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J. Agric. Sci. Mansoura Univ., 32 (1): 241 - 253, 2007
NUTRITIONAL AND SENSORIAL QUALITY OF COOKIES
FOTRIFIED WITH DEFATTED FLAXSEED AND SESAME
SEED MEALS
Khattab, R. Y. and A. A. Zeitoun
Food Sci. Dept., Fac. of Agric., (Saba Bacha), Alexandria University.
ABSTRACT
Cookies made of wheat flour (72% extraction) fortified with defatted flaxseed
meal (DFM) and defatted sesame seed meal (DSM) (1:1 w/w) at levels of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20
and 25% were nutritionally and organoleptically evaluated. The crude protein contents of
DFM and DSM were as high as 38.80 and 40.00%, respectively as compared to that of
wheat flour (11.26%) with a highly favorable amino acid profile, with high essential amino
acid content. Adding defatted flaxseed-sesame seed meal (DFSM) had significantly
increased crude protein, ash, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and potassium contents of
the produced cookies as compared to the control cookies (100% wheat flour). Essential
amino acid content and protein quality parameters including protein efficiency ration
(PER), biological value (BV), chemical score (CS) and essential amino acid index (EAAI)
were also improved obviously in cookies fortified with different levels of DFSM. Results of
sensory evaluation of cookies revealed that levels up to 15% substitution of wheat flour
with DFSM produced highly acceptable cookies comparable to the control. Therefore, it is
strongly recommended that the under-utilized negligible high protein DFM and DSM
could be incorporated successfully at 5 – 15% levels into bakery products like cookies
to combat protein deficiency and improve the nutrition and health status.
INTRODUCTION
Fortification of foods can be an effective way to combat nutrient
deficiencies in the developing countries. The purpose of food fortification is to
increase the intake of a specific nutrient or nutrients that have been identified as
inadequate in the food supply (Subar et al., 1998).
The increased costs and limited supplies of animal proteins, have
necessitated contemporary research efforts geared towards the study of food
properties and potential utilization of protein from locally available food crops,
especially from under-utilized or relatively neglected high protein oilseeds and
legumes (Enujiugha and Ayodele-Oni, 2003).
Flaxseed meal has three major components making it beneficial in
human and animal nutrition: (1) a high content of α-linolenic acid (ω-3 essential
fatty acid); (2) a high percentage of dietary fiber, both soluble and insoluble; and
(3) the highest content of plant “lignans” of all plant or seed products used for
human food (Lay and Dybing, 1989). Crude protein content of flaxseed meal was
reported to be 48.90% (Madhusudhan and Singh, 1983). Oomah and Mazza
(1995) reported that the protein fraction of flaxseed meal contains a favorable
ratio of amino acids. It is also a good source of sulfuric amino acids methionine
and cystine. Thus, flaxseed meal is considered as a potential source of high-
quality plant protein for incorporation into food products. It was found that
flaxseed meal protein has biological value (BV), digestibility, protein efficiency
ratio (PER) and protein score of 77.40, 91.60, 1.76 and 82.00, respectively (Bell
Khattab, R. Y. and A. A. Zeitoun
242
and Keith, 1993). In addition to their nutritional characteristics, flaxseed meal
proteins provide prominent functional roles in food including solubility, rheological
behaviour, emulsifying capacity and foaming and whipping ability (Oomah and
Mazza, 1995). Moreover, flaxseed meal is a good source of a number of
minerals and vitamins especially magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
vitamin C and some B vitamins (USDA, 1999). Compared to all fruits, vegetables
and grains tested to date, flaxseed meal is the richest source of lignans,
containing between 0.6 to 1.8 g/100g whole flaxseed (Parasad, 1999). Lignans
are phytoestrogens which have weak estrogenic and antiestrogenic properties
and may, therefore, help prevent hormone-sensitive cancers (Rose, 1993).
It is well investigated that flaxseed has several benefits in the prevention
and curing of a large deal of diseases (Hall et al, 1993; Haggans et al., 2000;
Lemay et al., 2002).
Flaxseed is mechanically pressed to recover its oil fraction which
presents about 30 - 45% of seed weight (Madhusudhan and Singh; 1983; USDA,
1999). The oil is directed either for human consumption or processed for
industrial uses. The produced defatted flaxseed meal, however, is an under-
utilized by-product of flaxseed oil extraction.
