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The Built & Human Environment Review, Volume 4, Special Issue 1, 2011
1
Evaluations of Sustainable Concepts in Civil Engineering
Program
Al-Tamimi, A.K., Mortula, M., Abu-Lebdeh, G., and Beheiry, S.
atamimi@aus.edu
College of Engineering, The American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE, P.O. Box 26666
Abstract
Sustainability has been very critical for civil engineering graduates. A lack of understanding the fundamentals of
sustainable material brings obstacles in implementing the concepts of sustainability in civil engineering practices.
Building industry being a leading contributor of green house gases has been largely occupied by civil engineers.
Materials are one of the areas that need sustainability in an integrated manner. Concrete and steel structures in
addition to water resources and solid waste are most commonly managed by civil engineers. In this paper, two main
components were tested to measure sustainability applications in the learning process. ACI-Life 365 program and
direct measure approach have been applied. The two components provided real mechanisms to measure the
effectiveness of the two approaches in enhancing sustainability learning. The result showed strong interest and
improved learning outcomes in sustainability concepts by allowing learners to analyze various sustainability
scenarios and choose the most effective one. It saved cost and increased the service life of buildings. The direct
measure showed high success rate between 88%-94% which meets the threshold passing criteria related to
sustainability applications.
Keywords: sustainable materials, carbon foot print, service life, concrete, steel and solid waste.
Introduction
There are many definitions for sustainability development; however the most common one was defined by Bruntland
Commission (Bruntland, G., 1987) “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This is a generic definition that
combines many aspects in materials sustainability such as lowering embodied energy and CO2 foot prints,
conservation of resources, re-cycling, re-use, green materials and environmental impact.
Construction industry is one of the major producers of CO2, emissions therefore improvements in the manufacturing
of materials and good practices in design and construction can have a great impact on the reduction of these
emissions. While the public may accept that sustainable practices in the building sector can contribute to reducing
CO2 emissions and overall sustainable development the full extent of the potential influence is rarely considered.
The industry has many players in the process of building design and construction, so isolating factors such as CO2
contributions by specific industry segments can be difficult. Additionally, a significant percentage of the CO2
emissions are reported for industries such as energy industry and transportation can be directly attributed to the
building industry. USA Energy information Administration compiles the official energy statistics for the U.S.
J2
The Built & Human Environment Review, Volume 4, Special Issue 1, 2011
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government and reports the 2007 breakdown of energy use in the U.S. as 32% industry/manufacturing, 29%
transportation, 21% residential, and 18% commercial (Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 2007). The
building industry is not identified as a separate component, but it is rather a contributor to each of these components.
The Building Energy Data Book (US Department of Energy, 2009) reports that the residential and commercial
building sector in the U. S. had a total primary energy consumption of 38% for 2006, with a forecast of 41% for
2010, and over 50% by 2030. With the building sector representing approximately 40% of energy use in the U.S it
becomes the single biggest sector, making contributions of energy savings in the building area felt directly in total
energy consumption. It is clear that the impact of teaching and using sustainable materials in the building sector is a
major component of meeting global and national goals of lowered energy consumption (and thus, reduced CO2
emissions). Zero-footprint buildings and communities are being planned in addition to the more aggressive carbon-
negative developments across the world.
The objective of this paper was to evaluate a civil engineering curriculum in the context of sustainable materials. The
paper discussed the potential areas of resources management in concrete, steel, solid waste and water. A general
approach in adopting sustainability in civil engineering curriculum was analyzed. The authors also showed examples
of senior design projects and course assessment on evaluation of student learning on sustainable materials.
Sustainable Concrete Materials
As the most widely used construction material in the world, concrete is an integral part of the UAE and the world. It
is a composite material consisting in its most basic form as a mixture of cement, rock (coarse aggregate), sand (fine
aggregate), and water. Concrete may include admixtures to enhance particular properties in its plastic state (such as
workability, fluidity, or set time) and its hardened state (such as entrained air or lowered water-cement ratio).
