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The Effect of Hay Net Design on Rate of Forage Consumption When Feeding Adult Horses

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... | 1 feeders-can be implemented (Correa et al., 2020;Ellis et al., 2015a;2015b;Hodgson et al., 2022;Morgan et al., 2016;Rochais et al., 2018). Using such feeding devices has many advantages: amongst which is a prolonged but slower hay consumption which helps to mimic the horse's natural foraging behaviour (Ellis et al., 2015a;2015b;Glunk et al., 2014;Morgan et al., 2016;Rochais et al., 2018). Changes in consumption time may vary depending on the type of feeding device employed and the breed/individual. ...
... Only a limited number of studies, however, have explored the effect of such feeding devices on the horse (Ellis et al., 2015b;Glunk et al., 2014;Raspa et al., 2021;Rochais et al., 2018) and not all the findings have been positive. (Raspa et al., 2021) stated that hay nets could result in unnatural neck and back position. ...
... (Raspa et al., 2021) stated that hay nets could result in unnatural neck and back position. Other studies have reported an increase in frustration behaviours: one such study (Glunk et al., 2014) described increased biting and shaking of the hay net, while (Rochais et al., 2018) showed that horses performed more head pushing, pawing and ear backward when fed with the hay bag compared to the slow feeder. (Hodgson et al., 2022) reported the "flinging" of the net by the horse and showed also that greater pull forces were exerted by horses when using double hay nets compared to single hay nets. ...
Article
Slow feeding devices (SFDs) are useful tools in order to improve the horse well‐being and to reduce wastage, but their use may result in unnatural posture during feeding and frustration behaviours. Moreover, it may be important to evaluate the laterality during feeding. The aim of the study was to investigate ponies' feeding behaviour (i.e., lateralisation, frustration, postural eating style) with different hay feeding methods: on the ground (G), a fully filled hay net (HF), a partially filled hay net (HL), and a slow feeder hay box (HB). Nine ponies of two different breed types (Shetland and Welsh/Cob) were evaluated. Video recordings were obtained and then behavioural analysis was conducted. Data were analysed statistically using k‐means cluster analysis, repeated measurement mixed model procedure, principal component analysis (PCA) and Pearson's correlation coefficient. Head tilting was more often performed during feeding from HF and HL compared to G and HB. Forelimb forward, referring to the position that ponies assumed during feeding, was performed less frequently with the hay nets. Ponies, in particular Welsh/Cobs, tended to be more left‐lateralized and performed more backward ears when feeding from the hay nets. Blink rate was observed to be greater when ponies were fed from G. No head pushing, striking with forelimb and pawing while feeding was seen. Animals fed from HF tended to eat from the top of the hay net and consequently showed an arched neck; while HL and HB showed for elongated neck an intermediate pattern between G and HF. From our results, HB seemed to be a useful compromise between natural feeding on the ground and the use of hay nets.
... In addition to affecting the length of the feed intake time by controlling the quality (energy-level) of the forage, it is also important to find feeding methods which can extend the feed intake time [24]. Several studies [24][25][26][27][28][29] have used different "slow feeding" bags/devices/equipment or haynets to decelerate the eating rate of horses by making it more time consuming for them to access the forage. The idea behind using such slow-feeding methods is to lengthen the feed intake time of the horses, and thus to get closer to recreating their natural foraging time. ...
... The idea behind using such slow-feeding methods is to lengthen the feed intake time of the horses, and thus to get closer to recreating their natural foraging time. Feeding hay from a haynet is one of the feeding methods which has been used to increase the feed intake time of horses [24,26]. Haynets can be made of different fabrics in different sizes with different sized holes/openings, through which horses draw out and eat the forage [27]. ...
... Haynets can be made of different fabrics in different sizes with different sized holes/openings, through which horses draw out and eat the forage [27]. Earlier studies [24,26] have shown that the feed intake time of horses is longer when eating forage from a haynet when compared to eating it from the stable floor. Rochais et al. showed that the use of either a haybag or a special "slow-feeder", described as a plastic container with holes on which a plate descended as the hay was consumed, could lengthen the feed intake time of horses, as compared to eating the forage from the floor [27]. ...
Article
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Simple Summary The natural behaviour of horses is to spend the majority of their time foraging. The feed intake time of stabled horses is often far from that, since their feed intake is limited to their nutritional requirements in order to avoid overfeeding and obesity. To approach their natural foraging time, it is important to find methods which can extend the feed intake time for stabled horses. The aim of this study was to estimate if different feeding methods could extend horses’ feed intake times. We measured how long it took for four Icelandic horses to eat 7 kg of high-energy haylage (3.5 kg/meal), from a haynet, hayball, manger, and straight from the box floor, for one day per method. To record the horses’ feed intake time, a video surveillance system was applied using two cameras. All horses stayed healthy throughout the study and ate all feed that was offered. From this study, it can be concluded that feeding high-energy haylage in a hayball or in a haynet can increase the feed intake time of maintenance-fed horses by 13% per day, as compared to more traditional methods. Thus, with simple feeding methods, it is possible to extend the feed intake time of stabled horses, thereby closer resembling horses’ natural foraging time. Abstract The natural behaviour of horses is to spend the majority of their time on feed intake The feeding of stabled horses is, however, often far from that, as their feed intake is limited to their nutritional requirements. In order to approach their natural foraging time, it is important to extend the feed intake time of stabled horses. The aim of this study was to estimate if the feed intake time differs when feeding haylage in a haynet, hayball, metal corner manger, or from the box floor. The experimental design consisted of a Latin square, occurred across four days with four adult Icelandic horses and four treatments. Horses were stabled in individual boxes and fed 7 kg of high-energy haylage in two even meals while the intake time was recorded. The feed intake time per kg DM was shorter from the manger or the box floor than from a haynet or hayball (81 or 85 min versus 94 or 96 min; p < 0.05). It can be concluded that feeding haylage in a hayball or in a haynet can increase the feed intake time by 13% per day (12 min/kg DM/day) when compared to the more traditional methods. Thus, with simple alternatives, it is possible to extend the feed intake time of stabled horses.
... Many horses are not fed ad libitum forage, either to prevent obesity and related conditions or due to a continued assumption that optimum performance cannot be achieved when feeding high levels of forage [1]. Studies where domesticated horses are offered feedstuffs that limit feeding times, due to reduced volume or fast ingestion rate, show that horses will either ingest excessive amounts [3,4] or find alternative ways to carry out foraging related behaviours [2,5,6]. Therefore, it was concluded by Harris et al., that healthy horses should ideally be provided with the opportunity to perform foraging behaviour for a minimum of 8 h per day [1,2]. ...
... Haynets are commonly used to present forage to horses with owners reporting their effectiveness at reducing the amount of wasted forage and limiting parasitic contamination [7]. With the increased understanding of the ethological requirement to chew for horses, haynets have been researched extensively as a tool to increase forage intake times and thus keep horses busier for longer [3,4,6,8] (Figure 1). ...
... Mean Intake time (minutes/kg wet matter of hay) for horses when eating hay from various different haynet types or similar feeding devices [3,4,6,8]. ...
Article
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These studies assessed the pressure forces exerted by horses to extract forage from haynets. Study 1 measured horse posture and pressure in Newtons (10 N = 1 kg Force) exerted on haynets when feeding from either a single (SH) or double layered (DH) haynet (3 kg Hay), hung low or high. Mean and maximum pull forces were higher for the DH vs. SH (DH: 81 ± 2 N, max 156 N; SH: 74 ± 2.9 N, max 121 N; p < 0.01). Horses pulled harder on low (max pull 144 ± 8 N) compared to high (109 ± 8 N; p < 0.05) hung haynets. Mean maximum angles (nose-poll-withers) recorded were 90° ± 9 for SH and 127° ± 10 for DH (p < 0.01). Study 2 was a latin square design measuring forces exerted by 10 horses when eating from haynets (6 kg fill) with hay or haylage and attached to the wall at single or double points. Pull pressures were significantly higher when eating haylage compared to hay (mean: 7.5 kg vs. 2 kg and max: 32 kg versus 12 kg, respectively, (p < 0.001). Forage type and fracture properties had the greatest effect on apprehension rates of hay from haynets. In this study, the majority of force exerted when eating from haynets was below 70 N for hay and for haylage 50% of pulls were higher than 50 N with 8% of pulls above 200N.
... Nowadays, commercial feeding systems, such as hay nets, are used for stabled horses to increase the time they spend feeding on hay with the aim of simulating their natural foraging behaviors [15]. Some studies have evidenced the positive effects resulting from the use of hay nets for horse welfare; for example, Martinson et al. [16] showed how the use of hay nets increases forage consumption times. ...
... Some studies have evidenced the positive effects resulting from the use of hay nets for horse welfare; for example, Martinson et al. [16] showed how the use of hay nets increases forage consumption times. An increase in time spent exhibiting feeding behavior has also been shown to correlate with a reduction in the expression of stereotypic behaviors-which may indicate the failure of the horse to cope with the stable management practices in use, and which do not at all reflect natural living environments [15,17,18]. ...
... It is well known that one of the main factors that negatively affects horse welfare under stabled management conditions is related to feeding practices, such as a diet high in concentrated feedstuffs and low in fiber and long fasting times [4]. For this reason, hay forage diets provided in a hay net are often proposed in order to reduce the risk of long fasting times, with the aim of meeting the natural foraging needs of horses [15,17,20,[37][38][39]. Despite the positive hay net use, hanging them high from the ground [17,20] has been recognized as having potential negative effects on back and neck postures, which can, in turn, negatively affect horse welfare. ...
Article
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The effects of specific feeding positions upon the horse’s shape variations of the back and neck postures as well as the variations of the mandibular angle have never been objectively studied. For this reason, geometric morphometrics was applied. Six horses, aged 14 ± 8 years (mean ± standard deviation, SD), were video-recorded while using three different feeding positions: on the ground—control position (CP); neck held 15 ± 3° below withers height with low hay net position (LP); neck held 15 ± 3° above withers height with high hay net position (HP). Data were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA), multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), and partial least squares (PLS). A mixed model procedure was applied to evaluate differences in the magnitude of the mandibular angle. Whilst differences between individual horses were confirmed by canonical variate analysis (CVA), PCA analysis showed that a characteristic feeding position could also be identified on a group level. During the HP hay net position, the back and neck postures as well the mandibular angle were different compared to those exhibited by horses feeding from CP. In LP hay net position, the back posture more closely resembled those exhibited while feeding from CP; however, no similarity between LP and CP was found for neck posture and mandibular angle. Since only a few degrees of variation of the feeding position can influence back and neck postures, this aspect should be further investigated. The right compromise between horse welfare, horse safety, and management practices need to be further explored and long-term effects should be investigated.
... Horses are physiologically adapted to consume the required forage in small portions throughout the day (Glunk et al., 2014). In nature, they spend about 60% of their time grazing. ...
... It is believed that smaller and more frequent meals can promote greater digestibility, obesity control, and less risk of developing metabolic diseases related to insulin resistance, as well as reducing the risk of colic, stress severity, and associated diseases (Cooper and Albentosa, 2005;Mulligan et al., 2013). Thus, in the last few years, the scientific community has attempted to develop an efficient device to reduce the horses' food intake rate and increase their feeding time (Glunk et al., 2014;Ellis et al., 2015;Morgan et al., 2016). However, there are only a few studies evaluating the efficacy of these methods (Rochais et al., 2018) and none of them evaluated the influence of these devices on stress-related hormones and motor activity. ...
... The use of the hay bag did not interfere with the pelleted feed eating time. Similar studies have resulted in up to a 110% increase in hay consumption time (Glunk et al., 2014) with the use of a 3.2 cm side hay net with three openings (0.72 kg DM/h). However, a previous analysis of the model developed for the present work demonstrated that when using the 3.5 cm opening some animals could not reach the hay and ended up losing interest in the device. ...