Defatted sesame seed meal is an edible, creamy and light brown
powder from sesame seeds. It has high protein content (about 47.1%) and about
10 – 12% sesame oil (Janick and Whipkey, 2002). Sesame seeds contain three
times more calcium than a comparable measure of milk (Home Cooking 1998).
The amino acid composition of sesame seed meal is unique and unusual among
the oilseed proteins, due to its high content of sulfur-containing amino acids
methionine and cysteine (Johnson et al., 1979). Many nutraceutical uses have
been discovered for sesame. Sesame lignans have antioxidant and health
promoting activities (Kato et al. 1998).
On the other hand, cereal grains are rich in carbohydrates but
deficient in essential amino acids such as lysine, the limiting amino acid in
wheat (Kent and Evers, 1994), thus making their protein quality poorer than
that of animals (Horn and Schwartz, 1961). The total protein content and the
contribution that essential amino acids make to the total are the most important
factors from a nutritional point of view. The nutritional quality can be improved by
increasing protein content and limiting amino acids especially lysine (Anjum et
al., 2005). Hence, the enrichment of cereal-based foods with oilseed and
legume protein has received considerable attention. Wheat bread and cookies
are widely accepted and consumed in many developing countries and therefore
offer a valuable supplementation vehicle for nutritional improvement; however,
cookies have been suggested as a better use of composite flour than bread
because of their ready-to-eat form, wide consumption and relatively long shelf-life
(Lorens et al.,, 1979). Enriched cookies are attractive for target areas, such as
child-feeding programs, low-income groups and disaster relief operations
(Claughton and Pearce, 1989). Cookies with these characteristics have been
produced from blends of wheat and cowpea (McWatters et al., 2003) or soybean
and wheat (Shrestha and Noomhorm, 2002).
Therefore, the aim of this study was to fortify cookies with the highly
nutritive defatted flaxseed and sesame seed meals and to evaluate the nutritional
and sensorial quality of the fortified cookies.
J. Agric. Sci. Mansoura Univ., 32 (1), January, 2007
243
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Defatted flaxseed meal (DFM) and sesame seed meal (DSM) (2 kg.
each) were obtained from a private commercial press, El-Mahalla El-Kobra,
Gharbia Gov., Egypt. Wheat flour (72% extraction) (5 kg. packed in
polypropylene bags) was purchased from a local market, Alexandria, Egypt. It
was stored at room temperature until using. Casein (analytical grade) was
obtained from Sigma-Aldrich.
Experimental Procedures
Blends formulation and preparation of cookies
Defatted flaxseed and sesame seed meals were dried overnight at 40 ±
2°C in an air-draft drying oven (WT-binder labortechnic GMBH). The samples
were cleaned, ground, sieved through 32 mesh sieve to get powder with similar
characteristics of flour 72% extraction rate. To get use of the tremendous benefits
previously mentioned for DFM and DSM, they were equally blended together
(1:1 w/w) to form the defatted flaxseed-sesame seed meal (DFSM). Blends of
wheat flour and DFSM powder, (containing 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25%
DFSM powder, on a replacement basis), were prepared. The choice of these
levels was based on the report of Dreuiter (1978) that the maximum level of
wheat flour substitution that would produce an acceptable baked product was
25%. They were then packed in polyethylene bags, sealed and kept at –18°C
until using.
Cookies were prepared according to the procedure described by
McWatters et al. (2003). The basic ingredients used were 190 g of flour
blend, 50 g vegetable shortening, 112.50 g of granulated sugar, 10.50 g of
beaten whole egg, 1.88 g of salt, and 0.90 g of baking powder. The dry
ingredients were weighed and mixed thoroughly in a bowl by hand for 3–5
min. Shortening was added and rubbed in until uniform. The egg was added
and dough was thoroughly kneaded in a mixer for 5 min. The dough was
formed into different shapes using the cookies machine (Amaizing DT 906,
China). The produced dough pieces were baked on greased pans at 160°C
for 15 min in a baking oven. The prepared cookies were cooled to room
temperature (24 ± 2°C), packed in high density polyethylene bags and stored
at room temperature until analysis and sensory evaluation. Results of the
sensory evaluation showed that increasing DFSM level over 15% produced
cookies with undesirable dark colour. In order to conquer this predicament,
cookies were produced according to the procedure mentioned above but with
adding cocoa powder (1% of the formula). The produced cookies were
sensorially tested for their colour.
