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Abstract
India is at the cusp of becoming an economic powerhouse. For that to happen, however, the country needs to alter its workforce education system by reengineering the Indian Vocational Education and Training (VET) System. India’s VET strategy includes creating basic work-centered common curriculum for the unskilled; developing a more flexible and responsive VET system that effectively educates and trains many more of the semiskilled; and raising the competencies of the skilled worker to international levels by using, for example, public/private partnerships. Regardless of the model for delivery of this training, this article suggests that the Indian workforce education system should adopt a comprehensive organizational strategy that accommodates the balancing of competing missions.
... Community colleges 30 allow developing countries to respond more rapidly to the ever-changing workforce needs of local and global labor markets (Cutright, 2014;Hartenstine, 2013;Hewitt & Lee, 2006;Mellow & Katopes, 2010;Schroeder & Hatton, 2006;Spangler & Tyler, 2011;Treat & Hartenstine, 2013;Violino, 2011;Wang & Seggie, 2013;Woods, 2013). To meet demand for tertiary education, governments have established market-friendly reforms to increase implementation of the U.S. community college 35 model, e.g., the expansion of the U.S. community college sector in India to meet local workforce needs through occupational and technical training (Jha, 2013;Kotamraju, 2014). ...
... Countries with limited tertiary education opportunities, especially developing countries, have 150 focused on building their workforce by diversifying tertiary education options through the import the U.S. community college model (Hewitt & Lee, 2006;Schroeder & Hatton, 2006). Countries customize the U.S. community college model to provide job-skill-oriented education tailored to their workforce demands (Kotamraju, 2014;Raby, 2012;Roggow, 2014). ...
Developing countries have significantly expanded efforts to import more flexible short-cycle institutions based on the United States community college model. The U.S. community college model addresses human capital needs of the labor market in developing countries by increasing access to an affordable education. However, there is limited research on the effects of importing the U.S. community college model on economic growth. This study addressed this gap by examining the effects of importing the U.S. community college model on macroeconomic growth in developing countries that have engaged in partnerships via the Community College for International Development (CCID). A longitudinal analysis of macroeconomic growth of 176 countries from 1995–2014 was conducted. The results provide evidence for the positive economic impact of community college capacity development in developing countries, as well as a comparative advantage of labor for developing countries that have engaged in partnerships. Implications for policy and research are discussed.
... The literature regarding VET in India has focused mainly on issues such as the challenges facing the formal VET system in the country and the reforms that will be required to make the system more responsive to the demands of the industry and subsequently harness the demographic dividend that the country is facing. Research has also focused on individuals' training vis-� a-vis the occupational levels, VET and its effects on gender inequalities and poverty, the gaps in formal education in India and how VET can play a critical role in human resource development (Bank, 2008;Diwakar & Ahamad, 2015;Hajela, 2012;Kotamraju, 2014;Okada, 2012;). Several studies have additionally explored the effects of VET on significant labor market outcomes, such as the increase in average daily wages of casual and regular workers who have undertaken some VET training (Agrawal, 2012;Ahmed, 2016). ...
... Instead of developing organizational members' knowledge and abilities to prepare them for new responsibilities and challenges, development largely focuses on training organizational members on how to do their existing duties. Effective workforce training and development must get particular attention if the country's education system is to meet its objectives (Kotamraju, 2014). ...
This study investigated the training and development needs of early childhood educators for effective instructional delivery in Awka South Local Government Area, Anambra State, Nigeria. Two hypotheses and three research questions guided the study. Data were collected using a questionnaire titled Training and Development Needs Scale (TDNS) was administered to 130 early childhood educators. The acquired data were examined at a significance level of 0.05 using the independent t-test statistic, mean, and standard deviation. Results indicated that early childhood educators needed training in managing the classroom and school to deliver education effectively. The study also showed that early childhood educators require support for practical workshops on contemporary pedagogies to provide teaching effectively. Consequently, education and training allow educators to give kids a top-notch education. As a result, it can be said that training and development empower educators to give kids a top-notch education. It was suggested that the government hold educator training programs regularly, among other things. Such programs must deal with the subject matter, the utilization of teaching aids, the planning, and delivery of lessons, classroom management, and student evaluation.