Article
Horse confinement is a common practice worldwide. However, preventing horses from grazing and denying them social interaction can compromise their welfare and lead to undesirable consequences. Considering the hypothesis that increasing the forage consumption time can lead to improved welfare, the objective of this study was to verify the effect of the implementation of a slow-feeder hay bag on the ethogram, motor activity, heart rate, and cortisol circadian rhythm (CCR) of stabled horses. Seven healthy horses were kept exclusively in individual stalls and fed pelleted feed, alfalfa hay, and Tifton hay. Horses were evaluated before the experiment and for 10 days foraging through a slow-feeder hay bag. The horses were monitored for 24 hours for ethogram and forage consumption time evaluations. The CCR was calculated by the percent variance between the morning and afternoon serum concentration. A variation of 30% or less was indicative of poor welfare. The effect of time over the variables was verified by paired Student's t or Student-Newman-Keuls tests (P < 0.05). The inclusion of hay bags increased the alfalfa ingestion time by 87% (P = 0.006). At the end of the study, coprophagia stopped in three out of four horses and the mean (± SD) time spent performing abnormal behaviors decreased from 130.6 (± 168.8) to 86 (± 140) min (P = 0.02). The mean CCR variation increased from 26% (± 24) to 58% (± 9) (P = 0.006), with an incidence of four horses with abnormal CCR at baseline and none at the end of the experiment. The motor activity was reduced from 574 (± 126) to 306 (± 167) steps per day (P = 0.05) and the heart rate did not vary. In conclusion, the adoption of a slow-feeder bag, an available and low-cost device, was effective in improving the welfare of stabled horses.
... Hay-nets of different sizes are made of webbed fabric with diamond-shaped openings through which horses extract and consume hay (e.g. Glunk et al., 2014). 'Slow-feeders' are buckets that can hold 7-10 kg of hay on which an adjustable grid slides down when hay diminishes. ...
... increased feeding time, decreased stereotypic behaviours) and negative (i.e. confronted to multiple layered hay-nets) impacts of hay-nets on horse behaviour (Ellis et al., 2015;Glunk et al., 2014;Morgan et al., 2016), but to our knowledge there is no study comparing the impact of different types of devices (hay-nets/bags and slow-feeders) on horse welfare and feeding behaviours. ...
... The simple fact that horses have to 'search' for hay in the holes of the SF and HB facilitates the increase of time spent eating hay compared to the more classical hay distribution on the ground (e.g. Glunk et al., 2014). This is therefore not surprising that, when confronted to the stall ground provision, the horses spent more time expressing frustrated behaviours, in particular vacuum chewing and yawning, than with SF and HB. ...
Article
The temporal distribution of feeding behaviour is of primary importance in grazing herbivores. Many domestic horses are managed under conditions far removed from the natural environment. For example, restricted access to roughage may induce health problems such as gastric ulceration, but also be a source of emergence of stereotypic behaviours, revealing an altered welfare. Devices such as hay-nets/bags and 'slow-feeders' have been developed and aimed to increase the time horses spend feeding on roughage. To assess the impact of these devices on horse welfare we observed the behaviour of 38 domestic horses in their home stall environment. Horses were subjected to different hay-provisioning treatments; 1) hay on the stall ground (usual situation); 2) hay-bags hung at one of the stall walls; 3) hay in a slow-feeder positioned in the corner of the stall. All horses were submitted in a random order to the three conditions for three weeks each time. We found that horses increased their time feeding on hay in both the hay-bag and the slow-feeder treatments compared to the hay on the stall ground treatment. While the hay-bag distribution was associated with an increase of frustration behaviours, the slow-feeder reduced "undesirable" behaviours, such as stereotypic behaviours, and increased "friendliness" towards humans. These results emphasize the importance of identifying feeding strategies and/or devices that improve feeding distribution and improve horse welfare.
... In an effort to lessen the postprandial metabolite and hormone responses to meal feeding, researchers have attempted to increase total time of consumption of feedstuffs by decreasing intake rate (Glunk et al., 2014a) and rate of passage through the digestive tract (Glunk et al., 2013;Kutzner-Mulligan et al., 2013). The objectives of this study were to determine if a limit-fed diet combined with the use of a slow-feed hay net would affect morphometric measurements and postprandial metabolite and hormone patterns in overweight adult horses. ...
... Total time to consumption of the hay meal was measured by trained personnel on d 14 and 28 using a stopwatch. The stopwatch was started when the horses began eating their hay meal and was stopped when the horses consumed their entire hay meal (Glunk et al., 2014a). Dry matter intake rate (DMIR) was determined by dividing the total amount of hay consumed (kg) by the total time to consumption (h). ...
... The differences in DMIR between horses fed from the FLOOR and NET were similar to results found by Glunk et al. (2014a). They determined that DMIR from horses on a non-limit-fed diet fed from the stall floor was 1.49 kg/h, compared with the rate from the same slow-feed hay net, which resulted in 0.88 kg/h. ...
Article
Full-text available
Modern horse management systems tend to limit a horse’s opportunity to forage, rely on meal feeding, and may contribute to the increase in equine obesity. The use of slow-feed hay nets represents an opportunity to extend foraging time while feeding a restricted diet. The objectives of this study were to determine if limit feeding combined with a slow-feed hay net would affect morphometric measurements and postprandial metabolite and hormone patterns in overweight adult horses. Eight adult Quarter horses (BW 563 kg ± 4.6 kg; BCS 7.2 ± 0.3) were used in a randomized complete block design, with 4 horses assigned to feeding hay off the stall floor (FLOOR) and 4 horses assigned to feeding from a slow-feed hay net (NET). Horses were fed in individual stalls at 1% BW each day, split evenly between 2 meals at 0700 and 1600 h. Body weight, BCS, neck and girth circumference, cresty neck score, and ultrasound measurements of average rump fat, longissimus dorsi (LD) depth, and LD thickness were taken on d 0, 14, and 28. Three 24-h blood samplings were conducted on d 0, 14, and 28 and were analyzed for glucose, insulin, cortisol, and leptin concentrations. Samplings occurred every 30 min for 3 h postfeeding, with hourly samples occurring between feedings. Horses feeding from the FLOOR took less time to consume their hay meal compared with horses feeding from the NET (P < 0.001). All horses lost weight over the 28-d period (P < 0.0001); however, no difference was observed between treatments. There was no difference in BCS, neck and girth circumference, cresty neck score, rump fat, or LD depth between days or treatments (P ≥ 0.25). There was an effect of day on LD thickness in horses feeding from the NET. Longissimus dorsi thickness was lower on d 28 compared with that on d 0 (P = 0.0257). Only time to peak insulin and peak cortisol were affected by treatment (P ≤ 0.037), with horses feeding from the NET having lower values than horses feeding from the FLOOR. Average glucose, insulin, cortisol, and leptin were affected by day (P ≤ 0.0102). Glucose and insulin values increased, whereas cortisol and leptin levels decreased throughout the 28-d study. The use of a slow-feed hay net coupled with a limit-fed diet appears to be an effective method for decreasing BW and maintaining more homeostatic levels of postprandial metabolites and hormones when feeding overweight adult horses. © 2015 American Society of Animal Science. All rights reserved.
... In an effort to lessen the postprandial metabolite and hormone responses to meal feeding, researchers have attempted to increase total time of consumption of feedstuffs by decreasing intake rate (Glunk et al., 2014a) and rate of passage through the digestive tract (Glunk et al., 2013;Kutzner-Mulligan et al., 2013). The objectives of this study were to determine if a limit-fed diet combined with the use of a slow-feed hay net would affect morphometric measurements and postprandial metabolite and hormone patterns in overweight adult horses. ...
... Total time to consumption of the hay meal was measured by trained personnel on d 14 and 28 using a stopwatch. The stopwatch was started when the horses began eating their hay meal and was stopped when the horses consumed their entire hay meal (Glunk et al., 2014a). Dry matter intake rate (DMIR) was determined by dividing the total amount of hay consumed (kg) by the total time to consumption (h). ...
... The differences in DMIR between horses fed from the FLOOR and NET were similar to results found by Glunk et al. (2014a). They determined that DMIR from horses on a non-limit-fed diet fed from the stall floor was 1.49 kg/h, compared with the rate from the same slow-feed hay net, which resulted in 0.88 kg/h. ...
Article
Full-text available
Modern horse management systems tend to limit a horse's opportunity to forage, rely on meal feeding, and may contribute to the increase in equine obesity. The use of slow-feed hay nets represents an opportunity to extend foraging time while feeding a restricted diet. The objectives of this study were to determine if limit feeding combined with a slow-feed hay net would affect morphometric measurements and postprandial metabolite and hormone patterns in overweight adult horses. Eight adult Quarter horses (BW 563 kg ± 4.6 kg; BCS 7.2 ± 0.3) were used in a randomized complete block design, with 4 horses assigned to feeding hay off the stall floor (FLOOR) and 4 horses assigned to feeding from a slow-feed hay net (NET). Horses were fed in individual stalls at 1% BW each day, split evenly between 2 meals at 0700 and 1600 h. Body weight, BCS, neck and girth circumference, cresty neck score, and ultrasound measurements of average rump fat, longissimus dorsi (LD) depth, and LD thickness were taken on d 0, 14, and 28. Three 24-h blood samplings were conducted on d 0, 14, and 28 and were analyzed for glucose, insulin, cortisol, and leptin concentrations. Samplings occurred every 30 min for 3 h postfeeding, with hourly samples occurring between feedings. Horses feeding from the FLOOR took less time to consume their hay meal compared with horses feeding from the NET ( < 0.001). All horses lost weight over the 28-d period ( < 0.0001); however, no difference was observed between treatments. There was no difference in BCS, neck and girth circumference, cresty neck score, rump fat, or LD depth between days or treatments ( ≥ 0.25). There was an effect of day on LD thickness in horses feeding from the NET. Longissimus dorsi thickness was lower on d 28 compared with that on d 0 ( = 0.0257). Only time to peak insulin and peak cortisol were affected by treatment ( ≤ 0.037), with horses feeding from the NET having lower values than horses feeding from the FLOOR. Average glucose, insulin, cortisol, and leptin were affected by day ( ≤ 0.0102). Glucose and insulin values increased, whereas cortisol and leptin levels decreased throughout the 28-d study. The use of a slow-feed hay net coupled with a limit-fed diet appears to be an effective method for decreasing BW and maintaining more homeostatic levels of postprandial metabolites and hormones when feeding overweight adult horses.
... In an effort to lessen the postprandial metabolite and hormone responses to meal feeding, researchers have attempted to increase total time of consumption of feedstuffs by decreasing intake rate (Glunk et al., 2014a) and rate of passage through the digestive tract (Glunk et al., 2013;Kutzner-Mulligan et al., 2013). The objectives of this study were to determine if a limit-fed diet combined with the use of a slow-feed hay net would affect morphometric measurements and postprandial metabolite and hormone patterns in overweight adult horses. ...
... Total time to consumption of the hay meal was measured by trained personnel on d 14 and 28 using a stopwatch. The stopwatch was started when the horses began eating their hay meal and was stopped when the horses consumed their entire hay meal (Glunk et al., 2014a). Dry matter intake rate (DMIR) was determined by dividing the total amount of hay consumed (kg) by the total time to consumption (h). ...
... The differences in DMIR between horses fed from the FLOOR and NET were similar to results found by Glunk et al. (2014a). They determined that DMIR from horses on a non-limit-fed diet fed from the stall floor was 1.49 kg/h, compared with the rate from the same slow-feed hay net, which resulted in 0.88 kg/h. ...