Chemical composition of flours and cookies
Triplicate samples of wheat flour, DFM, DSM and produced cookies
were tested for their proximate composition in terms of moisture, crude fat, crude
protein, crude fiber, and ash contents according to AACC (2000). Nitrogen-free
extract (NFE) was calculated by difference. Results were expressed as means of
the three replicates.
Khattab, R. Y. and A. A. Zeitoun
244
Amino acid compositions of wheat flour, DFM, DSM, Casein (as a
standard protein) and produced cookies were determined according to the
Association of Analytical Chemists (1990) using an AAA 400 automatic amino
acid analyzer (INGOS, Czech Republic). Prior to analysis, samples were
subjected to acid hydrolysis in the presence of 6 M HCl at 105°C for 24
hours. Sulphur-containing amino acids were determined separately in 6 M
HCl after oxidative hydrolysis (formic acid + hydrogen peroxide, 9:1 v/v, 20 h
at 4°C). Tryptophan was quantified on an alkaline digest according to the
method described in the Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of
Analytical Chemists (1990).
Minerals were determined after wet ashing by concentrated nitric acid
and perchloric acid (1:1, v/v). K and Ca were determined by flame
photometer (Corning 410, England), while Mg was determined using an
atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin–Elmer, Model 2380, USA).
Phosphorus was estimated photometrically via the phosphorus molybdate
complex described by Taussky and Shorr (1953).
Evaluation of protein quality
A. Protein efficiency ratio (PER)
PER values were calculated according to the following regression
equation proposed by Alsmeyer et al. (1974):
PER = − 0.468 + 0.454 Leu − 0.105 Tyr.
B. Biological value (BV)
Biological values were calculated according to Eggum et al. (1979) using
the following regression equation:
BV (%) = 39.55 + 8.89 × lysine.
C. Chemical score (CS)
The chemical score (CS) was calculated on the basis of the
procedure described previously by Rakowska et al. (1978), based on
comparison of the concentration ratio of the amino acid having the shortest
supply ai (restrictive amino acid) to the concentration of this amino acid in the
standard as:
CS = (ai/as) × 100.
Casein was used as a standard protein considered a complete and balanced
food and fodder protein according to FAO/ W HO (1991).
D. Essential amino acid index (EAAI)
The essential amino acid index (EAAI) was calculated as follows:
EAAI = 10logEAA.
Where log EAA has the description (after Rakowska et al., 1978):
log EAA = 0.1(log a1/a1s × 100 + log a2/a2s × 100 + …… + log an/ans × 100).
Where a1 … an: the contents of exogenous amino acids including Lys, Meth +
Cys, Thr, Ileu, Trp, Val, Leu, His and Phe + Tyr in the sample protein, while a1s
…ans: the contents of these amino acids in the standard protein.
Sensory evaluation of cookies
Cookies were organoleptically evaluated for their appearance, colour,
odour, taste, texture, after-taste and overall acceptability, according to the
preference method of Ihekoronye and Ngoddy (1985). Twelve laboratory staff
J. Agric. Sci. Mansoura Univ., 32 (1), January, 2007
245
members evaluated the cookies on a 5- point hedonic scale. The triangle test
was performed on the cookies produced with adding cocoa powder to examine
weather there were differences in colour.
Statistical analysis
Data were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA)
according to Steel et al., (1997). Means were separated by least significant
difference (LSD). Significance was accepted at p ≤ 0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Chemical composition of flours used for cookies preparation
Proximate chemical composition (%) and mineral contents (mg/100g) of
different flours used for preparing cookies are shown in table (1). Data revealed
that wheat flour had the highest moisture content (11.00%) and nitrogen free
extract (84.75%) and the lowest crude fat (1.60%), crude protein (11.26%), crude
fiber (1.31%) and ash (1.08%) contents.
Table (1): Proximate chemical composition* (%) and mineral contents
(mg/100g) of flours•
••
• used for cookies preparation.