... In India, ITIs are perceived as having a lower standing from a social point of view (Agrawal & Agrawal, 2017;Ajithkumar & Pilz, 2019). In addition, the quality issues of VET institutions in India are of great concern, and reforms have been introduced to address the challenges of both increasing the employment opportunities by upskilling a large percentage of young people, and to ensure availability of a skilled workforce to meet regional and national labour market demands (Kotamraju, 2014;Majumdar, 2008;Mehrotra, 2014b;Pilz & Gengaiah, 2019;. Nevertheless, many studies (Agrawal & Agrawal, 2017;Neroorkar & Gopinath, 2019;Rao et al., 2014;Tara et al., 2016;Zenner et al., 2017) have pointed out that ITI graduates have very low employability due to factors such as poor resources, outdated curricula, the competence of teaching staff and obsolete equipment in the VET institutions. ...
The International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training (IJRVET) is a double blind peer-reviewed journal for VET-related research. All articles published in 2021 are included in this book.
IJRVET is the official journal of VETNET (founded in 1996), the European Research Network in Vocational Education and Training (umbrella organisation: EERA European Educational Research Association), supported by CINTERFOR (founded in 1963), the Centro Interamericano para el Desarrollo del Conocimiento en la Formación Profesional / Inter-American Centre for Knowledge Development in Vocational Training (a technical service of OIT Organización International del Trabajo / ILO International Labour Organization).
... In India, ITIs are perceived as having a lower standing from a social point of view (Agrawal & Agrawal, 2017;Ajithkumar & Pilz, 2019). In addition, the quality issues of VET institutions in India are of great concern, and reforms have been introduced to address the challenges of both increasing the employment opportunities by upskilling a large percentage of young people, and to ensure availability of a skilled workforce to meet regional and national labour market demands (Kotamraju, 2014;Majumdar, 2008;Mehrotra, 2014b;Pilz & Gengaiah, 2019;Ramasamy & Pilz, 2019). Nevertheless, many studies (Agrawal & Agrawal, 2017;Neroorkar & Gopinath, 2019;Rao et al., 2014;Schneider & Pilz, 2019;Tara et al., 2016;Zenner et al., 2017) have pointed out that ITI graduates have very low employability due to factors such as poor resources, outdated curricula, the competence of teaching staff and obsolete equipment in the VET institutions. ...
Purpose:
Purpose: The quality of vocational education and training (VET) processes plays an important role in international education policies and research. In India, issues of quality came into focus in recent years due to an increased demand for skilled workers, and continuing challenges in the area of quality of VET. Existing quality assurance mechanisms of VET in India are characterised by a lack of comprehensiveness and uniform standards. This paper addresses the contextualised development of an Indian-specific approach for quality measurement. It centres on following research question: Which quality areas, criteria and related indicators are of relevance for measuring quality comprehensively?
Approach: Design-based research substantiates the research objective, which is to develop a model that is theoretically and technically sound, as well as adapted to the national context. The question of how to create "cultural-fit" was essential for the research process illustrated in this paper. Starting point for the development of the approach was to build a structured review, and following analysis, with reference to existing models and approaches to quality management. The initial search examined national and international academic sources for quality management in business and education, as well as governmental sources for quality management strategies in VET. A significant number of models were selected, based on inclusion criteria, and these models were aggregated to provide a source for a first own conception of an approach.
Results: Quality dimensions and criteria were collected and identified with reference to distribution across models. In total, seven major quality areas are identified, namely Institutional Sphere and Context; Personnel; Educational Planning, Provision and Assessment; Learning and Teaching; Leadership and School Management; Industry Linkage and Learner Achievements. In addition, 40 quality criteria are determined under these major quality fields, and relevant quantitative and qualitative sub-indicators for measurement are derived.