Conference Paper
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Abstract Text: Horses evolved to consume several small, frequent meals throughout the day. However, modern horse care has resulted in many horses being stalled for large portions of the day, and meal fed, therefore decreasing their ability to forage. This management scheme has likely contributed to the increase in obesity in the equine population. The use of slow-feed hay nets represents an opportunity to extend foraging time while restricting forage intake. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine if restricted feeding coupled with increased time to forage consumption would lead to weight loss in over-weight adult horses. Eight adult Quarter horses (BW 562 kg ± 2 kg) were used in a completely randomized design, with 4 horses assigned to a control (C) of feeding hay off the stall floor, and 4 horses assigned to feeding from a slow feed (3.2 cm openings) hay net (SN). Horses were fed at 1.08% BW, split evenly between two meals. A ration balancer was fed at recommended levels during the morning feeding. Body weight, via a livestock scale, and BCS were measured on d 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35. Morphometric measurements, including neck and girth circumference and cresty neck score, a system developed to estimate the level of adiposity on the crest of the neck using a 0 to 5 scale, were taken on d 0, 14, 21, and 35. Ultrasound measurements of average rump fat, longissimus dorsi (LD) depth and LD thickness were taken on d 0, 21, and 35. Data were analyzed using the Proc Mixed procedure of SAS. All horses lost weight over the 35 day period (P < 0.0001), however; no difference was observed between the SN and control. Horses on the SN lost an average of 40 kg, while horses on the C lost an average of 32 kg. There was no difference observed in BCS, neck and girth circumference, or cresty neck score during the study or between treatments (P ≥ 0.25). Additionally, no differences were observed in rump fat, LD depth, or LD thickness during the study or between the treatments (P ≥ 0.32). While all horses lost weight on the restricted diet, the use of a slow feed hay net did not have an effect on weight loss or morphometric measurements during the 35 d study. Keywords: restricted diet, weight loss, slow-feed hay net
... Slow feeding devices are typically reported in the literature as either a type of haynet or a ground based slow feeder. The effect of haynets with various hole sizes on feed intake and behavior has been evaluated in several studies (11)(12)(13). More recently, ground based slow feeder containers often with nets or grids to help slow down feed intake rates have been studied (2,14). ...
... Feeding from the HF led to the greatest increase in Bite/h and Bite/kg compared to ad libitum ground feeding for both breed types (Table 4). Previous studies have shown a similar effect of increased intake rate and thereby increased feeding time (12,13). This is not surprising given that as a consequence of the haynet being filled the surface becomes more or less convex and "tight, " thus affecting the ponies' ability to bite and grab the hay and requiring them to modify their mouth shaping in order to pull out the forage from the net. ...
Article
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In the last decade, haynets and slow feeders have been promoted as sustainable tools to improve the feeding management of horses and reduce forage waste, but little is known about their effects on ponies. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the effects of different hay feeding methods on the ingestive behaviors, intake rate and mouth shaping of ponies belonging to two breed types, which are characterized by different head morphologies. Shetland type (SH, n = 5) and Welsh/Cob type (WC, n = 4) ponies were fed hay using four feeding methods: on the ground (G), a fully filled haynet (HF), a partially filled haynet (HL), and a slow-feeder hay box (HB). Head morphology was measured for each pony. Video recordings were then made to apply geometric morphometrics and to perform behavioral analysis. The intake rate was measured for each pony and each feeding method. Data obtained with geometric morphometrics were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA) and canonical variate analysis (CVA). Behavioral data and intake rate measurements were analyzed using a mixed model, a post-hoc Tukey’s test, a Pearson’s correlation test, and a stepwise regression model. The geometric morphometrics results demonstrated that feeding method influenced mouth shaping (36% for G, 78% for HB, 77% for HF, 83% for HL, considering the total variance of shape) and affected the intake rate. Differences in mouth shaping and ingestive behaviors in SH and WC ponies also confirmed the role of morphology in feeding management. The HL proved to be the most effective tool to increase feeding consumption time when needed (5 h/kg for SH ponies and 3 h/kg for WC ponies, considering the intake time), although the HB may be the optimal choice to reduce the intake rate while maintaining a more natural posture. Future studies are suggested to fully understand how body size and morphology influence feeding in equine species.
... Williams et al. (2004) found horses 'appeared frustrated' within an extinction phase, showing increased behavioural vigour and some aggression (biting and nudging). Other studies have shown head-butting, nudging and forceful pulling of forage when access to food is restricted by small-holed nets (Glunk et al., 2014;Ellis et al., 2015). These behaviours are in keeping with the definition of frustration and change in expected outcomes, providing an insight into potential equine behavioural indicators of frustration. ...
... Behaviours such as displacement or conflict behaviours, aggression (both direct and redirected), increased locomotion (involving whole body movements or more isolated areas such as head tossing or leg pawing) and muscle tension were agreed to indicate acute frustration. These are all behaviours cited within previous literature as indicating frustration (Glunk et al., 2014;Ellis et al., 2015;Hintze et al., 2017). These behaviours require further investigation and validation by utilising the additional causes of frustration also proposed by participants to design studies which differentiate them from other affective states using validated behavioural indicators. ...
Article
Full-text available
Frustration is a term often used to describe both a behavioural response to a situation and an emotional state experienced when goals or rewards are expected but not received. Literature on human and non-human animals provides an understanding into the mechanisms underlying frustration and the common behaviours expressed. Frustration is regarded as a negative affective state that could indicate a welfare concern. However, literature on horses lacks consistency regarding those behaviours believed to indicate frustration. The purpose of the current study was to ascertain expert opinion on the causes and behavioural indicators of frustration in horses via a Delphi Consultation process with 30 experts in the field of equine behaviour. Twenty-six statements were generated by experts in a two-round Delphi to describe potential causes of frustration, behavioural indicators of acute and chronic frustration and to enhance general understanding of the topic. The statements generated were agreed upon by >70% of participants. Mean level of agreement within demographic variables (researcher status (active or inactive), consultant status (active or inactive) and qualification level (<PhD or PhD holder)) was analysed using Welch’s t-Test with no significant difference seen between any of the variables (t(21.55) = 1.11, p>0.05; t(14.47) = -1.22, p>0.05; t(15.31) = 2.10, p>0.05 respectively). Consensus agreement suggests that horses are likely to exhibit frustration in similar ways to other species - in acute situations through increased locomotion, muscle tension, directed and redirected aggression, conflict or displacement behaviours; in chronic situations through the development of repetitive (stereotypic) behaviours and learned helplessness or shutdown behaviours. It was also suggested that certain management practices and human interactions are likely causes of most frustration-related behaviours. The majority of participants agreed (85.7%) that frustration may present similar behaviours to other affective states, indicating the need for caution when attributing the cause of observed behaviours solely to frustration. The study highlights the need for further exploration and empirical studies to validate behavioural indicators of frustration and to clarify differentiation of them from other affective states.
... Various studies have reported benefits of individually feeding horses square bale flakes using hay bags. Reported benefits include reducing individual dry matter intake and increasing foraging time ( Glunk et al., 2014 ;Morgan et al., 2016 ;Correa et al., 2020 ), reducing stereotypic and abnormal behaviors ( Rochais et al., 2018 ;Correa et al., 2020 ), and increasing horse friendliness towards people ( Rochais et al., 2018 ). Further, Burla and colleagues (2016) observed that groups of horses fed using multiple hay bags hanging on a wall, fence, or post showed reduced aggressive behavior and threats compared to feeding systems such as floor feeding. ...
... In the present study, hay nets with small openings (4.445 cm diameter) resulted in an increased frequency of total agonistic threats and head threats compared to hay nets with large openings (7.62 cm diameter) or no net. In prior work evaluating horse hay intake when individually fed using hay bags, hay intake decreased and consumption time increased in bags with small openings compared to large opening or floor feeding ( Glunk et al., 2014 ). While this may be beneficial for managing hay intake and increasing foraging time, hay nets with smaller openings may increase horse frustration ( Rochais et al., 2018 ). ...
Article
Hay nets are often used while feeding horses in order to reduce hay waste and slow consumption. While feeder style affected agonistic behavior in group fed horses in prior studies, little work has evaluated the effect of round bale hay nets on horse aggression. Fifteen horses were split into three groups (n = 5 per group), balanced for sex and age. Following a two-week acclimation to pastures and groups, horses were evaluated over three weeks using a 3×3 Latin Square experimental design. Horses were given a round bale within a ring feeder (B&W Farm and Ranch, Humboldt, KS) via each treatment for one week: (1) without a hay net (no net; control), (2) surrounded with a hay net with small diameter openings (small opening; 4.445 cm diameter; Texas Haynet, LLC. Tulepo, MS) or (3) surrounded with a hay net with large diameter openings (large opening; 7.62 cm diameter, Texas Haynet, LLC. Tulepo, MS). Horse behavior around the feeder was recorded and video was continuously analyzed from 0800 to 1100 hours twice per week during the three treatment weeks. Agonistic threats (head threats and kick threats), aggression (bite, kick, chase), and avoidance behavior of horses within a 3 m x 3 m area surrounding the feeder were recorded. The total frequency of agonistic threats was greater in horses fed using the small opening net compared to the large opening net or no net (P ≤ 0.026). No difference in total frequency of agonistic threats between the large opening net and no net were observed (P = 0.908). Net provision or opening size did not affect the total frequency of aggressive behaviors observed (P = 0.187). Frequency of avoidance behavior was greater in horses fed using the small opening net compared to no net (P = 0.005) but did not differ from avoidance frequency of large opening nets (P = 0.173). No difference in avoidance frequency was observed between large opening or no net treatments (P = 0.114). In conclusion, horses fed using round bale hay nets with small openings were observed to have increased agonistic threats and avoidance behavior. Therefore, round bale hay nets with large openings may be a better choice for group fed horses.
... Jørgensen et al. (2011) investigated the use of edible and non-edible items intended to provide enrichment during turnout for the non-stereotypic horses. Glunk et al. (2014) studied the effect of hay net design on the rate of forage consumption when feeding horses, however, it was not established whether the horses displayed any form of stereotypic behaviors in their study. Rochais et al. (2018) found that fourteen horses out of 28 expressed stereotypic and abnormal repetitive behaviors at least once during 9 weeks of observation. ...
... These results of frequency of reaction to enrichment items agreed with those of Jørgensen et al. (2011) who found that both NST horses kept individually and in groups performed significantly more item-directed behaviors towards edible items. With regard to those horses which require large quantities of feed over a short period of time, Glunk et al. (2014) found that the medium (4.4 cm openings) and small (3.2 cm openings) hay nets may cause some frustration (i.e., biting and shaking the hay net) which did not occur with the large (15.2 cm openings) hay nets. Therefore, our study used hay nets with 10 cm openings as the large size of hay net which was easy to obtain from the market. ...
Article
Full-text available
Our preliminary study investigated: 1) differences of general behaviors between stereotypic (male, n=2, ST) and non-stereotypic (male, n=2, NST) stabled horses 2) the different reactions to enrichment items (hay nets, bedding straw and yoga ball) between ST and NST horses. The frequency of general behaviors, stereotypic behaviors and the reactions to enrichment items were recorded. The results showed that there was a significantly different frequency of ingestion, locomotion, standing alert, investigation and social interactions between ST and NST horses during 24 hours of observation (P<0.05). The ST horses performed weaving and wind sucking. There were significant differences in reactions, such as sniffing, watching and rolling when using enrichment items (P<0.05). The frequency of sniffing was the highest when bedding straw was used. The horses displayed watching behaviors when using yoga ball (P <0.05) and rolling (P <0.05) when using bedding straw. The frequency of sniffing straw bedding in NST horses was greater than that of ST horses (P=0.006). The NST horses preferred watching the ball (P<0.001). Only ST horses performed rolling when provided with straw bedding. In conclusion, the differences in general behaviors between ST and NST horses were established. Different reactions to enrichment items also occurred between ST and NST horses. A more extensive study with a larger sample size and a continuous recording of behavior for a longer period is recommended.