Wheat flour
DFM
DSM
Moisture 11.00
a
6.60
b
5.80
b
Crude fat 1.60
a
6.20
b
9.80
c
Crude protein 11.26
a
38.80
b
40.00
b
Crude fibers 1.31
a
5.00
b
4.60
b
Ash 1.08
a
7.00
b
11.20
c
Nitrogen free extract 84.75
a
43.00
b
34.40
c
Calcium 29.20
a
306.15
b
153.10
c
Phosphorus 350.00
a
766.15
b
774.26
b
Magnesium 127.30
a
556.92
b
346.08
c
Potassium 390.10
a
1047.70
b
406.32
a
Means in the same row with different letters are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05).
* Results are means of three replicates calculated on dry weight basis.
•
••
• DFM = Defatted flaxseed meal. DSM = Defatted sesame seed meal.
The proximate composition of both defatted flaxseed meal (DFM) and
defatted sesame seed meal (DSM) differed significantly with that of wheat flour.
There were no significant differences between DFM and DSM in their moisture,
crude protein and crude fiber contents while they had significantly differed
between each other in their contents of crude fat, ash and nitrogen free extract.
DSM had the highest crude protein (40.00%), crude fat (9.80%) and ash
(11.20%) contents. DFM, on the other hand, had the highest crude fiber content
(5.00%).
In respect of mineral contents, data showed that DFM had the
highest calcium (306.15), phosphorus (766.15), magnesium (556.92) and
potassium (1047.70 mg/100g) contents. The lowest values were recorded for
wheat flour (29.20, 350.00, 127.30 and 390.10 mg/100g, respectively).
Mineral contents of both DFM and DSM differed significantly with that of wheat
flour except for potassium content in which there was no significant difference
Khattab, R. Y. and A. A. Zeitoun
246
between wheat flour and DSM. Significant differences were found between
DFM and DSM in their calcium, magnesium and potassium contents. Results
of proximate composition and mineral contents are in conformity with those
reported by Madhusudhan and Singh (1983), USDA (1999) and Janick and
Whipkey (2002).
Amino acid composition and protein quality of flours used for cookies
preparation
The amino acid profiles of wheat flour, DFM and DSM are shown in table
(2). Data revealed that DFM was rich in essential amino acids such as lysine,
phenylalanine, threonine, leucine, isoleucine, valine and tryptophane
compared with the reference protein (casein). DFM had the highest total
essential amino acid content (33.57%) followed by DSM (32.25%) while the
lowest value was that of wheat flour (25.20%). DSM had the highest content
of sulfur-containing amino acids (5.04%) followed by DFM (3.38%) and wheat
flour (3.10%).
Table (2): Amino acid composition (%) and protein quality parameters of
flours♣
♣♣
♣ used for cookies preparation.
Amino acids
Wheat flour
DFM DSM Casein
•
••
•
Lysine 2.00 4.14 3.17 6.39
Methionine
a
1.10 1.66 3.17 2.35
Phenylalanine 5.30 4.98 4.42 4.31
Threonine 2.30 3.56 3.74 3.52
Leucine 6.50 6.96 7.11 7.68
Isoleucine 3.20 4.29 3.74 4.00
Tryptophane 1.20 2.10 1.85 1.17
Valine 3.60 5.88 5.05 5.24
Total Essential amino acids
25.20
33.57
32.25
Arginine 5.40 9.30 13.19 3.89
Aspartic acid
b
5.80 9.00 8.15 7.25
Glutamic acid
c
36.30 21.30 19.28 23.84
Serine 4.50 4.18 5.04 5.86
Proline 8.40 3.98 3.74 11.99
Cystine 2.00 1.72 1.87 0.30
Tyrosine 4.00 2.88 3.74 4.65
Glycine 3.70 5.90 6.29 1.96
Alanine 2.80 5.40 3.96 3.17
Histidine 1.90 2.77 2.49 2.43
Total Non-essential amino acids
74.80
66.43
67.75
Total sulfur amino acids
3.10
3.38
5.04
Protein quality parameters*
PER 2.15 2.21 2.28
BV 57.33 76.35 67.73
CS 46.81 70.64 158.12
EAAI 49.77 66.28 64.44
♣
♣♣
♣ DFM = Defatted flaxseed meal. DSM = Defatted sesame seed meal.