Conclusion: The actual results will be a basis for the following pilot-based implementation in India. The model can provide meaningful feedback and data-based recommendations for continuous improvement of the Indian VET system and may furthermore provide for a reflected and contextually adapted implementation in other countries.
... Vocational training in India faces a number of different challenges and problems related to PTs (Kotamraju, 2014). In some cases, for example, their equipment and infrastructure are inadequate to meet demand. ...
Purpose: India’s Polytechnics are a fundamental part of its (vocational) education and training system but are largely ignored in VET research. Understanding the status quo and potential of India’s (vocational) education landscape requires an understanding of the role played by the Polytechnics, particularly in view of the Indian government’s major efforts to implement a functioning VET system. Because little is known about the function and embeddedness of the Polytechnics the article therefore aims to examine how polytechnics are embedded in the Indian education and training system and what functions they perform for the actors within the system.Methods: The article begins by describing the systemic embeddedness of Polytechnics in the Indian education system and demonstrates their role and function in relation to a range of stakeholder groups (individuals, employers, society and the economy). Problem-centred face-to-face interviews Interviews were conducted with the principals of 14 Polytechnics in Bangalore, Delhi and Mumbai, among other cities. Semi-standardized interview guidelines were used to conduct the interviews. The interviews were analyzed by qualitative content analysis.Results: The results show that polytechnics perform various functions in the Indian education system. The Polytechnics teach both theoretical and practical skills, which is a special feature of the Indian system at this level. Qualification takes place at an intermediate level, which means that graduates have the opportunity to enter a company after graduation, where they can hold a kind of supervisor position. It is precisely these employees that are increasingly being sought by Indian companies. In addition, polytechnics provide a pathway to higher education, so students can use the opportunity to switch to a college once they have their diploma at the Polytechnic. Furthermore, the Polytechnics offers its graduates a good opportunity to become self-employed through the wide range of specializations and the practice-oriented skill development. In addition, the Polytechnics offer numerous opportunities to promote socially disadvantaged groups. Conclusion: The survey findings illustrate the importance of Polytechnics to the various stakeholder groups, demonstrating their “multidimensional bridging function” within the Indian education and training system.
... Sanchez 2015). Often when the local reaches out externally, reform efforts are often based on the belief that adopting the Community College model will benefit the economy through a stronger and more diverse workforce (Kotamraju 2014;Hargreaves 2012). ...
Volume 1 focuses on characteristics of institutions in the community college and global counterpart sector that makes them distinct from other higher educational institutions. It includes four subsections: (a) “Globalization: Mission, Market Commodity, and the Philosophical Role”; (b) “Institutional and Cultural Adaptations”; (c) “Theories on Achieving Equity: Philosophy and Practice”; and (d) “Class, Race, and Gender Inequalities: Implications for Educational Opportunities.”
... Developing countries have begun to engage the U.S. community college model to complement 4-year university partnership strategies (Cutright, 2014;Kotamraju, 2014;Raby, 2012;Roggow, 2014;UNESCO, 2003;Wang & Seggie, 2013). (Cutright, 2014;Hewitt & Lee, 2006;Mellow & Katopes, 2009;Schroeder & Hatton, 2006;Spangler & Tyler, 2011;Wang & Seggie, 2012;Woods, 2013). ...
This chapter argues that increasing human capital through a combination of university and community college education promotes greater economic growth in developing countries.
... Sanchez 2015). Often when the local reaches out externally, reform efforts are often based on the belief that adopting the Community College model will benefit the economy through a stronger and more diverse workforce (Kotamraju 2014;Hargreaves 2012). ...