... Jørgensen et al. (2011) investigated the use of edible and non-edible items intended to provide enrichment during turnout for the non-stereotypic horses. Glunk et al. (2014) studied the effect of hay net design on the rate of forage consumption when feeding horses, however, it was not established whether the horses displayed any form of stereotypic behaviors in their study. Rochais et al. (2018) found that fourteen horses out of 28 expressed stereotypic and abnormal repetitive behaviors at least once during 9 weeks of observation. ...
... These results of frequency of reaction to enrichment items agreed with those of Jørgensen et al. (2011) who found that both NST horses kept individually and in groups performed significantly more item-directed behaviors towards edible items. With regard to those horses which require large quantities of feed over a short period of time, Glunk et al. (2014) found that the medium (4.4 cm openings) and small (3.2 cm openings) hay nets may cause some frustration (i.e., biting and shaking the hay net) which did not occur with the large (15.2 cm openings) hay nets. Therefore, our study used hay nets with 10 cm openings as the large size of hay net which was easy to obtain from the market. ...
Article
Our preliminary study investigated: 1) differences of general behaviors between stereotypic (male, n=2, ST) and non-stereotypic (male, n=2, NST) stabled horses 2) the different reactions to enrichment items (hay nets, bedding straw and yoga ball) between ST and NST horses. The frequency of general behaviors, stereotypic behaviors and the reactions to enrichment items were recorded. The results showed that there was a significantly different frequency of ingestion, locomotion, standing alert, investigation and social interactions between ST and NST horses during 24 hours of observation (P<0.05). The ST horses performed weaving and wind sucking. There were significant differences in reactions, such as sniffing, watching and rolling when using enrichment items (P<0.05). The frequency of sniffing was the highest when bedding straw was used. The horses displayed watching behaviors when using yoga ball (P <0.05) and rolling (P <0.05) when using bedding straw. The frequency of sniffing straw bedding in NST horses was greater than that of ST horses (P=0.006). The NST horses preferred watching the ball (P<0.001). Only ST horses performed rolling when provided with straw bedding. In conclusion, the differences in general behaviors between ST and NST horses were established. Different reactions to enrichment items also occurred between ST and NST horses. A more extensive study with a larger sample size and a continuous recording of behavior for a longer period is recommended.
... Jørgensen et al. (2011) investigated the use of edible and non-edible items intended to provide enrichment during turnout for the non-stereotypic horses. Glunk et al. (2014) studied the effect of hay net design on the rate of forage consumption when feeding horses, however, it was not established whether the horses displayed any form of stereotypic behaviors in their study. Rochais et al. (2018) found that fourteen horses out of 28 expressed stereotypic and abnormal repetitive behaviors at least once during 9 weeks of observation. ...
... These results of frequency of reaction to enrichment items agreed with those of Jørgensen et al. (2011) who found that both NST horses kept individually and in groups performed significantly more item-directed behaviors towards edible items. With regard to those horses which require large quantities of feed over a short period of time, Glunk et al. (2014) found that the medium (4.4 cm openings) and small (3.2 cm openings) hay nets may cause some frustration (i.e., biting and shaking the hay net) which did not occur with the large (15.2 cm openings) hay nets. Therefore, our study used hay nets with 10 cm openings as the large size of hay net which was easy to obtain from the market. ...
Article
Our preliminary study investigated: 1) differences of general behaviors between stereotypic (male, n=2, ST) and non-stereotypic (male, n=2, NST) stabled horses 2) the different reactions to enrichment items (hay nets, bedding straw and yoga ball) between ST and NST horses. The frequency of general behaviors, stereotypic behaviors and the reactions to enrichment items were recorded. The results showed that there was a significantly different frequency of ingestion, locomotion, standing alert, investigation and social interactions between ST and NST horses during 24 hours of observation (P<0.05). The ST horses performed weaving and wind sucking. There were significant differences in reactions, such as sniffing, watching and rolling when using enrichment items (P<0.05). The frequency of sniffing was the highest when bedding straw was used. The horses displayed watching behaviors when using yoga ball (P <0.05) and rolling (P <0.05) when using bedding straw. The frequency of sniffing straw bedding in NST horses was greater than that of ST horses (P=0.006). The NST horses preferred watching the ball (P<0.001). Only ST horses performed rolling when provided with straw bedding. In conclusion, the differences in general behaviors between ST and NST horses were established. Different reactions to enrichment items also occurred between ST and NST horses. A more extensive study with a larger sample size and a continuous recording of behavior for a longer period is recommended.
... Further, they found that the feeding consumption was lower from the small mesh haynets (1.52 kg DM per 100 kg bw) as compared to from the ground (1.65 kg DM per 100 kg bw) (Abrahamsson, 2012). Glunk et al. (2014) found that the rate of forage consumption decreased 40% with a small mesh haynet (3.2 cm openings) as compared to feeding from the ground. Ellis et al. (2015) compared different haynets and found that a small mesh haynet (25-30 mm openings) increased the feeding time by 5 min/kg that was equal to 20% when compared to "large-holed" haynets (75 mm). ...
... Possible explanations can be that this was the oldest horse (26 years) or that he had a different behavioural pattern. Complete data on how much haylage each horse left each day was not available due to missing data, which makes it difficult to analyse if this could have affected the result of Horse 3. The results with increased feed intake time are according to other studies (Ellis et al., 2015;Glunk et al., 2014;Abrahamsson, 2012;Lindbäck, 2012). ...
Article
Horses are by nature herbivores and graze during the main part of the day. For stabled horses the feeding rations are often restricted and it would be preferred to develop a feeding system that allows long feed intake times. A possible way to lengthen the feed intake time is to hamper the availability of the forage by using a small-mesh haynet. The study had two aims concerning feeding horses with small-mesh haynets; first to investigate how the stable staff’s work load was affected and second to study the horse’s feed intake time. Two parallel studies were carried out at the Swedish National Equestrian Centre Strömsholm. In both studies four split-up portions daily were used as control management. The first study on work load measured the time of feeding routines using 14 horses fed with small-mesh haynets once a day and 17 horses in the control management. The second study focused on the feed intake time using a cross-over design where four horses were filmed during four consecutive days in each feeding system; feeding forage once a day in small-mesh haynets (mesh size 3×3 cm) compared to control management. The data were statistically analysed and the level of significance was set to p<0.05. The horses remained their body condition and no colic occurred.
... Atların sindirim sistemi, gün boyunca küçük porsiyonlarda gerekli yemi tüketmek için fizyolojik olarak uyarlanmıştır (Glunk, Hathaway, Weber, Sheaffer, & Martinson, 2014). Bir dış padok alanda yetiştirilen at genelde otlanarak beslenirken, bir tavla içerisinde bireysel bölmede yetiştirilen at ise daha çok bölmede yer alan yemlikten beslenmektedir. ...
... The straw diet would thereby support the suggested minimum feeding time of 8 h/day [6], whereas the control diet would not. An 80% increase in feeding time, as shown with the straw diet, is in the same range as the increase in feeding time observed when changing from feeding on the floor to feeding from hay nets with small openings (3.2 cm, [27]). There might be several reasons for the increased feeding time on straw. ...
Article
Full-text available
Straw’s low energy content means it is a roughage option for horses with low energy requirements. Previously, in a field study, straw was associated with an increased risk for gastric ulcers. This study evaluated the effect on gastric ulcers, metabolic profile and behaviour of replacing, in a forage-only ration, 50% of the daily allowance with wheat straw. Six equines were studied in a 2 × 21-day cross-over design. The control diet (CON: 100% grass forage) and the straw diet (S: 50% grass forage and 50% straw [DM basis]) were iso-energetic. Gastroscopy was performed prior to the study and on day 21 and blood samples were collected and behavioural observations were performed. Diet did not affect squamous or glandular gastric ulcer scores (p > 0.05). Feed intake time was longer (p < 0.05) plus energy intake and plasma insulin concentrations were lower on diet S compared to CON (p < 0.0001). Plasma serotonin concentrations tended to be higher on diet S compared to CON (p = 0.05). The results suggest that good hygienic quality wheat straw can be included for up to 50% of the diet without causing gastric ulcers and that it can extend feeding time and promote a metabolic profile more suitable for overweight horses.
... In our study, horses with EGUS already received the minimum dosage indicated (the median value recorded was 1.6% BW), but the CNC service recommends as much as 2% of BW per day 'as fed' to further increase the feeding time. As ad libitum forage is not always possible for stabled horses, forage should be put in a net with medium and small holes to increase the time spent on forage ingestion (Glunk et al., 2014). ...
Article
Nutrition plays a very important role in the healthy and in the ill horse. Although research in this field clearly shows that incorrect nutritional practices may lead to severe pathologies, inappropriate feeding plans often continue to be used. A clinical nutrition counselling (CNC) service could thus be of great use to both horse owners and veterinarians. The aim of this study was to provide information on equine patients referred to the CNC service of the University of Turin and to provide standard dietary protocols as used in our Veterinary Teaching Hospital for the most common nutrition-related pathologies. The data were obtained by retrospective analysis of the nutritional records of referred equine patients. The data collected included information about anamnesis, nutritional assessment, current diet, referring person and follow-up of each patient. Sixty-one horses were included in the study. The majority were adult males. The most common breeds were the Italian Saddle Horse and the Friesian Horse. Old horses (>19 years) had a statistically lower BCS than brood mares or other adult horses (p < 0.01). The most common nutritional pathologies were chronic weight loss (CWL), chronic diarrhoea (CD) and equine gastric ulcer syndrome. All horses received first-cut meadow hay; 85% also ate concentrates. Young horses (<2 years) received more hay as a percentage of body weight (BW) than old horses or adults. The hay percentage of BW per day given to animals with CWL was statistically higher than those with CD (p < 0.01). The concentrate percentage of BW given to old horses was statistically lower compared to that given to young horses (p < 0.05). The concentrate percentage of BW per day given to horses with colic was statistically higher than that given to horses with CD (p < 0.05). 28% of cases were referred by the owner and 72% by a veterinarian. Follow-up evaluation was deemed to be ‘good’ in 92% cases and ‘poor’ in 8%. In summary, the CNC service could provide an epidemiological observatory to study the prevalence of nutritional issues in the equine population.
... In this regard, it must be considered that 'net' is a feeding system associated with a prolonged duration of hay availability. Feeding from narrow-mesh nets, compared with loose hay on the floor, was found to decrease the intake speed by approximately 50% and thus double the intake duration (Glunk et al., 2014;Zeitler-Feicht et al., 2004). Horses are adapted to continual intake of small meals throughout the day (Janis, 1976;Zeitler-Feicht, 2005), and the feeling of satiety is achieved by a fatigue of the masticatory muscles by biting and chewing (Meyer and Coenen, 2014;Zeitler-Feicht, 2008) and other oropharyngeal factors like prehension, salivation and swallowing (Ralston, 1984). ...
Article
Under natural conditions, horses spend 12–18 hours of a day with synchronous grazing, but for stabled horses, the amount of forage and thus duration of feed intake usually are restricted. In group-housed horses, therefore, feeding times are often situations with increased levels of agonistic behaviour. Our aim was to evaluate how forage provision, feeding duration and group composition influence agonistic behaviour. The study was conducted on 50 groups of 4–21 adult horses (n = 390) housed in group housing systems. Each group was observed for 30 minutes before and for the first 30 minutes after a hay feeding. Feeding systems were ‘floor’, ‘fodder rack’, ‘feed fence’, ‘net’, ‘feed stall with contact’, ‘feed stall no contact’ or a ‘combination’ of these. Hay was provided mostly 2–3 times per day but the duration of hay availability varied from 1.5–24 hours per day, whereas straw was mostly available ad libitum. Results showed that the proportion of horses showing agonistic behaviour was generally higher before than during feeding. Aggressive behaviour – bearing the risk of injuries by physical contact – was highest in ‘floor’ and lowest in ‘net’ ( = 13.0, p = 0.043). Aggressive behaviour decreased substantially during feeding with an increasing duration of hay availability ( = 7.1, p = 0.008). Threatening behaviour was highest in ‘floor’, ‘fodder rack’ and ‘feed fence’ and lowest in ‘feed stalls’ ( = 25.4, p < 0.001). Threatening behaviour increased with an increasing proportion of mares in the group ( = 5.0, p = 0.025). Displacements occurred most in ‘floor’ and least in ‘feed stalls’ ( = 37.37, p < 0.001). Additionally, displacements decreased substantially during feeding with an increasing duration of straw availability ( = 4.4, p = 0.035). Furthermore, horses fed at time-bound feeding times tended to show more locomotor activity before feeding than horses with no time-bound feeding times, whereas no difference was found during feeding (F1,321 = 3.62, p = 0.058). In conclusion, feeding places that are either individually separated by partitions or distant from each other lead to a reduced occurrence of agonistic behaviour, most likely because horses in such systems are able to maintain their perceived individual distances. Furthermore, it is highly recommended – from an ethological point of view – to provide not only straw but also hay over an unlimited period, regardless of the feeding system.