•
••
• Casein was used as a standard protein.
a = Methionine + Cysteine. b = Aspartic acid + Asparagine.
c = Glutamic acid + Glutamine.
* PER = Protein efficiency ratio. BV = Biological value. CS = Chemical score.
EAAI = Essential amino acid index.
J. Agric. Sci. Mansoura Univ., 32 (1), January, 2007
247
Methionine was restrictive in both wheat flour and DFM, while the restrictive
amino acid in DSM was tryptophane (1.85%). These results strongly
advocate the use of DFM and DSM to complement those protein sources that
are low in lysine, sulfuric amino acids and other essential amino acids such
as cereal proteins. These obtained results are in agreement with those stated by
Johnson et al. (1979) and Abdel-Aal and Hucl (2002).
Quality evaluation by amino acid scoring procedures is considered to
be more accurate than animal assay used for predicting protein quality of
foods (Dillon, 1992). Wheat flour protein had the lowest values for all
estimated quality parameters. Protein efficiency ratio (PER), based on leucine
and tyrosine availability was 2.15, 2.21 and 2.28 for wheat flour, DFM and
DSM, respectively. DFM protein had the highest biological value (76.35) followed
by DSM protein (67.73) and wheat flour (57.33).
The chemical protein scores (CS) of the studied flours were calculated from the
comparison of less abundant amino acid to a standard. CS values were 46.81,
70.64 and 158.12 for wheat flour, DFM and DSM, respectively. The highest
essential amino acid index (EAAI) was estimated for DFM protein (66.28)
followed by that of DSM (64.44).
Chemical composition of produced cookies
Chemical composition and mineral contents of the produced cookies
are shown in table (3). Data revealed that protein contents of the cookies,
prepared from DFSM blends were significantly higher than the protein content
of control cookies (100% wheat flour). The protein content of the cookies
prepared from these blends was also higher (12.10 – 18.15%) than those
(6.00 – 12.00%) reported for conventional cookies (Shrestha and Noomhorm,
2002).
These results are in accordance with those of Inyang and Wayo
(2005) who found that the protein content of cookies prepared from blends of
wheat flour with 10, 20, 30 and 40% dehulled sesame seed meal increased
from 12.52% with wheat flour to 16.86% with 40% substitution. Addition of
DFSM resulted in an increase in ash content of cookies up to 3.06% and
crude fiber content up to 2.60%. There were no significant differences in
moisture contents of cookies.
Supplementation of cookies with DFSM also significantly increased
the levels of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and potassium to 88.10,
453.60, 213.80 and 470.16 mg/100 g, respectively.
All the cookies supplemented with DFSM were found to be nutritious
on the basis of these parameters. This was because the consumption of
about 100 g of each product formulation would provide more than half of the
recommended daily requirement for protein (25–30 g/day), as recommended
by FAO/W HO (1973) for children aged between 5 and 19 years. This fact
suggests that cookies supplemented with DFSM may be useful as food
supplements for the alleviation or prevention of protein malnutrition in
developing countries. Shearer and Davies (2005) concluded that using
flaxseed meal (at level of 5%) in preparing whole-wheat muffins and batter
had enhanced the nutritional value without detrimentally changes in
freshness or storage properties.
Khattab, R. Y. and A. A. Zeitoun
248
Table (3): Proximate chemical composition* (%) and mineral contents
(mg/100g) of cookies made of wheat flour fortified with different
levels of defatted flaxseed- sesame seed meal (DFSM).
DFSM levels (%)
0
5
10
15
20
25
Moisture
8.80
a
8.88
a
8.98
a
9.20
a
9.52
a
10.05
b
Crude fat
14.00
a
14.12
a
14.22
a
14.34
a
14.40
a
14.50
a
Crude protein
11.00
a
12.10
b
14.00
c
15.36
c
16.68
d
18.15
d
Crude fibers
1.86
a
2.00
a
2.15
a
2.32
b
2.45
b
2.60
c
Ash
1.12
a
1.49
b
1.87
c
2.20
d
2.66
e
3.06
f
Nitrogen free extract
72.02
a
70.29
a
67.76
b
65.78
b
63.81
b
61.68
c
Calcium
38.16
a
49.60
b
59.06
c
68.40
d
77.90
e
88.10
f
Phosphorus
348.60
a
369.00
b
391.20
c
410.