Globalization serves as the impetus for sociopolitical and economic change. As a dynamic force, globalization perpetuates
a borderless world where practices and ideas are shared across space and time aided by technology, mobility, communication,
socioeconomic relationships, and environmental interdependence. As an identified concept, globalization impacts institutional
mission and curricula that internationalize the campus, and in so doing, supports intercampus and intercountry relationships
as a “requisite seed for internal change that reflects how the institution responses to [globalization] pressures” (Levin,
2001, p. x). This chapter profiles how community college models are affected by, and perpetuate conditions that advance, globalization
in terms of (a) a global–local dichotomy; (b) economic and humanitarian philosophical influences upon which models are based;
and (c) positive and negative consequences that result from the globalization process.
The development of human civilization has been based on the knowledge and skills passed down from generation to generation, which have allowed people to traverse, adapt to, and manage their social and natural circumstances. As the cornerstone for wealth, well-being, and democratic participation, education plays a pivotal role in economic growth, societal change, and national advancement. Notably, vocational education has a critical role in national progress by integrating economic, social, and demographic development and strengthening institutional and individual capability. The Twelve Five Year Plan (2012-2017) places a strong emphasis on the idea that education is essential for the development of human resources, especially in developing countries. Nelson Mandela emphasized that education is crucial for nation-building and healing, and its impact goes beyond skill development. Furthermore, as Twining (1987) claims, the content of vocational education serves as the foundation for many aspects of everyday life, illustrating the ubiquitous significance that education plays in both individual lives and society systems.
Higher education massification has broadened access to universities throughout the world. However, admission remains highly competitive. Alternative institutions emerged in each country to provide opportunities that would otherwise not exist. These institutions share specific commonalities and are seen as a unique higher educational sector. The Community College and global counterpart sector exists alongside the university sector and shares similarities in mission, philosophy, and institutional design.
China and India together account for almost 25% of the world’s postsecondary student population. Most of the enrolment growth
in the coming several decades will be in developing countries, and China and India will contribute a significant proportion
of that expansion, since China currently educates only about 20% and India 10% of the age cohort. Both countries are expanding
the higher education sector, while at the same time seeking to improve its quality. Challenges of funding, educating qualified
academics, and building a sustainable academic culture are significant. An emerging private higher education sector and developing
masters and doctoral programmes are additional pressures. Internationalization is a key factor as well, as both countries
seek to expand their global profile and develop strategies for international programmes. Also, higher education development
is central to future economic growth of these two of the world’s fastest growing economies.
This paper presents the broad macro parameters of the growth of the Indian economy since the nation's independence and a cross-country
evaluation of where India stands, drawing out the patterns discernible in these aggregative statistics. The paper gives an
overview of the on-going debate on the components of the Indian growth and the relative importance of the different policies
in the 1980s and 1990s. It contributes to this debate by identifying the landmark years, and analysing the politics behind
some of the economics. The paper also analyses the factors behind the changes in India's savings rate and the relation between
growth and development, on the one hand, and the nature of labour market regulation, on the other.
