate that the presence of these drugs in the aquatic media must be considered a matter of environmental concern.
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It is now well established that residues from therapeutic drugs consumed by humans can end up, through the sewage system, in the surface water of populated areas. Given that the global production of major illicit drugs is comparable to that of widely used pharmaceuticals, we tested for the presence of drugs of abuse (cocaine, opioids, amphetamines and cannabis derivatives), some related opioid pharmaceuticals (codeine and methadone) and/or their metabolites in Italian and British surface waters. Having identified residues of all major drugs of abuse in raw and treated urban wastewater, we now measured their levels in several rivers and lakes by a selective multi-residue assay based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Recoveries in surface water were generally higher than 80%, with overall variability of the method lower than 10%. LODs were generally lower than 0.2 ng/L, and LOQs were lower than 0.6 ng/L, with few exceptions. Many of the tested substances were found in both rivers and lakes, at concentrations ranging from high pg/L to high ng/L, with loads in rivers in the range of tenths to hundreds of grams per day. Our data indicate that residues of drugs of abuse have become widespread surface water contaminants in populated areas. Since most of these residues still have potent pharmacological activities, their presence in the aquatic environment may have potential implications for human health and wildlife.
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The main aim of the presented research is to introduce a new technique, ultra performance liquid chromatography-positive/negative electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI/MS/MS), for the development of new simultaneous multiresidue methods (over 50 compounds). These methods were used for the determination of multiple classes of pharmaceuticals (acidic, basic and neutral compounds: analgesic/anti-inflammatory drugs, antibiotics, antiepileptics, beta-adrenoceptor blocking drugs, lipid regulating agents, etc.), personal care products (sunscreen agents, preservatives, disinfectant/antiseptics) and illicit drugs (amphetamine, cocaine and benzoylecgonine) in surface water and wastewater. The usage of the novel UPLC system with a 1.7 microm particle-packed column allowed for good resolution of analytes with the utilisation of low mobile phase flow rates (0.05-0.07 mL min(-1)) and short retention times (method times of up to 25 min), delivering a fast and cost-effective method. SPE with the usage of Oasis MCX strong cation-exchange mixed-mode polymeric sorbent was chosen for sample clean-up and concentration. The influence of mobile phase composition, matrix-assisted ion suppression in ESI-MS and SPE recovery on the sensitivity of the method was extensively studied. The method limits of quantification were at low nanogram per litre levels and ranged from tenths of ng L(-1) to tens of ng L(-1) in surface water and from single ng L(-1) to a few hundreds of ng L(-1) in the case of wastewater. The instrumental and method intraday and interday repeatabilities were on average less than 5%. The method was successfully applied for the determination of pharmaceuticals in the River Taff (South Wales) and a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP Cilfynydd). Several pharmaceuticals and personal care products were determined in river water at levels ranging from single ng L(-1) to single microg L(-1).
Article
The occurrence of several psychoactive drugs in water resources from north-eastern Spain (NE-Spain) has been evaluated. The drugs were analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS) after enrichment by solid-phase extraction (SPE). Most of the studied controlled drugs (8 out of 11) were found in both influent and effluent samples from several wastewater treatment plants. Cocaine and its metabolite were detected in wastewaters at concentrations ranging from 4 ng/L to 4.7 mug/L and from 9 ng/L to 7.5 mug/L respectively while concentrations of amphetamine type stimulatory drugs ranged from 2 to 688 ng/L. Removal percentages were estimated by sampling eight WWTPs (n=4). Cocaine and benzoylecgonine removal percentages were higher than 88% while those of amphetamine type stimulants varied ranging from 40% to more than 99%. Daily variability was also evaluated by performing a sequential survey, which revealed important fluctuations in the concentrations of nicotine, paraxanthine, amphetamine and ecstasy during the week. From the total concentrations found in wastewater influents estimations of the cocaine and ecstasy consumption were performed. For cocaine the results were approximately 14 doses per 1000 inhabitants (15-64 years old) per day and for ecstasy, approximately 4 doses per 1000 young adults (15-34 years old) per day for ecstasy.
Principles of exposure measurement in epidemiology: collecting, in: Evaluating and Improving Measures of Disease Risk Factors
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