... Other researchers have also documented that barriers can slow hay, pasture, and grain consumption. Glunk et al [19] determined that horses feeding from slow feed hay nets had reduced dry matter intake rates (DMIR), resulting in extended foraging time compared with feeding hay off the stall floor. Aristizabal et al [20] also determined that horses consumed less hay when fed from a grid hay net compared with the stall floor. ...
Preprint
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Slow-feeders, a type of hay dispenser, are becoming increasingly popular among horse keepers, yet there is limited knowledge about their effects on horses’ oral and musculoskeletal health. Existing studies on this topic use varied protocols, complicating comparisons and replication. Thus, validated protocols are essential, ensuring consistent intra- and inter-rater agreement and reliability over time, while also being feasible for implementation in research. In this work, we designed a protocol for the assessment of musculoskeletal health (MSH) and adapted an existing protocol for the assessment of rostral oral cavity (incisors and gums; ROC). We evaluated the agreement between raters obtained with the two protocols, tested their intra- and inter-rater reliability using Kappa and Gwet indices, investigated their feasibility of implementation, and discussed their validity in the context of previous findings. The MSH protocol demonstrates promising inter-observer reliability and substantial intra-rater reliability, indicating consistent use by various practitioners over time. While improvements could enhance its accuracy, the protocol is accessible to those with limited experience, quick to implement, and applicable to all horse types. Preliminary results suggest that this protocol may be a valid tool for assessing MSH in horses. The ROC protocol, with the exception of one item, showed substantial to almost perfect inter- and intra-rater reliability. It has been successfully employed in two studies, yielding consistent findings on the prevalence and severity of dental abnormalities. This protocol demonstrates potential as a non-invasive method for assessing the condition of the rostral oral cavity in horses. Rater training was identified as crucial for the reliability of both protocols. Notably, the Kappa and Gwet indices produced considerably different results, suggesting careful consideration is needed when using the Kappa index to assess protocol reliability. Further research should focus on refining these protocols and exploring their broader applications to enhance their accuracy and ease of use. This study contributes significantly to the field by providing reliable, non-invasive methods for assessing key aspects of equine health, ultimately aiming to improve horse welfare. The findings emphasize the need for standardized protocols to facilitate consistent and accurate evaluations, benefiting both scientific research and practical care in the equine industry.
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Slowfeeders (SFs) are feed dispensers designed to mechanically slow feed intake. As such, they are a promising tool for improving the welfare of horses by meeting their behavioural and physiological feeding needs while controlling the risk of obesity. However, there is limited knowledge regarding the current use of SFs by horse owners and the profile of horses using such feeders. The objective of this questionnaire-based study was to evaluate the slow-feeding practices among horse owners and yard operators in some French-speaking European countries (Belgium, France and Switzerland). We received 1,283 replies, revealing that the population of horses fed with SFs differs from the general population of ridden horses in several aspects, such as age, training, and housing. This information is valuable for ensuring representative sampling in future studies. Regarding the type of SF used, more than 85% of the respondents reported using hay nets, with hay nets covering the hay in the hayrack or surrounding a bale of hay being particularly popular. The main reasons for using SFs were waste management, weight reduction, and increased feeding time for horses. Most respondents did not encounter any issues when using SFs and less than 10% of respondents reported health problems and accidents resulting from the use of SF. Differences were also found between countries and between operators and owners, indicating that different user profiles have varying requirements for the feeder they use.
Article
Horses are herbivores and are designed to eat a diet high in fibre and low in starch, obtained through freedom of movement to select and forage from a diverse range of plants in the company of other horses. Forage fed to domesticated horses is often provided in various devices designed to replicate more natural feeding patterns, but can result in frustration behaviours even though horses are adept at learning to manipulate such devices to surmount feeding challenges. Because domesticated horses are often required to perform in a range of spheres, which in turn requires higher energy output, many horses have their fibre rations restricted in favour of feeding high-starch substrates. This can lead to significant changes in the microbial environment of the gut, which compromises gastrointestinal health and can cause a range of undesirable behaviours. Diet-related disorders such as gastric ulcers are commonly seen when restricting forage rations and/or overfeeding starch in the horse, and behavioural consequences include frustration-related behaviours, aggression and oral and locomotory stereotypies, all of which compromise the horse's welfare. Meeting the behavioural needs of the horse by giving them agency to access the 3 Fs – friends, forage and freedom – is inextricably linked with their natural feeding behaviour. It is fundamental to ensure that horses are provided with the opportunity for positive feeding experiences to improve both physical and mental welfare.
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Over the last 10 years there has been increasing awareness and subsequently recorded cases of equine gastric ulcer syndrome and with this comes an increased interest in appropriate nutrition and feed management. This review presents a systematic approach to assessing the ration of a horse at risk of or diagnosed with equine gastric ulcer syndrome and demonstrates the ample evidence upon which to base nutritional recommendations for horses with equine squamous gastric disease, and to a lesser extent, equine glandular gastric disease, with an emphasis on forage. Careful selection and management of the forage ration should be the first step in designing a suitable ration, followed by selection of an appropriately low starch and sugar (less than 2 g per kg body weight per day and 1 g per kg body weight per meal) complementary feed.
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Increasing awareness of the prevalence of overweight and obese horses has shed light on to the importance of appropriate nutrition and feed management within weight loss programmes. The review presents a basic approach to weight loss programme design and appropriate feeding and shows that while there is sufficient information upon which to base weight loss programmes, the findings of recent research into compliance and communication is likely to improve future success. Further education for livery yards and establishments is also a pivotal piece of the weight loss puzzle. There is still ground with regard to the most appropriate conserved forage, and a shift in responsibilities and mindset when it comes to forage analysis may be required. Ultimately, success may lie in a multidisciplinary team approach to weight recognition and management, and the development of a framework for fostering and maintaining communication across paraprofessionals and owners is an essential first step.
Article
The application of hay feeding devices, such as the use of hay nets or slow feeders, can help with the management of weight in ponies; however, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their effect on equine posture. Therefore, the aim of the study was to assess the effect of different feeding devices on the posture of ponies using morphometric analysis. Two different breed types, Shetland type (SH, n = 5) versus Welsh Cob type (WC, n = 4), were fed the same forage in four different ways: on the ground (G), using a fully filled haynet (HF), using a partially filled haynet (HL) and using a slow-feeder hay box (HB). Video recordings were obtained and then geometric morphometric analysis was applied. Breed morphology was confirmed by body morphometric measurements. Data were analysed statistically using one-way ANOVA, canonical variate analysis (CVA), principal component analysis (PCA), partial least-squares (PLS) analysis and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Moreover, a mixed model was performed to study differences in mandibular angle. SH and WC ponies were shown to have significantly different body morphometric measurements. The geometric morphometric analysis results showed that ponies arch their back and modify their neck shape differently according to the feeding method and their morphological group. For the neck, the SH and WC ponies adapted similarly to the use of small-holed hay nets, but their posture varied when feeding from the ground or hay box. The back postures consistently differed according to the breed type and feeding method. The mandibular angle for both breed types was reduced with all the feeding devices compared to feeding from the ground. Further studies are needed to evaluate the long-term effects of slow-feeding devices on posture and mandibular angle, taking into consideration animals with different morphologies.
Article
Full-text available
Restrictions in forage availability lead to short eating or foraging times which could contribute to reduced welfare in horses. Strategies to maximise foraging time are therefore of interest. One such strategy is to feed forage in small-holed haynets to restrict eating rate, but it can also induce frustrating behaviours in the horse. Other strategies are therefore of interest. The effect of adding straw to a forage-based diet, with and without the use of haynets, on eating and feeding time in horses was examined in this study. Combinations examined were: haylage on the floor and no straw; haylage in haynet and no straw; haylage and straw in the same haynet; and haylage in haynet and straw on the floor. Eight horses were used in a complete change-over study where each treatment lasted for three consecutive days and horses were observed for 2 h during each treatment day. Measurements included forage eating time (minutes per kg dry matter forage), forage eating rate (kg dry matter forage per h), and total feeding time (in minutes per observation period, including effective eating time and feed searching time). Average forage eating time was shorter (P = 0.0004) and average forage eating rate was faster (P = 0.0001) when haylage was fed on the floor with no straw available, compared to all other treatments. Average total feeding time was longer (P < 0.03) for treatments where straw was included compared to treatments without straw. Results showed that feeding forage in haynets prolonged forage eating time and slowed down forage eating rate compared to feeding forage on the floor. The total feeding time was extended by providing straw on the floor in addition to forage in a haynet, or together with the forage in the same haynet. In conclusion, providing straw in addition to forage with or without using a small-holed haynet increased total feeding time and feed searching time compared to treatments without straw
Article
Over the last 10 years there has been increasing awareness and subsequently recorded cases of equine gastric ulcer syndrome and with this comes an increased interest in appropriate nutrition and feed management. This review presents a systematic approach to assessing the ration of a horse at risk or diagnosed with equine gastric ulcer syndrome and demonstrates the ample evidence upon which to base nutritional recommendations for horses with equine squamous gastric disease, and to a lesser extent, equine glandular gastric disease, with an emphasis on forage. Careful selection and management of the forage ration should be the first step in designing a suitable ration, followed by selection of an appropriately low starch and sugar (less than 2g per kg body weight per day and 1g per kg body weight per meal) complementary feed. There is still more to learn about the role of supplements in the prevention and treatment of equine gastric ulcer syndrome, thus these should currently be viewed as an adjunct to an appropriate base diet and not as an isolated solution.
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Increasing awareness of the prevalence of overweight and obese horses has shed light on to the importance of appropriate nutrition and feed management within weight loss programmes. The review presents a basic approach to weight loss programme design and appropriate feeding and shows that while there is sufficient information upon which to base weight loss programmes, the findings of recent research into compliance and communication is likely to improve future success. Further education for livery yards and establishments is also a pivotal piece of the weight loss puzzle. There is still ground with regard to the most appropriate conserved forage, and a shift in responsibilities and mindset when it comes to forage analysis may be required. Ultimately, success may lie in a multidisciplinary team approach to weight recognition and management, and the development of a framework for fostering and maintaining communication across paraprofessionals and owners is an essential first step.