Community colleges have been balancing multiple missions for more than half a century. The Truman Commission's recommendation that community colleges should serve "the total post-high school needs of the community" (President Truman's Commission on Higher Education, cited in Bogart, 1994, p. 62) paved the way to massive expansion and endless controversy. There are two important parts to this controversy. First is the potential problem of offering so many educational services that it is impossible to do any of them well. Although this has been a concern of a number of authors, the comprehensive model is now widespread (Bailey and Averia-nova, 2001; Bailey and Morest, 2004). At least as an organizational strategy, comprehensiveness has been highly resilient. The second part of the controversy is an underlying problem of the first: how much emphasis should community colleges put on vocational as opposed to academic transfer-oriented education? This debate has a very long history, not only for community colleges but for all sectors of U.S. public education. Our economy requires well-trained workers, and individuals certainly must be prepared for work. In fact, vocational education arguably occurs in all sectors of the educational system (Grubb and Lazerson, 2004). At the same time, however, we value delayed entry into the workforce because each additional year of education returns a higher salary and greater opportunity for advancement. In recent years, the baccalaureate degree has acquired increasing importance partly because of the growing gap between the earnings of those with bachelor degrees and those with no more than a high school degree (Bailey, Kienzl, and Marcotte, 2004). Furthermore, although today's high school graduates lack firm conceptualizations about their career choices or how to attain their educational goals, the vast majority claim baccalaureate degrees as their aspiration (Schneider and Stevenson, 1999; Bailey, Jenkins, and Leinbach, 2005). This chapter focuses on two aspects of the missions and roles of community colleges. On one side is the concern that community colleges are becoming vocationalized, to the detriment of other missions, particularly transfer. This perception emerged early on, with the development of comprehensiveness. Today's version of the vocationalization debate has to be expanded to include contract and continuing education. Continuing education is often noncredit and is aimed at students seeking to learn or upgrade specific job-related skills. Many community colleges have established special departments that market or repackage continuing education and other college programs to business and industry clients. These services are described as contract training, and the departments that Offer them have such names as "business training institute" or "center for business and industry." The perceived threat against community colleges in the late 1990s was that contract and continuing education would take over the focus of community colleges, diverting attention and resources away from college credit programs (Dougherty and Bakia, 2000). The second aspect of the mission debate discussed here is a concern that only recently has gained attention. This is the potential for community colleges to shift their attention away from an important constituency: low-income and disadvantaged students. With college tuitions rising sharply and increasing numbers of students seeking baccalaureate degrees, community colleges are well situated to move up the ladder in our highly stratified postsecondary system. Whereas enrollments at public four-year institutions grew by 3.5% from 1990 to 2000 (9% at all four years), public two-year enrollments increased by 14% (U.S. Department of Education [USDOE], 2003c, Table 173). Not only are more students beginning their postsecondary experiences at community colleges, but a larger proportion of these students are recent high school graduates. Community colleges are not growing at the expense of four-year colleges, but they are attracting larger numbers of young students whose parents did not attend college and who are from the middle and lower socioeconomic quintiles (Adelman, 2005). Because bachelor degrees are the educational ambition of the majority of this growing number of traditional students, community colleges have an increasing responsibility to provide postsecondary access through transfer. At the same time this is happening, tuition at both the two- and four-year levels is increasing. Although there is considerable variation across the country, state subsidies to community colleges are not keeping pace with tuition increases. This reflects the ongoing trend toward privatization in higher education, in which the cost for public education is shifting from the states to student tuition and fees. The implications of these developments are that, although community colleges need to increase their emphasis on transfer, they may be thwarted by the inability of students to afford the rapidly increasing costs of attending a four-year college during the junior and senior years. Altogether, these developments create an increasing motivation to shift institutional missions and activities toward better prepared students with more resources, resulting in relatively less emphasis on low-income and more poorly prepared students. Evidence of this is to be found in the community college baccalaureate movement, which has gained momentum in certain states over the past few years. Community colleges have also established and expanded honors programs, which focus on transfer to selective colleges. This developing image is reflected in the media, which provides evidence that the public is taking a broader view of the potential of community colleges. For example, Rolling Stone told its readers that "community colleges give you small classes and an affordable head start on some of the top universities in the country" (Featherstone, 1998, p. 87). In December, 2002, the New York Times ran a front-page article with a similar theme: "Junior Colleges Tr y Niche as Cheap Path to Top Universities" (winter, 2002). And, in 2003, USA Today ran an article about articulation agreements between Miami Dade Community College and a number of public and private institutions, reporting that "more and more, two-year institutions are serving as launching pads for the best and brightest, luring students⋯ with merit scholarships, intensive