Supplemental Cementious Materials (SCMs) such as fly ash, slag cement, and silica fume may also be used in
addition to or in place of a portion of the cement. While aggregate is typical, other materials can be used, including
industrial by-product materials. Cement combines with water to form the binder that holds the aggregate in a
concrete matrix. The aggregate serves as a strong, durable "filler" in the matrix. While the general public often uses
the words cement and concrete interchangeably, they are distinctly different. Cement is the powder-like binder that
chemically reacts and hardens, whereas concrete is the combination of cement, water, sand, and aggregate that is the
final hardened material. The cement used in the majority of concrete applications is known as Portland cement
(named for Portland stone in England where the cement-making process was first patented). Cement is manufactured
from raw materials, typically limestone and clay that combine at high temperatures to form calcium silicates that
provide the binding properties of cement. Further details can be found in any standard concrete materials textbook
(Mindess, S. et. al, 2003). The fuel used to heat the kiln can be a number of different materials, industry coal, or
waste products. The product that is created within the kiln is called clinker. The clinker is ground into the fine
powder known as cement. During the heating of raw materials in the kiln to form clinker, CO2 is released from the
limestone. In the past, it was generally estimated that 900 kg of CO2 was produced for every ton of cement:
approximately 1/2 ton (450 kg) directly from the processing of the limestone in the kiln, 1/3 to 1/2 ton (300 to 450
kg) from the energy used to fire the kiln, and the small remaining amount from electrical use and transportation to
the site and during production (Carbon Trust, UK, 2003).
However, recently the cement industry has been very active and innovative over the past two decades in reducing the
energy input and CO2 emissions related to production of the clinker. New technologies are continuously introduced
into the concrete industry to broaden the sustainable aspects (Carbon Trust, UK, 2003).
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The most discussed limitation of concrete is the contribution of the manufacturing cement to greenhouse gas
emission. This contribution is commonly cited as 5% of CO2, emission from human activity, and 3% of all green
house gas emissions (World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 2009). There is no doubt that the
cement manufacturing process produces a significant amount of CO2 from three sources: 1) energy provided for the
kilns; 2) release from limestone when fired; and 3) from transportation.
The cement industry worldwide has responded to Source No.1 through a number of initiatives that provide modest
reductions in CO2. The focus for this reduction is on alternative fuels, energy efficiency (new plants are already very
efficient), and carbon capture/storage. Nitrogen oxides (NO), sulfur oxides (SO), and dust are also emitted during the
cement manufacturing process. Most of these other types of emissions (non CO2) have been decreased significantly
in new cement plants and through modernization of older plants.
Civil Engineering curriculum should address this topic and provide opening eyes for the student to this problem and
provide alternatives and suggestions to alleviate this problem.
Source No.2 is a the basic physical/chemical reaction that converts limestone, shale, clay, and
other raw materials into calcium silicates. Source No.2 accounts for approximately half of the CO2 that is produced
during cement manufacture. Only limited progress has been made in reducing this contribution directly, although
many companies and researchers are working toward a cement production process that can sequester some of the
CO2. Source No.3 has a much smaller and limited contribution, because most materials are local and delivery is also
local; thus, transportation is not extensive. The ready mixed concrete industry, however, has taken steps to reduce
their fuel usage in the final product delivery. This point should be also addressed in the civil engineering curriculum
as awareness and process improvement.
Sustainable Steel Reinforcement
Concrete is approximately ten times stronger in compression than it is in tension. Thus, concrete is very effective
with compressive loads, but it cracks under much smaller tensile loads. Reinforcement is used to resist tensile loads
and to control cracking. Reinforcement can be unstressed, mild reinforcing steel (typically 60 to 100 ksi [420 to 690
MPa] in yield strength) for use in conventionally reinforced structures, or high-strength steel or strand (typically 150
to 250 ksi 11035 [MPa to 1725 MPa] in yield strength) used to prestress or post-tension concrete in an off-site
facility or at the job site, respectively. Recently, reinforcing steel is an almost entirely recycled material, which
reduces the overall CO2 impact of in-place concrete. The reinforcing steel is typically fabricated offsite to its final
lengths and shapes for placement. Concrete is then placed in the formwork and around the reinforcing steel. After the
concrete has reached an appropriate strength, the formwork is removed. Challenge number one in the reinforced
concrete structure is the eternal problem of steel corrosion which brings an early end to the service life of many
structures reducing their sustainability. Here again the curriculum should address this problem vigorously and
repeatedly so student will be aware on quality process that prolong service life of building and thus increasing their
sustainability.