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Reduced lignin alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) has the potential to provide a higher quality forage source for livestock by improving forage digestibility. This study was conducted to evaluate apparent digestibility when feeding reduced lignin and non-reduced lignin alfalfa hay to adult horses, and to examine mean fecal particle size (MFPS) and mean retention time (MRT) between alfalfa forage types. In 2017, reduced lignin (‘54HVX41’) and non-reduced lignin (‘WL355.RR’) alfalfa hay was harvested in Minnesota at the late-bud stage. Alfalfa hays were similar in crude protein (CP; 199 g kg -1), neutral detergent fiber (NDF; 433 g kg -1), and digestible energy (DE; 2.4 Mcal kg -1). Acid detergent lignin (ADL) concentrations were lower for reduced lignin alfalfa hay (74 g kg -1) compared to non-reduced lignin alfalfa hay (81 g kg -1). Dietary treatments were fed to six adult, stock-type horses in a crossover study. Experimental periods consisted of a 9-d dietary adaptation phase followed by a 5-d total fecal collection phase, during which horses were housed in individual boxstalls and manure was removed on a continuous 24-h basis. At 12-h intervals, feces were thoroughly mixed, subsampled in duplicate, and used for apparent digestibility and MFPS analysis. On day 2 of the fecal collection phase, horses were fed two indigestible markers, cobalt (Co) and ytterbium (Yb), which were fed as Co-EDTA and Yb-labelled NDF residue, respectively. Additional fecal samples were taken at 2-h intervals following marker dosing until 96-h post-dosing to evaluate digesta MRT. Data was analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS, with statistical significance set at P ≤ 0.05. Dietary treatment (i.e., alfalfa hay type) was included as a fixed effect, while experimental period and horse were considered random effects. Dietary treatments were similar in dry matter intake (DMI; 1.6% BW) and time to consumption (TTC; 7.6 h). Apparent dry matter digestibility (DMD) was greater for reduced lignin alfalfa (64.4%) compared to non-reduced lignin alfalfa (61.7%). Apparent CP and NDF digestibility did not differ between dietary treatments, averaging 78% and 45%, respectively. Dietary treatments were similar in MFPS (0.89 mm) and MRT for both liquid (23.7 h) and solid (27.4 h) phase material. These results indicate an improvement in DMD for reduced lignin alfalfa hay when fed to adult horses, with no change in forage consumption, fecal particle size, or digesta retention time.
Chapter
Our own experiences and scientific evidence demonstrate the significant positive impact therapy animals have on us, including our physical and emotional well-being. For the safety of all animals involved in animal-assisted interventions (AAI), and the humans they interact with, the well-being of therapy animals must also be carefully evaluated. The physical well-being of a therapy animal is paramount for its welfare, as well as the welfare of the humans that benefit from the animal interaction. Appropriate preventative and wellness care can reduce the occurrence of disease in animals and allow for a longer, better quality of life.
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Equine obesity is common, reducing quality of life and requiring dietary energy restriction. Equine obesity is identified using subjective body condition scoring. Considerations are given for life stage and health status when managing obese equines. Every effort should be made to maximize feeding duration, and minimize time spent without feed while meeting all essential nutrient requirements. Limiting total daily dry matter intake to 2% of current bodyweight per day of a low caloric, forage-based diet may result in adequate body weight loss. Weight loss and weight management plans should be monitored for success and potential gastrointestinal, metabolic, and/or behavioral complications.
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Briony Witherow MSc RNutr. Practical Equine Nutrition, looks at recent exceptional weather conditions and the possible impact on horses when transitioning from winter to spring
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Social media are an ever-present part of daily life and for researchers and may be a useful platform to increase potential participant pools for Web-based surveys. Although survey usage to evaluate practices in the equine community is not new, the use of social media to advertise and enhance the usage of Web-based surveys is novel. In 2018, the University of Minnesota (UMN) equine Extension program developed and administered two Web-based surveys through the UMN equine Extension Facebook page and monthly e-newsletter. Surveys focused on industry practices and motivating factors behind the usage of hay nets and methods to provide water in the winter to horses. Two thousand eighty-eight participants started the hay net survey with a completion rate of 96%, whereas the winter water survey had a completion rate of 94%, with 930 participants starting the survey. Participant demographics aligned with previous survey populations and represented all regions of the United States. Both surveys revealed information, which described current industry practices as well as future research needs. In addition, participants were asked if scientific research would impact future decision-making in regards to equine management. When exploring hay net practices, most participants responded "maybe" (48%, n = 527), whereas for the winter water survey, the majority responded "yes" (68%, n = 877). Web-based surveys administered through social media present multiple benefits, including savings of both cost and labor, compared with traditional mailed surveys. Despite the success observed with the present surveys, this methodology may not be suitable for organizations with limited social media followers.
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Esophageal obstruction or “choke” is a relatively common occurrence in equines. It often results from improper mastication, consuming feed too quickly, dehydration, or a decrease in saliva production. Esophageal obstruction is a medical emergency during which a horse cannot dislodge a bolus of feed from the esophagus and must wait for human intervention or for the block to be softened and moved by peristalsis. This condition may result in the formation of ulcers, esophageal rupture, aspiration pneumonia, and possibly death. Grazing muzzles have been shown to slow the rate of forage intake. We hypothesized that grazing muzzles could also be used to decrease the rate of pelleted feed intake and so possibly reduce the risk of equine esophageal obstruction in horses fed large meals of pelleted feed. The objective of this research was to compare the rate of pelleted feed intake for horses wearing grazing muzzles to those wearing no muzzle. Using a crossover design, horses were randomly assigned to 3 groups with each horse receiving each treatment. Treatments were as follows: no muzzle, easy breath grazing muzzle, or tough 1 nylon grazing muzzle. Eight adult stock-type horses aged 5 ± 1 years were offered 2.27 kg of pelleted concentrate to consume in a 10-minute period once daily. The study was comprised of 3 periods (5 days each) with a 2-day resting period between each. Horses were weighed daily and no significant change in bodyweight was observed. Data for daily intake were analyzed using the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS with significance established at P < 0.05. Both the easy breath grazing muzzle and the tough 1 nylon grazing muzzle reduced rate of intake (P < 0.05) during a 10-minute feeding interval as compared with no muzzle. The findings of this study revealed that grazing muzzles may be a viable option to reduce the rate of intake of pelleted feed, which may benefit horses susceptible to choke as a result of rapid feed ingestion.
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In spite of the importance of grazed forage in horse nutrition, little information is available on their daily intake at pasture. We determined the intake of 4 non-breeding mares of a heavy breed (average body weight = 674 kg), grazing during the summer in heterogeneous natural grasslands of the Marais Poitevin (France), an internationally important wetland where grazing is an essential process which maintains biodiversity. The mares ate large quantities of forage (21.9 ± 2.4 kg of organic matter per day, i.e. 166.2 ± 20.8 g of organic matter per kg LW0.75 per day) in comparison with previous published values and with the estimated requirements of these horses. The use of the vegetation was very selective, the mares spent about 70% of their feeding time on short grass lawns (sward surface < 4 cm, biomass < 100 g.m–2), that represented only 10% of the area. This behaviour maintained the plants at young growing stages which are of better quality than ungrazed plants. These results are discussed in relation to the dynamics of the plant communities.
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The impact of horse preference and grass morphology on grazing muzzle effectiveness has not been investigated. The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of grazing muzzle use at reducing forage intake when horses grazed grasses with different morphology and preferences. The study was conducted in 2012 and 2013. Four horses were grazed in 2012, and three horses were grazed in 2013. Four species of perennial, cool-season grasses were grazed in 2012 including Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), meadow fescue (Schedonorus pratensis Huds.), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), and reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.). In 2013, only Kentucky bluegrass and reed canarygrass were grazed due to winter kill of other species. Horses were allowed to graze a small pasture seeded with an individual species for 4 hours each day in June and August of 2012, and August and September 2013. Horses grazed the same grass species for two consecutive days, one day with a muzzle and one day without. Prior to and after each grazing, a strip was mechanically harvested to determine initial and residual herbage mass. The difference was used to estimate forage intake. The effectiveness of a grazing muzzle was not affected by forage species (P ≥ 0.05). Use of a grazing muzzle decreased the amount of forage consumed by an average of 30%, compared to not using a grazing muzzle (P <.0001). Results will aid horse owners and professionals in estimating forage intake of muzzled horses on pasture.
Article
Full-text available
In spite of the importance of grazed forage in horse nutrition, little information is avail- able on their daily intake at pasture. We determined the intake of 4 non-breeding mares of a heavy breed (average body weight = 674 kg), grazing during the summer in heterogeneous natural grasslands of the Marais Poitevin (France), an internationally important wetland where grazing is an essential process which maintains biodiversity. The mares ate large quantities of forage (21.9 ± 2.4 kg of organic matter per day, i.e. 166.2 ± 20.8 g of organic matter per kg LW 0.75 per day) in comparison with previous published values and with the estimated requirements of these horses. The use of the veg- etation was very selective, the mares spent about 70% of their feeding time on short grass lawns (sward surface ≤ 4 cm, biomass < 100 g.m -2 ), that represented only 10% of the area. This behaviour maintained the plants at young growing stages which are of better quality than ungrazed plants. These results are discussed in relation to the dynamics of the plant communities. horse / intake /grassland / heterogeneity / wetland
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To determine whether dietary and other management factors were associated with development of colic in horses. Prospective matched case-control study. 2,060 horses examined by veterinarians in private practice in Texas for colic and noncolic emergencies. Each month for 12 months, participating veterinarians were sent forms to collect information on 1 horse with colic and 1 horse that received emergency treatment for a condition other than colic, information collected included signalment, farm management and characteristics, diet, medical and preventive medical factors, transport, and activity or use. Case and control horses were compared by means of conditional logistic regression to identify factors associated with colic. Recent change in diet, recent change in type of hay, history of previous episode of colic, history of abdominal surgery for colic, recent change in weather conditions, recent change in housing, Arabian breed, administration of an anthelmintic during the 7-day period prior to examination, failure to receive regular deworming, age > 10 years, and regular exercise (vs pastured at all times) were associated with increased risk of colic. Results suggest that changes in diet (particularly in type of hay fed) contribute to increased risk of colic. A regular program for administration of anthelmintics may reduce the overall frequency at which colic develops, but recent administration of anthelmintics may predispose some horses to colic. Arabian horses may have an increased risk of colic, and horses at pasture may have a decreased risk of colic.
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This article posits that stereotypical behavior patterns and the overall psychological well being of today's performance horse could be substantially enhanced with care that acknowledges the relationship between domesticated horses and their forerunners. Feral horses typically roam in stable, social groups over large grazing territories, spending 16-20 hr per day foraging on mid- to poor-quality roughage. In contrast, today's elite show horses live in relatively small stalls, eat a limited-but rich-diet at specific feedings, and typically live in social isolation. Although the horse has been domesticated for more than 6000 years, there has been no selection for an equid who no longer requires an outlet for these natural behaviors. Using equine stereotypies as a welfare indicator, this researcher proposes that the psychological well being of today's performance horse is compromised. Furthermore, the article illustrates how minimal management changes can enhance horses' well being while still remaining compatible with the requirements of the sport-horse industry. The article discusses conclusions in terms of Fraser, Weary, Pajor, and Milligan's "integrative welfare model" (1997).
Article
Objective To determine whether dietary and other management factors were associated with development of colic in horses. Design Prospective matched case-control study. Population 2,060 horses examined by veterinarians in private practice in Texas for colic and noncolic emergencies. Procedure Each month for 12 months, participating veterinarians were sent forms to collect information on 1 horse with colic and 1 horse that received emergency treatment for a condition other than colic. Information collected included signalment, farm management and characteristics, diet, medical and preventive medical factors, transport, and activity or use. Case and control horses were compared by means of conditional logistic regression to identify factors associated with colic. Results Recent change in diet, recent change in type of hay, history of previous episode of colic, history of abdominal surgery for colic, recent change in weather conditions, recent change in housing, Arabian breed, administration of an anthelmintic during the 7-day period prior to examination, failure to receive regular deworming, age > 10 years, and regular exercise (vs pastured at all times) were associated with increased risk of colic. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance Results suggest that changes in diet (particularly in type of hay fed) contribute to increased risk of colic. A regular program for administration of anthelmintics may reduce the overall frequency at which colic develops, but recent administration of anthelmintics may predispose some horses to colic. Arabian horses may have an increased risk of colic, and horses at pasture may have a decreased risk of colic. ( J Am Vet Med Assoc 1999;215:53-60)
Article
A method was developed to fractionate the neutral detergent-soluble carbohydrates (NDSC) in feedstuffs. Differential solubilities of carbohydrates in 80:20 (v/v) ethanol/water were used to partition NDSC into organic acids (OA) and mono- and oligosaccharides soluble in ethanol/water from starch and neutral detergent-soluble fibre (NDSF) which are insoluble. Mono- and oligosaccharides (total ethanol/water-soluble carbohydrate) were measured on the ethanol/water extract, and starch was measured on the ethanol/water-insoluble residue. The OA and NDSF, the two most compositionally diverse NDSC fractions, were estimated by difference. The method allows partitioning of the NDSC on a nutritionally relevant basis into (1) organic acids, (2) total ethanol/water-soluble carbohydrate, (3) starch and (4) neutral detergent-soluble fibre. The methods involved in this fractionation are relatively simple or are commonly used.