90
d
433.00
e
453.60
f
Magnesium
132.50
a
148.30
b
164.10
c
180.00
d
197.10
e
213.80
f
Potassium
382.40
a
400.60
b
415.90
c
435.20
d
452.00
e
470.16
f
* Results are means of three replicates calculated on dry weight basis.
Means in the same row with different letters are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05).
Amino acid composition and protein quality of produced cookies
Amino acid composition and protein quality of produced
cookies are shown in table (4).
Table (4): Amino acid composition (%) and protein quality parameters of
cookies made of wheat flour fortified with different levels of
defatted flaxseed-sesame seed meal (DFSM).
Amino acids
DFSM levels (%)
0
5
10
15
20
25
Lysine
1.64
1.78
1.86
1.96
2.01
2.08
Methionine
a
1.08
1.15
1.21
1.28
1.34
1.42
Phenylala
nine
5.38
5.35
5.32
5.30
5.26
5.23
Threonine
2.48
2.56
2.63
2.75
2.77
2.85
Leucine
6.10
6.50
6.53
6.55
6.58
6.61
Isoleucine
3.00
3.04
3.07
3.14
3.15
3.20
Tryptophane
1.16
1.20
1.24
1.31
1.32
1.36
Valine
3.12
3.20
3.29
3.39
3.44
3.53
Total essential a
mino acids
23.96
24.77
25.13
25.66
25.85
26.26
Arginine
6.79
7.15
7.53
7.89
8.26
8.61
Aspartic acid
b
5.29
5.42
5.54
5.67
5.80
5.92
Glutamic acid
c
36.80
35.61
34.80
34.00
33.19
32.36
Serine
4.50
4.51
4.52
4.53
4.54
4.53
Proline
8.80
8.56
8.32
8.08
7.84
7.60
Cystine
2.00
1.99
1.98
1.97
1.96
1.95
Tyrosine
3.86
3.75
3.71
3.68
3.64
3.62
Glycine
3.50
3.61
3.72
3.83
3.94
4.04
Alanine
2.60
2.69
2.78
2.86
2.94
3.03
Histidine
1.90
1.94
1.97
2.01
2.04
2.08
Total non
-
essential amino acids
76.04
75.23
74.87
7
4.34
74.15
73.74
Total sulfur amino acids
3.08
3.14
3.19
3.25
3.30
3.37
Protein quality parameters*
PER
1.896
2.089
2.107
2.119
2.137
2.153
BV
54.13
55.37
56.08
56.97
57.42
58.04
CS
45.96
48.94
51.49
54.47
112.82
116.24
EAAI
47.56
48.91
49.75
50.96
51.39
52.29
a = Methionine + Cysteine. b=Aspartic acid+Asparagine. c = Glutamic acid + Glutamine.
* PER = Protein efficiency ratio. BV = Biological value. CS = Chemical score.
EAAI = Essential amino acid index.
J. Agric. Sci. Mansoura Univ., 32 (1), January, 2007
249
Data revealed that adding DFSM had increased sulfuric amino acids and the
total essential amino acids as compared to the control cookies. The total
essential amino acids increased gradually with increasing DFSM levels up to
25%. This could be attributed to the high content of these amino acids in both
DFM and DSM as shown in table (2).
Lysine, which is considered to be the most heat sensitive amino acid
(Civitelli et al., 1992), was decreased by about 18%. Lysine losses can
approach 20% depending on the temperature and duration of baking of
balady bread (El-Samahy and Tsen, 1981) and pizza crusts (Tsen et al.,
1982). Lysine deficiency in wheat products is also aggravated by losses from
browning reactions during baking. Quail (1996) described that amino acids
are involved in maillard reaction.
Therefore, high temperature and maillard reaction are the main reasons for
lysine losses occurred during baking of cookies. Data also clarified that
adding DFSM had obviously improved all quality parameters of the protein
including PER, BV, CS and EAAI. This improvement increased with
increasing DFSM levels up to 25%.
Sensory evaluation of cookies
The organoleptic properties of cookies are critical as they are the
specific quality attributes that attract the consumer. The various sensory
quality attributes of cookies are appearance, texture, taste, colour and odour.