academic programs and the potential to be discovered by a big-name school" (Marklein, 2003, p. 10D). Evidence of this shift is found in the increasing proportion of traditional students attending community colleges. Between just 1993 and 2001, the proportion of public two-year students between the ages of 18 and 24 grew by 7%, so that now more than half (54%) of the students fall into this age range. In addition to traditional college students, community colleges are also increasing their share of high school students. During the same period, the proportion of students younger than 18 grew from 2.4% to 5.5%. Although the size of this population of students remains relatively small, it is considerably larger at community colleges than any other sector (1.5% of public four-year students were under 18 in 2001; USDOE, 1995, Table 171; USDOE, 2003c, Table 178). These developments increase the importance of the role of community colleges in the educational pipeline. Although at the national level we are learning about how this pipeline works (Adelman, 2005), much less is known at the institutional level. The colleges in this study collect some data about the destinations of their transfer students, but none of the colleges pursued information about what happened to their youngest students-those who started as high school students. So, to a large extent, a community college education is a private affair. Not only are students paying for it increasingly out of their own pockets, but they also take full responsibility for determining how they will use the institutions. The National Field Study indicates two major trends in community college missions. The first is the expansion and institutionalization of contract and continuing education. Although discussion about vocational education at community college often treats it as monolithic, in reality vocational education is highly diversified. Community colleges are clearly strengthening their position as service providers to business and industry, though not without some internal growing pains. The second trend involves academic education and the growing importance to community colleges of transfer. Evidence of this is found not in the rhetoric of administrators, but in student enrollment patterns and organizational structures of the colleges. The chapter concludes with a discussion about how these conflicting trends can be occurring simultaneously within the institutions and the implications for the future of community colleges. © 2006 By The The Johns Hopkins University Press. All right reserved.
This paper, the first in an occasional series on India's education system, places the current issues facing education in India in a historical context. • Since Independence, successive Indian governments have had to address a number of key challenges with regard to education policy, which has always formed a crucial part of its development agenda. The key challenges are: • improving access and quality at all levels of education; • increasing funding, especially with regard to higher education; • improving literacy rates. • Currently, while Indian institutes of management and technology are world-class, primary and secondary schools, particularly in rural areas, face severe challenges. • While new governments commonly pledge to increase spending on education and bring in structural reforms, this has rarely been delivered in practice. • Most of the changes undertaken by the previous BJP-led government were aimed at reforming the national curricula, and have been criticized for attempting to 'Hindu-ize' India's traditionally secular education system. • Improving the standards of education in India will be a critical test for the current Congress-led government. It will need to resolve concerns over the content of the curriculum, as well as tackling the underlying challenges to education.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to examine the initiatives being taken in India in recent years to revitalize the national education and skill development systems from the perspectives of a knowledge economy. These initiatives include strengthening of the higher and technical education system of the country and bringing about a paradigm shift in the national skill development system through the plans of action contained in the on‐going Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007‐2012). The new policy frameworks for education and skill development developed by respective Government Ministries are also to be examined from the point of view of their efficacy in moving India up the ladder of knowledge economy.
Design/methodology/approach
– The critical review is based on an assessment of India's current status on well‐known Knowledge Economy Indices, providing a conceptual understanding of the requirements from the country's education and skill development systems, and the emerging needs for making measurable progress on issues related to education and skill development. The approach is literature‐survey based.
Findings
– The paper, while underscoring the emphasis given by the Government in bringing about major changes through mission‐mode activities in both education and skill development systems, highlights possible gaps and mismatches in various initiatives taken up by different agencies, resulting in continuing issues and challenges in India's path towards moving up the ladder of knowledge economy.
Originality/value
– The paper gives a fresh look at several initiatives which have been continually taken up by the Government in the past, from the prism of a knowledge economy.
This paper reviews the prevailing policy environment to evaluate its efficacy in ensuring that India is successfully able to address these challenges in the education sector. Given the well established constraints on public funding of education, the role of the private sector specially in the provision of higher education and technical training has been highlighted. The paper suggests that India needs to have a proactive demand based policy towards private higher education including foreign institutions/universities desirous of setting up campus in India or entering into joint-ventures. This has to be combined with the establishment of a regulatory mechanism that ensures that students’ welfare is not compromised and quality standards are maintained. [ICRIER Working Paper 179, May 2006]
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