Article
A method was developed to fractionate the neutral detergent-soluble carbohydrates (NDSC) in feedstuffs. Differential solubilities of carbohydrates in 80:20 (v/v) ethanol/water were used to partition NDSC into organic acids (OA) and mono- and oligosaccharides soluble in ethanol/water from starch and neutral detergent-soluble fibre (NDSF) which are insoluble. Mono- and oligosaccharides (total ethanol/water-soluble carbohydrate) were measured on the ethanol/water extract, and starch was measured on the ethanol/water-insoluble residue. The OA and NDSF, the two most compositionally diverse NDSC fractions, were estimated by difference. The method allows partitioning of the NDSC on a nutritionally relevant basis into (1) organic acids, (2) total ethanol/water-soluble carbohydrate, (3) starch and (4) neutral detergent-soluble fibre. The methods involved in this fractionation are relatively simple or are commonly used. (C) 1999 Society of Chemical Industry.
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The so-called 'inefficiency' of the perissodactyls, resulting from the evolution of a cecal site of fermentation, arises because the strategy of selecting fibrous herbage was developed early in their evolution. The ruminant artiodactyls did not adopt this sort of diet until they were of a sufficiently large body size for a rumen fermentation site to be physiologically possible. It appears that body size at the time of the adoption of a fibrous diet is the critical factor in determining the type of digestive system that will be evolved. Cecal digestion is in fact the superior adaptation for dealing with high fiber content herbage, provided that intake is not limited by the actual quantity of herbage available. The Equidae continued to be successful in the face of the radiation of ruminant artiodactyls because they could maintain themselves on herbage more fibrous than could be tolerated by a ruminant of similar body size.
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To evaluate experimental induction of recurrent airway obstruction (RAO) with inhaled fungal spores, lipopolysaccharide, and silica microspheres in horses. ANIMALS: 7 horses with and 3 horses without a history of RAO. PROCEDURES: RAO-susceptible horses ranged in age from 17 to approximately 30 years, and control horses ranged in age from 7 to approximately 15 years. Pure mold cultures were derived from repeated culture of hay and identified via gene amplification and sequencing. Pulmonary function testing and bronchoalveolar lavage were performed before and after nebulization with a suspension of spores derived from 3 fungi, lipopolysaccharide, and 1-microm silica microspheres in all horses. This was followed by a 4-month washout period and a further pulmonary function test followed by saline (0.9% NaCl) solution challenge and bronchoalveolar lavage. RESULTS: Lichtheimia corymbifera, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Eurotium amstelodami were consistently identified in cultures of moldy hay. Nebulization with fungal spores, lipopolysaccharide, and microspheres induced significant increases in pleural pressure in RAO-susceptible but not control horses. Airway neutrophilia developed in both groups of horses with exposure to challenge material but more severely in RAO-susceptible horses. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that inhalation of fungal spores in combination with lipopolysaccharide and silica microspheres can induce disease exacerbation in susceptible horses and may thus be a useful model for future standardized studies of RAO in horses
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Four quarter/paint horse open mares between the ages of four and seven years old were used to determine dry matter (DM) a 1 nd organic matter (OM) hay wastage on round baled Coastal bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa) hay when hay rings were present or absent. Average daily gain (ADG), dry matter intake (DMI), and DMI as a percentage of body weight (BW) were also collected. Results indicated that percent DM wastage was higher (P < 0.001), for horses fed hay without rings (WOR) than for those fed hay with hay rings (WR). No differences (P > 0.05) were found in ADG. Furthermore, there were no differences (P > 0.05) in dry matter intake (DMI) or DMI as a percent of body weight (BW) in horses between hay ring treatments. However, there were increases (P = 0.03), (P = 0.01) respectively in DMI and DMI as a percentage of BW for horses fed alfalfa (ALF) independent of hay ring. Conclusions indicate that a high percent of wastage occurs when horses are fed either coastal bermudagrass or alfalfa round baled hay without hay rings. Also, when horses are fed alfalfa round baled hay, DMI is likely increased due to increased palatability.
Article
Six mature idle geldings were used in a crossover design to determine the effects of restricted grazing on hindgut pH and fluid balance. Initially, horses were randomly assigned to a control group (CTRL: n = 3) having access to warm-season grass pasture continuously, or a restricted grazing (RG: n = 3) group having access to pasture for 12 consecutive hours (1900-700 hours) per 24-hour period for 7 days; they were then reassigned to the opposite treatment for an additional 7 days (i.e., CTRL: n = 6; RG: n = 6). Fecal samples were collected from each horse at 700 hours on day 7 of each period and analyzed for pH and dry matter (DM) as indicators of hindgut pH and fluid balance, respectively. Jugular blood samples were also collected at 700, 1300, and 1900 hours on day 7 and were analyzed for plasma protein as an indicator of systematic fluid balance. Fecal pH and DM data were analyzed using a paired t test. Plasma protein data were analyzed as a repeated-measures design. The mean (± SE) difference between CTRL and RG for fecal pH (.01 ± .16) and fecal DM (.68 ± .6%) was not significant (P = .93 and .52, respectively). Mean plasma protein concentrations were not affected by treatment or by treatment × sample time interaction, but tended to increase (P = .07) during the sampling period regardless of treatment. In conclusion, 12 hours of grazing restriction followed by 12 hours of grazing did not negatively impact hindgut pH or fluid balance.
Article
Eight mature horses weighing 576 ± 32 kg (mean ± SD) were used to compare differences in pasture dry matter (DM) intake rate in October (period 1), February (period 2), and May (period 3). Horses were randomly assigned to a pair of adjacent 5 m × 5 m grazing cells containing nontoxic, endophyte-infected tall fescue. Horses had access to each cell for 4 hours. Pasture DM intake rate was estimated over the entire 8-hour period by measuring the pre- and postgrazing herbage mass within each cell and was expressed as kg DM/100 kg body weight (BW)/hr. Mean 8-hour DM intake rate in period 1 (0.17 ± 0.01 kg DM/100 kg BW/hr) was greater (P < .001) than for period 2 (0.09 ± 0.01 kg DM/100 kg BW/hr) and period 3 (0.11 ± 0.01 kg DM/100 kg BW/hr), but it was not different (P = .274) between periods 2 and 3. A second experiment using the same eight horses was conducted immediately after the first experiment, within each season, to determine whether the DM intake rates derived from the first experiment could be used along with estimates of maintenance digestible energy (DE) requirements and pasture DE concentrations to predict the amount of grazing time required for a horse to consume only its maintenance DE requirement and maintain zero BW change over a 6-week period. Grazing time necessary to maintain zero BW change was accurately predicted for period 1 only.
Article
In this study, we investigated the effect of increasing the number of meals of concentrate (whilst maintaining the same daily intake) on the behaviour of stabled horses with particular reference to stereotypic activities. The study was carried out on a working equestrian yard with stables for up to 50 horses. A pilot study was used to record incidence of stereotypic behaviour and to select subjects for the main study. In this, the behaviour of 30 warm-blooded horses was recorded during their morning (08:30h) and afternoon (16:30h) concentrate feeds. Whilst there was a low incidence of stereotypic behaviour (5.6% of scans) in the population, they were more commonly observed in the afternoon (7.1%) than the morning observations (4.2%; P < 0.05). The higher incidence in the afternoon observation appeared to be related to the lower availability of high fibre forage during the afternoon meal. In the main study nine horses were fed their normal ration of concentrate divided between two, four or six equally sized meals. Their behaviour was compared with seven control horses, which received two meals per day throughout the trial. As the number of meals increased, the treatment horses showed a decrease in oral stereotypies (P < 0.01), but an increase in weaving (P < 0.05) and nodding (P < 0.01) prior to feeding. The control group increased weaving, nodding and oral stereotypies (all P < 0.05) as their yard-mates received more meals. Consequently there was an overall increase in incidence of stereotypy in both treatment and control horses with the increase in meal frequency. The study, therefore, suggests that dividing the stabled horses’ concentrate ration into a number of smaller meals may be an effective means of reducing oral stereotypies, but that pre-feeding stereotypies may persist and that the practise may increase the frequency of stereotypic behaviour on unfed horses in visual contact.
Article
This study compared a feeder with cups (Pre-Vent® feeder) with a commonly used rubber tub (Tub) and hanging bucket (Bucket) feeder to determine differences in time spent eating and feed wastage. Nine Quarter Horse geldings were fed a 12% crude protein pellet diet at 0.75% bodyweight per day twice a day from one of the 3 feeders twice a day for 3 d, and then switched to the next feeder following a 3 X 3 replicated Latin square design (n = 9). The horses spent more time eating from Cups (31.15 ± 1.43 min) than Bucket (19.39 ± 0.42 min), and Tub (18.87 ± 0.49 min, P
Article
Two studies were conducted to determine waste of alfalfa hay when fed to horses. In study one, four quarter/paint horse open mares (Equus caballus) between the ages of four and seven years old were used to determine hay wastage on round baled alfalfa (Medicago sativa) (ALF) hay when hay rings were present or absent. Average daily gain (ADG), dry matter intake (DMI), and DMI as a percentage of body weight were also collected. Results indicated that percent wastage was higher (P0.05) were found in ADG. Furthermore, there were no differences (P>0 .05) in dry matter intake or DMI as a percent of body weight in horses between treatments. In study two, fifteen long yearling quarter horses were used to determine square bale waste in a stall setting while feeding in a feeder versus on the ground. DMI and ADG were also collected. Results indicated that percent wastage was higher (P0.05) were found in DMI or ADG.
Article
Management techniques that reduce the insulin response to feeding in horses have application in preventing insulin resistance (IR) and potential associations (e.g., laminitis). Eight mature idle horses of BCS between 5 and 6.5 and with no previous indication of IR were fed a meal of concentrate under 4 feed delivery treatments in a repeated Latin Square design. Treatments were all based on a bucket of equal dimensions. The treatments included a control (CON) and 3 treatments hypothesized to increase time to consume feed (TCF): mobile obstacles above the feed (BALL), stationary obstacles below the feed (WAFF), and feed with water added (WTR). Jugular venous blood samples were taken at feed delivery, every 10 min for the first hour, and then every 30 min until 300 min post feed delivery. The TCF was different across treatment and was greater (P < 0.05) for BALL and WAFF when compared to CON and WTR. Glucose and insulin concentrations increased following feeding (P < 0.05), and tended to differ among treatments (P < 0.10). Peak insulin and glucose concentrations were affected by treatment, as were the time to peak insulin and the area under the curve of insulin (P < 0.05). Therefore, feed delivery methods that include obstacles effectively increase TCF and attenuate post-prandial glucose and insulin concentrations. A second experiment was designed to determine if the TCF changes associated with BALL and WAFF in Exp. 1 remain effective over a 4-d period. Four horses with no recent or regular history of consuming concentrates were fed concentrate meals for 4 consecutive days using the same treatments described in Exp. 1 and a Latin Square design. Horses were subject to a 4-d adaptation period and were randomly assigned to 4-d treatment periods using the 4 previously described treatments. During adaptation, TCF decreased over time (P = 0.02). Following adaptation, WAFF had greater TCF when compared to CON and WTR (P < 0.05), while WTR had the lowest TCF overall. Utilizing obstacles to increase TCF on a daily basis may be an effective method to reduce post-prandial glucose and insulin concentrations, thereby decreasing the risk of IR development in horses.