Longevity and Service Life
Service life design is a method to evaluate a product in terms of impact on the environment over the full course of its
life. It is also closely related to life cycle which refers to the financial aspects. Number of life cycle assessment
programs is available to aid owners and designers in product selection. Due to the large number of variables and
The Built & Human Environment Review, Volume 4, Special Issue 1, 2011
4
interpretation of importance of the various environmental effects, answers can vary significantly for different
programs. Each of the programs works from base data for the environmental impacts in the chosen model. The
environmental impacts used follow the focus areas from ISO 14044 (2006), ISO 14045 (under development), and
1SO 21930 (Davis, M. and Cornwell, D.A., 2002): global warming potential, acidification, smog formation, and
ozone layer depletion. Weights may be incorporated to distinguish the importance level of a given factor. At this
time, the models have a uniform treatment of concrete based on initial CO2 produced from the manufacture of
cement (and of the steel reinforcement).
No one material is the best solution for all systems in all areas of sustainability but every material has tradeoffs.
While reliability of data input and interpretation of data can be of concerns, service life does provide the most
comprehensive mechanism for looking at long-term performance and corresponding environmental impacts. In the
civil engineering curriculum there is slot where service life design has been implemented to provide comprehensive
comparison between alternative scenarios that should be available for students to reduce CO2 and
increase sustainability.
Experimental Program
An experimental design was used by senior design project to understand the concept of sustainable material. ACI-
Life365 program was used to analyze the sustainability of multistory building that is exposed to harsh environment.
It analyzed the building using four scenarios:
1. Use normal concrete as base case.
2. Use normal concrete with larger reinforcement cover.
3. Use supplementary materials such as limestone powder.
4. Use water proof admixture with the concrete.
Methodology
A. Selecting Units and Defining Structure and Exposure Details:
¾ Select cost information on the base concrete mix.
¾ Assume area to be repaired.
¾ The frequency of repair.
¾ Discount rate.
¾ The required design life.
B. Defining Different Corrosion Protection Scenarios:
¾ The apparent chloride diffusion coefficient (D28).
¾ The diffusion coefficient decay constant (m).
¾ The critical chloride threshold for corrosion initiation (Ct).
¾ The cost of the concrete mix.
¾ The corrosion propagation time (tp).
C. Exposure Conditions:
¾ Surface chloride build-up rate and maximum surface concentration chosen by the model
for the structure type.
¾ Diffusion coefficient is calculated using empirical equation.
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Parameters used in ACI- Life 365 program
1. Maximum surface chloride content (Cmax).
2. The critical chloride threshold for corrosion initiation (Ct).
3. The rate of surface chloride build-up (k).
4. The discount rate.
5. The sealer efficiency factor (e).
6. The concrete cover (xd).
7. The apparent chloride diffusion coefficient (D28).
8. The diffusion coefficient at time t, (D (t)).
9. The diffusion coefficient at time t and temperature T (D (T)).
10. The diffusion coefficient at some reference time (tref = 28 days in Life-365), (Dref).
11. The significant reductions in the permeability and diffusivity of concrete (DSF).
12. The reduction factor to the value calculated for Portland cement (DPC).
13. The diffusion coefficient decay constant (m).
14. Gas constant (R).
15. The corrosion propagation time (t p).
16. Temperature (T), (º C).
17. The activation energy of the diffusion process (U), (35,000 J/mol).
18. The levels of silica fume in the concrete (%SF).
19. The level of fly ash (%FA).
20. The level of slag (%SG).
21. The present worth value (PW).
22. The future cost (F).
For the base case the following formula and assumption were used:
110
..