Among them, texture is the most important (Bourne, 2002).
Cookies prepared from wheat flour (72% extraction) fortified with
different levels of DFSM (Fig. 1) were organoleptically evaluated in terms of
appearance, colour, odour, taste, texture, after-taste and overall acceptability.
Data of sensory evaluation (Table 5) revealed that acceptable cookies that
closely resembled the control (100% wheat flour) cookies were produced
from wheat flour containing up to 15% DFSM flour.
Fig. (1): Cookies produced from wheat flour fortified with different levels
of DFSM.
100% wheat flour. 95% wheat flour
+ 5% DFSM
90% wheat flour
+ 10% DFSM
85% wheat flour
+ 15% DFSM
80% wheat flour
+ 20% DFSM
75% wheat flour
+25% DFSM
Khattab, R. Y. and A. A. Zeitoun
250
Data showed that adding DFSM up to 25% did not significantly affect
the taste of cookies but it had been improved (compared to the control) up to
15% DFSM. Texture of cookies was also improved by adding DFSM up to
15%. The highest texture scores were recorded for cookies containing 10%
DFSM. They were described as fragile and easy to swallow. However,
increasing DFSM up to 20 – 25% produced unaccepted more flaccid cookies.
These textural changes were accompanied by unpleasant after-taste
because of the amylaceous slimy sensation caused by the mucilage gum
contained in DFM.
Table (5): Mean values of sensory scores* of cookies made of wheat
flour fortified with different levels of defatted flaxseed-
sesame seed meal (DFSM).
Attributes
DFSM levels (%)
0
5
10
15
20
25
Appearance 4.72
a
4.90
ab
4.47
ac
3.98
d
3.24
e
2.88
f
Colour 5.00
a
4.83
a
4.25
b
3.75
c
3.02
d
2.41
e
Odour 4.55
a
4.74
ab
4.88
b
4.07
c
3.57
d
2.99
e
Taste 4.49
a
4.64
a
4.75
a
4.89
a
4.39
a
4.13
a
Texture 4.65
a
4.76
a
4.80
a
4.70
a
3.95
b
2.05
c
After-taste 4.38
a
4.76
a
4.91
a
4.73
a
2.69
b
1.85
c
Overall acceptability 4.68
a
4.76
a
4.84
a
4.69
a
3.34
b
2.11
c
Means in the same row with different letters are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05).
*1= the lowest score while 5= the highest score.
The overall acceptability of cookies had consequently improved up to
15% DFSM but significantly decreased when increasing DFSM levels over
15%. The low sensory scores of the cookies from blends containing more
than 15% DFSM flour was attributed, by the panelists, to a rough flabby
texture and darkening. Colour darkening of cookies could be attributed to
sugar caramelization and the Maillard reactions between sugars and amino
acids (Alobo, 2001). In order to overcome the colour darkening, cocao
powder was added into cookies formula as 1.00% (w/w). The produced
cookies (Fig. 2) were sensorially evaluated in terms of colour using the
triangle test. Results revealed that the produced cookies containing 0, 5, 10,
15, 20 and 25% DFSM and 1.00% cocao powder showed no colour
differences among each other. This finding indicated that colour changes
owing to DFSM could be improved or over come through adding natural
colourants like cocoa powder.
Conclusion
Results of the present study have clearly revealed that adding DFSM
flour to wheat flour produced highly nutritious cookies with elevated contents
of protein and minerals. This improvement in the nutritive value of cookies
exceeds subsequently with increasing DFSM flour level while, the
organoleptic acceptance of these cookies was restricted at 15% DFSM level
owing to texture and colour changes. Therefore, it is strongly recommended
that the under-utilized negligible high protein DFM and DSM could be
incorporated successfully at 5 – 15% levels into bakery products like cookies
to combat protein deficiency and improve the nutrition and health status.
J. Agric. Sci. Mansoura Univ., 32 (1), January, 2007
251
100% wheat flour. 95% wheat flour
+ 5% DFSM
90% wheat flour
+ 10% DFSM
85% wheat flour
+ 15% DFSM
80% wheat flour
+ 20% DFSM
75% wheat flour
+25% DFSM
Fig. (2): Cookies produced from wheat flour fortified with different levels
of DFSM with added cocao powder.
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