Article
Many behaviours in domestic animals, such as the 'stable vices' of horses, are treated because they are considered undesirable for economic or cultural reasons, and not because the activity affects the horse's quality of life. The impact of a behaviour on the human reporter is not a function of its impact on the animal performer, and an understanding of the causes and effects of the particular activity is necessary to assess the costs and benefits of treatment Where the behaviour is a sign of poor welfare, such as an inadequate environment, treatment can best be achieved by removing these underlying causal factors. Pharmacological or physical prevention of a behaviour can be justified only if the behaviour causes harm to the performer or to others. In these cases, prevention of the behaviour without addressing its causes is no cure and may result in its perseverance in a modified form or the disruption of the animal's ability to adapt to its environment. Where the behavioural 'problem' causes no harm and is not related to poor housing, then the education of the reporter, rather than treatment of the performer, may be the best solution.
Article
A method was developed to fractionate the neutral detergent-soluble carbohydrates (NDSC) in feedstuffs. Differential solubilities of carbohydrates in 80:20 (v/v) ethanol/water were used to partition NDSC into organic acids (OA) and mono- and oligosaccharides soluble in ethanol/water from starch and neutral detergent-soluble fibre (NDSF) which are insoluble. Mono- and oligosaccharides (total ethanol/water-soluble carbohydrate) were measured on the ethanol/water extract, and starch was measured on the ethanol/water-insoluble residue. The OA and NDSF, the two most compositionally diverse NDSC fractions, were estimated by difference. The method allows partitioning of the NDSC on a nutritionally relevant basis into (1) organic acids, (2) total ethanol/water-soluble carbohydrate, (3) starch and (4) neutral detergent-soluble fibre. The methods involved in this fractionation are relatively simple or are commonly used.© 1999 Society of Chemical Industry
Article
Many horse owners find round bales convenient, less labor intensive, and more affordable than other hay types, but report an inability to control horse BW gain and excessive hay waste. The objectives were to compare hay waste, hay intake, and payback of 9 round-bale feeders and a no-feeder control when used during horse feeding. Nine round-bale feeders were tested: Cinch Net, Cone, Covered Cradle, Hayhut, Hay Sleigh, Ring, Tombstone, Tombstone Saver, and Waste Less. Each feeder design was placed on the ground in a dirt paddock. Five groups of 5 horses were fed in rotation for a 4-d period with each feeder. Every fourth day, groups were rotated among paddocks and a new round bale was placed in each feeder. In the 5 paddocks used, 5 feeders were installed for d 1 through 20, and the remaining 4 feeders and no-feeder control were installed for d 21 through 40. Groups of horses were sequentially assigned to feeders using two 5 × 5 Latin squares, the first for d 1 through 20, the second for d 21 through 40. Horse groups of similar age, BW, breed, and sex were formed from 25 Quarter Horse and Thoroughbred geldings and open mares (means: 11 yr; 541 kg of BW). Hay on the ground surrounding the feeder was collected daily, dried, and weighed. The total amount of hay removed around each feeder for a 4-d period was considered waste. Dry matter intake was estimated as the difference between hay disappearance and waste. Number of months for the reduction in waste to repay feeder cost (payback) were calculated using hay valued at $110/t, and improved feeder efficiency over the control. Feeder design did not affect hay intake (P > 0.05); all feeders resulted in an estimated hay intake of 2.0 to 2.4% BW; the no-feeder control resulted in a reduced intake of 1.3% BW (P = 0.001). Mean percentage of hay waste differed among feeders (P < 0.001): Waste Less, 5%; Cinch Net, 6%; Hayhut, 9%; Covered Cradle, 11%; Tombstone Saver, 13%; Tombstone, Cone, and Ring, 19%; Hay Sleigh, 33%; and no-feeder control, 57%. Feeder design also affected payback (P < 0.01). The Cinch Net paid for itself in less than 1 mo; Tombstone and Ring, 2 mo; Hayhut and Tombstone Saver, 4 mo; Hay Sleigh, 5 mo; Waste Less, 8 mo; Cone, 9 mo; and Covered Cradle, 20 mo. Round-bale feeder design affected hay waste and payback, but not estimated hay intake or BW change during horse feeding.
Article
Esophageal obstruction is common in horses and can result in life-threatening complications. Previous studies have described clinical findings in horses with esophageal obstruction, but there are no reports that attempt to make correlations of clinical findings with outcome. Specific clinical features of horses with esophageal obstruction are associated with increased likelihood of complications. One hundred and nine horses with esophageal obstruction. Methods: Retrospective cross-sectional study. All clinical records of horses admitted between April 1992 and February 2009 for esophageal obstruction were reviewed. The association among 24 clinical, hematological, biochemical, therapeutic variables and the likelihood of complications was investigated by a univariable logistic regression model, followed by multivariable analysis. Results: Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that intact males (P= .02), age >15 years (P < .01), and a need for general anesthesia (P < .01) were associated with the development of complications after an episode of esophageal obstruction. Increased respiratory rate (>22 breaths/min) and moderate or severe tracheal contamination, although not associated with complications as a whole, significantly increased the risk of developing aspiration pneumonia (P≤ .01). Signalment, clinical variables, and endoscopic findings were confirmed as important tools in assessing the severity of the esophageal lesion and pulmonary involvement. Knowledge of risk factors for the development of complications will aid in making informed decisions to optimize treatment and assist in the assessment of prognosis.
Article
To evaluate experimental induction of recurrent airway obstruction (RAO) with inhaled fungal spores, lipopolysaccharide, and silica microspheres in horses. 7 horses with and 3 horses without a history of RAO. RAO-susceptible horses ranged in age from 17 to approximately 30 years, and control horses ranged in age from 7 to approximately 15 years. Pure mold cultures were derived from repeated culture of hay and identified via gene amplification and sequencing. Pulmonary function testing and bronchoalveolar lavage were performed before and after nebulization with a suspension of spores derived from 3 fungi, lipopolysaccharide, and 1-microm silica microspheres in all horses. This was followed by a 4-month washout period and a further pulmonary function test followed by saline (0.9% NaCl) solution challenge and bronchoalveolar lavage. Lichtheimia corymbifera, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Eurotium amstelodami were consistently identified in cultures of moldy hay. Nebulization with fungal spores, lipopolysaccharide, and microspheres induced significant increases in pleural pressure in RAO-susceptible but not control horses. Airway neutrophilia developed in both groups of horses with exposure to challenge material but more severely in RAO-susceptible horses. Results indicated that inhalation of fungal spores in combination with lipopolysaccharide and silica microspheres can induce disease exacerbation in susceptible horses and may thus be a useful model for future standardized studies of RAO in horses.
Article
The migration of strongyle larvae is the most common or basic underlying cause of colic in the horse. Disease conditions producing symptoms of colic occur in all sections of the intestinal tract and consist of impactions, torsions, herniations and foreign bodies. Colic also occurs as a result of pre- and post-partum diseases such as torsion of the uterus, haemorrhage, rupture and inversion of the uterus. In general, lesions resulting in circulatory obstruction are the types requiring surgical intervention. There are six general types of small intestine obstruction that lend themselves to surgical treatment; namely, volvulus, herniations, intussusceptions, stenosis of the lumen of the bowel by external bands or by foreign bodies and chronic inflammatory lesions. The large intestine is not subject to the variety of obstructive lesions found in the small intestine. Impactions count for a large percentage of the obstructions seen. A standing laparotomy for diagnostic purposes may be indicated. Small colon impactions are readily treated by standing laparotomy. Enteroliths are of very common occurrence in some areas of the country; they often result in rupture of the colon. Torsions of the colon produce septic shock very rapidly. The left dorsal colon moving medially or laterally and ventrally initiates the torsion. Clockwise rotation is most common. Massive intravenous therapy is needed to maintain hydration. Ventral midline laparotomy gives best access. Surgery must be performed very early to avoid massive tissue necrosis. Survival rate is 30 percent or less. The small colon is also capable of rotation and volvulus, and of strangulation in the umbilical or inguinal ring.
Article
To determine the effect of decreasing gastric acidity in a feed-deprivation protocol on induction of gastric ulcers, and to determine whether stall confinement may be a factor contributing to gastric ulceration in horses. 8 adult horses, 4 geldings and 4 mares, 3 to 8 years old, and 7 adult horses, 5 geldings and 2 mares, 4 to 11 years old. Gastric ulceration was induced in horses by alternating 24-hour periods of feed deprivation and ad libitum access to hay, for a total of 96 hours' feed deprivation. This protocol was repeated with the horses receiving the histamine type-2 receptor (H2) antagonist ranitidine (6.6 mg/kg of body weight, PO, q 8 h). In another group of horses, severity of gastric lesions was compared after 7 days' pasture turnout and 7 days' stall confinement with ad libitum access to hay. Gastroscopy was performed after each feed-deprivation protocol was completed, and total lesion area in the gastric squamous epithelial mucosa was measured. Gastroscopy was performed at the beginning and end of 7 days' pasture turnout and 7 days' stall confinement. Alternating periods of feed deprivation resulted in erosion and ulceration of the gastric squamous epithelial mucosa of each horse. Concurrent treatment with ranitidine resulted in significantly (P < 0.05) less area of ulceration in the gastric squamous epithelial mucosa. After 7 days' stall confinement, 6 of 7 horses had ulceration in the gastric squamous epithelial mucosa, and 1 horse had a lesion in the glandular mucosa, whereas after 7 days' pasture turnout, 2 horses had reddening of the gastric squamous mucosa along the lesser curvature (P < 0.05). Severe ulceration of the gastric squamous epithelial mucosa, caused by excess acidity, can develop rapidly in horses deprived of feed or not consuming feed. Suppression of gastric acidity with the histamine type-2 receptor antagonist ranitidine effectively minimized the area of ulceration caused by feed deprivation. Compared with being turned out to pasture, stall confinement alone appears to be an important factor in the development of gastric ulcers in horses, probably as a result of altered eating behavior.
Article
To determine whether specific feeding practices were associated with development of colic in horses. Prospective matched case-control study. 364 horses examined by veterinarians in private practice in Texas because of colic (cases; n = 182) or any other reason (controls; 182). Participating veterinarians were sent forms at the beginning of the study to collect information on signalment, feeding management practices, farm management practices, and preventive medical treatments. Case and control horses were compared by use of conditional logistic regression to identify factors associated with colic. Risk factors for colic were a recent change in batch of hay, decreased exposure to pasture, a recent change in type of grain or concentrate fed, feeding > 2.7 kg (6 lb) of oats/d, feeding hay from round bales, and Thoroughbred breed. Recent anthelmintic administration decreased the risk of colic. Results suggest that certain changes in diet (eg, change in batch of hay, change in type of grain or concentrate, feeding hay from round bales) and management (eg, decreased availability of pasture) increase the risk of colic in horses.
Methods for determining acid detergent lignin in the Daisy II incubator
Ankom Technology. Methods for determining acid detergent lignin in the Daisy II incubator. Ankom Technology (Macedon, NY). Available at: http://www.ankom.com/media/documents/Method_9_ Lignin_in_Daisy_5_7_13.pdf. Retrieved February 12, 2014.
Acid detergent fiber in feeds filter bag technique. Macedon, NY: Ankom Technology Available at: http://www.ankom. com/media/documents/Method_5_ADF_4-13-11_A200,A200I.pdf
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C. Glunk et al. / Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 34 (2014) 986–991
Official methods of analysis
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AOAC. Official methods of analysis. 18th ed. Gaithersburg, MD: AOAC International; 2010.