(m2/s)
Ct = 0.05% (by the mass of concrete)
Ct = 0.32% (Table 2)
m = 0.2 + 0.4( %
%
)
t r = t i + t p (years)
Table 1 shows the effect of level of Calcium Nitrate Inhibitor “CNI” on the Chloride threshold precipitation on the
steel reinforcement surface.
Table 1: Calcium Nitrite Inhibitor Vs Chloride Threshold
CNI Does
(liters/m3 concrete)
Threshold, Ct
(% concrete)
0 0.05
10 0.15
15 0.24
The Built & Human Environment Review, Volume 4, Special Issue 1, 2011
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20 0.32
25 0.37
30 0.40
Table 2 illustrates three scenarios of the building: one without alteration, the second one by using cement
replacement materials which is limestone powder and the third case using water proofing admixture in the concrete.
It is clearly demonstrated the reduced both diffusion coefficient and the life cycle cost of the building.
Table 2: Initial and life cycle cost of the sustainable multistory building
(m²/s)
diffusion
coefficient
m
diffusion
coefficient
(%wt
concrete)
chloride
threshold
(years)
propagation
period
(years)
Initiation
period
= +
(years)
Repair
period
Initial
cost
($/m³)
Total life
cycle cost
($/m³)
Base Case 1.3810 0.20 0.05 6 4.3 10 76.14 165.61
Multi-
storey
Building
5.5710 0.26 0.05 6 8.5 15 80.64
162.37
Using
Limestone 5.5710 0.30 0.05 6 9.5 16 80.64 160.53
Using
Penetron 4.5010 0.37 0.32 6 51.2 57
82.89 98.71
Fig. 1 shows multi graphs of the three scenarios where adding water proofing admixtures enhanced sustainability of
the building showed by significant increase of the life cycle compared with base and limestone powder scenarios.
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Figure 1: Chloride concentration level at the depth value
Solid Waste Management
Managing solid waste is an important and integral part of our life. Water pollution has traditionally received more
emphasis than the pollution exerted by solid waste. Due to increased perception of hazards caused by solid waste, the
importance of efficient solid waste management has received significant attention from policy makers [7]. As the
developing and least developed countries are moving towards urbanization at a huge rate, the consumerism is
becoming an integral part of our modern lives. Due to this phenomenon, the generation of solid waste increased in an
alarming rate in recent years (Philippe, F. et. al., 2009). Also, the traditional solid waste management was found
inadequate in addressing the challenges posed by this alarming increase of solid waste. Integrated waste management
is taking over the traditional approach to waste management (Karagiannidis, A. and Moussiopoulos, N., 1997). In
this approach solid waste management is getting beyond the traditional disposal practices and integrating waste
reduction approach to our solid waste management. It is promoting the society to stay away from the consumerism
and reduce the use of consumer products as a means of reducing the generation of solid waste.
Also, infrastructures and industries have been increasingly aware of environmentally sustainable materials. More is
needed to reduce the solid waste to improve the sustainability of our urban living. Reuse and recycling of consumer
products is also promoted to reduce the stress and burden created on the traditional waste management schemes.
However, traditional civil engineering curriculum does not focus on introducing waste reduction or recycling
mechanisms for the future professionals.
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Water Resources Management
Water is one of the most important resources in our lives. However, like all other resources, it has been overused and
at times abused. Water has been a center for most developed communities and industries. Due to rapid urbanization
in the developing countries in the last decade, good quality water resources have been strained. Due to excessive use
of water and subsequent pollution, many of our natural clean water bodies are left polluted and the supply of regular
clean water resources has been strained to a very high extent. Through the natural water cycles the polluted
wastewater has reduced the ability of our natural ecosystem to heal the impacts of pollution and increased the stress
on our existing water treatment processes. With the growing knowledge of toxicology, many of our existing water
treatment processes have been found to be inadequate in responding to the risks and challenges posed by our
civilization on our water resources. North American and European communities have found the existing civil
infrastructures to be inadequate in addressing the threats of environmental pollution and degradation (Grigg, N.S.S.
and Grigg, G.S., 2003). Huge amount of investments are imminent only to upgrade their existing infrastructures.
Watershed approach has been a key ingredient in sustainable management of our water resources to create our
sustainable water that can withstand the threats of the present and the probable and upcoming threats of the future
urbanization to come. Traditional courses in water resources and water quality have been very limited in discussing
the threats and challenges in maintaining good water quality.
Discussions
The concept and importance of sustainability have been discussed among experts and policy makers quite
extensively in recent years. However, due to lack of understanding among the professionals, the use of sustainable
materials has been very limited over the years. Since civil engineers are the most involved in the development
activities, the necessity of training on sustainable materials and development cannot be ignored in civil engineering
curriculum. The importance incorporating concepts of sustainability in the civil engineering curriculum has been
emphasized by many educators before (Siller, T.J., 2001, Chau, K.W., 2007, Kelly, W.E., 2008). The course
curriculum at the American University of Sharjah (American University of Sharjah, 2010) was used in this paper for
further discussion on sustainability in civil engineering education.
The Civil Engineering curriculum has 140 credit courses as shown in Fig. 2:
The Built & Human Environment Review, Volume 4, Special Issue 1, 2011
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Figure 2: Study Plan in Civil Engineering Curriculum in American University of Sharja
Students must complete a minimum of 140 credits to graduate. After the third year, each student is required to devote
at least five weeks to the summer internship prior to graduation. In the fourth year, each student is required to
complete a senior design project over a two-course sequence. Courses include General Education Requirements
(minimum of 44 credits) such as English and Arabic Languages, Mathematics, Chemistry and Physics. There are also
15 credits courses of humanities and social studies. In the civil engineering major they should satisfy 84 credits.
Major Electives (minimum of 6 credits) Students must complete a minimum of six credits in courses selected from
the following list: • CVE 410 Computer Methods in Structural Analysis and Design • CVE 411 Structural Concrete
Design • CVE 413 Concrete Bridge Design • CVE 437 Advanced Concrete Technology • CVE 442 Advanced
Foundation Engineering • CVE 446 Geotechnical Dam Engineering • CVE 450 Physical and Chemical Processes in
Environmental Engineering • CVE 456 Traffic Engineering • CVE 457 Airport Planning and Design • CVE 463
Construction Management • CVE 468 Systems Construction Management, Scheduling and Control • CVE 494
Special Topics in Civil Engineering Free Electives (minimum of 6 credits) Student must complete a minimum of six
credits from any courses offered at or above the 100 level, excluding MTH 101.
In the second and third year fundamental courses for CVE 221 Construction Materials, CVE 231 Geology, CVE 341
Water Resources, CVE 263 Urban Transportation and CVE 331 Geotechnical Engineering Principles, mathematical
problems could be designed involving sustainable use of our natural resources. In the third year course on
introduction to environmental engineering (CVE 351), basic concepts of sustainable material and development
should be introduced. In these cases sustainable use of soil for structural and waste management aspects could be
discussed. Elective courses are the heart of civil engineering curriculum and very essential ingredient in training civil
engineering graduates with fundamentals of sustainability. Civil engineering courses at different disciplines can
introduce the application of sustainability and the use of sustainable material in their course curriculum and help
strengthen the graduates with future builders of a sustainable society. Some of the above courses have sustainability
concepts imbedded in their subjects such as environmental science which is one of the social study courses. CVE 221
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Construction Materials which is foundation course explore the effects of environmental exposure on the selection of
materials. CVE 351 Environmental Engineering introduces the fundamentals of sustainable materials and used direct
measurements to evaluate students understanding on these key concepts. The technical elective course CVE437 has
strong relationship with sustainability. Some of the other electives have also strong relevance to sustainability in the
civil engineering curriculum. In the CVE 397 Professional Training in Civil Engineering students could be
introduced to sustainable materials in civil engineering practices.
In the CVE 490 and CVE491 Senior Design Project, some of the student groups have already looked at the use of
sustainability in the civil engineering practices. However, this can be used in a further broader scale by many of the
professors. . The author attempted to use classes with discussions on definitions of sustainability, the implications of
sustainable materials on environment in the introductory environmental engineering course. As part of the students
understanding on the subject, the authors evaluated the ability of the students to understand the concepts of
sustainable materials by taking quiz. The students appeared to have understood the introductory concepts of
sustainable materials reasonably well (Table 3).
Table 3: Direct measurement of student learning on sustainable materials from quiz
Unsatisfactory
(%)
Developing
(%)
Satisfactory
(%)
Exemplary
(%)
Percentage
Meeting
threshold
Fall 2009 6 14 72 8 94
Spring 2010 10 22 40 28 90
Summer
2010
12 19 44 25 88
Student’s perception and learning was also evaluated from conducting surveys on achievement of outcomes. The
students appeared to have absorbed the introductory concepts of sustainability reasonably well. The success showed
the necessity of other courses to follow up with the necessity of learning in other courses to improve the graduates
ability to apply the concepts of sustainability in practical applications.
The design and construction in Civil Engineering as is the case with all other majors are specified by international
and national codes. For example the American Concrete Institute ACI 318 addresses structural designs and also the
minimum requirements for safety. Materials sustainability is not considered until recently as supplement by ACI 130
in 2008. Other ACI code such as the recent ACI-440 in 2008 focused on the design of new polymeric materials used
in strengthen structural elements. However due to the use of newly developed materials, there is no record of their
sustainability and there is urgent need to link structural performance with long term service life and durability. In
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Civil Engineering laboratory many projects have been started since 2008 and focused on addressing this important
issue. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer “CFRP” is one example of the newly polymeric materials that is used for
retrofitting damaged structural elements or strengthening under designed structures. In 2008 a pioneer student
project was focused on suppressing delamination failure mode in concrete beams strengthened with short CFRP
laminates [6]. Students gained sound hand on experiences in the lab applying state of the art materials and noticed
their advantages and shortcoming. It revealed that while this materials increases the ultimate strength, it however
resulted in a sudden and brittle failure which made their usage questionable and opened the way to study its long
term sustainability and the effect of severe weather on its performance. This result along with other students projects
in 2008 and 2009 [15-18] had let to the students believes to introduce systematic approach to examine long term
sustainability of the materials. These efforts lead to international research program where students, their professors,
and industrialists in construction started in 2009(Tamimi, A. K., et. al., 2008, Hawileh, R. et. al., 2008, Naser, M. et.
el., 2010) This program focuses on sustainability of CFRP in harsh environment. Many undergraduate and
postgraduate students are involved in this program and make them aware on the limitation of any materials when it is
exposed to an accelerated exposure and examine closely its sustainability. Similar issues are also deemed vital in
sustainability such as thermal insulation and acoustic solution.
Applying ACI-Life365 showed that the time it takes for chlorides to penetrate the concrete cover of 60 mm and
accumulates in enough quantity to cause corrosion is variable and depends on the quality of the mix. The initiation
period for the base case, limestone, and Penetron are 4, 10, 51 years, respectively. Repair period will start after
adding the propagation period and the initiation period. This means that the corrosion will probably appear in the
structure if the exposures continue without maintenance. From the Life-365 program the results in the base case,
limestone, and water proof admixture are as follows 10, 16, and 57 years, respectively.
The initial cost for the base case is the lowest which is 76.14 $/m³; the cost f limestone and water proof are 80.64,
82.89 $/m³ respectively. However the total life cycle cost is higher in the base case which is 165.61 $/m³ and the
lowest for the water proof admixture which is 98.71 $/m³. This indicates clearly the increased sustainability value of
the building if it is improved by using water proof admixtures which increased the service life and reduced the
overall cost cycle.
Conclusions
Civil Engineering Curriculums should spell out clearly sustainability of materials in courses starting from freshmen
level to graduating projects. ACI-Life 365 program has successfully illustrated the effect of changing selected
parameters in the design of building on its sustainability level. Sustainable buildings showed reduced final cost and
increased service life. International standards and code of practices on civil engineering materials should be also
explored and criticized if sustainability is missing and involve students and their faculty in joint effort to work on
them in the class room and the laboratories. The direct measure showed high success rate between 88%-94% which
meets the threshold passing criteria related to sustainability applications.
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The Built & Human Environment Review, Volume 4, Special Issue 1, 2011
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