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Perception of the public on the common zoonotic diseases in Jimma, Southwestern Ethiopia

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Abstract

This study was conducted with the objective of assessing the perception of the public on common zoonotic diseases in Southwestern Ethiopia using a face-to-face interviewing technique. The respondents were stratified into four groups, namely: farmers (n=48), smallholder dairy farmers (n=44), butchers (n=34) and city residents (n=49). Many of them (97.1%) knew rabies was a zoonotic disease contracted via the bite and contact with saliva of a rabid dog. There was no statistically significant difference (P>0.05) in the level of awareness about rabies in the four respondents groups. Taeniasis was the second most recognised zoonotic disease (84.3%). Anthrax was known by 55.4% of respondents, whereas only 29.1% of them knew tuberculosis can be transmitted from cattle to humans. There was a significant (P<0.05) difference in the level of awareness with regard to zoonotic tuberculosis in the study groups where small holder dairy farmers had the highest awareness and traditional farmers had the lowest awareness. Majority of the respondents consume raw milk (66.8%), however, only 11.4% of them have knowledge about transmission of TB through raw milk and meat consumption. Awareness about echinococcosis was lower (4%) than other zoonotic diseases. The zoonotic importance of brucellosis was reported by none of the respondents. In general, the present study revealed a very low level of awareness by the public about major zoonotic diseases, signifying the need for public health promotion through education and inter-disciplinary one health approach with close collaboration among veterinarians, public health practitioners and policy makers.
Vol. 5(6), pp. 279-285, June 2013
DOI: 10.5897/IJMMS2013.0931
ISSN 2006-9723 ©2013 Academic Journals
http://www.academicjournals.org/IJMMS
International Journal of Medicine
and Medical Sciences
Full Length Research Paper
Perception of the public on the common zoonotic
diseases in Jimma, Southwestern Ethiopia
Dawit Tesfaye1*, Daryos Fekede1, Worku Tigre2 Alemayahu Regassa1 and Amene Fekadu1
1School of Veterinary Medicine, Hawassa University, Ethiopia.
2College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University, Ethiopia.
Accepted 18 April, 2013
This study was conducted with the objective of assessing the perception of the public on common
zoonotic diseases in Southwestern Ethiopia using a face-to-face interviewing technique. The
respondents were stratified into four groups, namely: farmers (n=48), smallholder dairy farmers (n=44),
butchers (n=34) and city residents (n=49). Many of them (97.1%) knew rabies was a zoonotic disease
contracted via the bite and contact with saliva of a rabid dog. There was no statistically significant
difference (P>0.05) in the level of awareness about rabies in the four respondents groups. Taeniasis
was the second most recognised zoonotic disease (84.3%). Anthrax was known by 55.4% of
respondents, whereas only 29.1% of them knew tuberculosis can be transmitted from cattle to humans.
There was a significant (P<0.05) difference in the level of awareness with regard to zoonotic
tuberculosis in the study groups where small holder dairy farmers had the highest awareness and
traditional farmers had the lowest awareness. Majority of the respondents consume raw milk (66.8%),
however, only 11.4% of them have knowledge about transmission of TB through raw milk and meat
consumption. Awareness about echinococcosis was lower (4%) than other zoonotic diseases. The
zoonotic importance of brucellosis was reported by none of the respondents. In general, the present
study revealed a very low level of awareness by the public about major zoonotic diseases, signifying
the need for public health promotion through education and inter-disciplinary one health approach with
close collaboration among veterinarians, public health practitioners and policy makers.
Key words: Perception, public, transmission, zoonotic, disease, Ethiopia.
INTRODUCTION
The link among humans, animal populations and the
surrounding environment is v ery close in many
developing countries, where animals provide
transportation, draught power, fuel, clothing and sources
of protein (that is, meat, eggs, and milk). In the absence
of proper care, this linkage can lead to a serious risk to
public health with huge economic consequences (WHO,
2010).
Zoonoses are defined as those diseases and infections
naturally transmitted between people and vertebrate ani-
mals (WHO, 2005). Zoonoses constitute a diverse group
of viral, bacterial, rickettsial, fungal, parasitic, and prion
disease with a variety of animal reservoirs, including wild
life, livestock, pet animals, and birds (Nkuchia et al.,
2007). The transmission may occur through direct contact
with the animal, through vectors (such as fleas or ticks),
or through food or water contamination (James, 2005).
Globally, zoonoses are said to account for 60% of all
infectious disease pathogens and 75% of all emerging
pathogens (WHO, 2004). In both developing and
developed countries, a number of new zoonoses have
emerged. This might be the result of either newly discovered
*Corresponding author. E-mail: dawit89@yahoo.com
280 Int. J. Med. Med. Sci.
pathogens or agents that are already known, usually
appearing in animal species in which the disease had not
previously been detected (Jonathan and Joshua, 2006).
Many diseases that affect humans which are new,
emerging and re-emerging, were caused by pathogens
that originated from animals. Moreover, a number of
zoonotic diseases, including rabies, brucellosis, bovine
tuberculosis and echinococcosis continue to affect
humans and animals in many countries, particularly
developing nations (Meslin et al., 2000).
It has been observe that 75% of emerging pathogens
fall within the category of zoonotic diseases (WHO,
2005). Zoonotic diseases cause mortality and morbidity in
people, while also imposing significant economic losses
in the livestock sector. Their burden tends to fall most
heavily on poor societies (WHO, 2005). They have both
direct and indirect effects on livestock health and
production (Smits and Cutler, 2004). Indirect effects
occur as a result of the risk of human disease, the
economic impact on livestock producers through barriers
to trade, the costs associated with control programmes,
the increased cost of marketing produce to ensure it is
safe for human consumption, and the loss of markets
because of decreased consumer confidence (McDermott
and Arimi, 2002).
Different studies conducted so far on animals from
different districts of Jimma zone indicated the occurrence
of zoonotic diseases. For example, Tolosa et al. (2009)
reported the prevalence of 2.93 and 31.44% in Jimma
area for Taenia saginata metacestodes and hydatid cysts,
respectively. Prevalence values ranging from 2.93 to 4.4%
was reported for bovine cysticercosis in cattle slaughtered at
a Jimma abattoir (Megersa et al., 2010; Tolosa, 2010).
Whereas, herd level and individual animal level
prevalence of bovine tuberculosis was found to be 48.6
and 21.4%, respectively in and around Jimma (Tigre et
al., 2012). Moreover, information from Jimma town health
center and Jimma zone health bureau showed that rabies
was one of the ten listed health problems in the area
(personal communication). According to WHO (2011),
rabies is a wide spread zoonotic disease that is found on
all the continents, but more than 95% of human deaths
occur in Asia and Africa.
The perception of the community towards zoonotic
diseases plays an important role for the maintenance of
life cycle and transmission of these diseases to the
different arrays of their hosts. Studying the perception of
the community on the risk factors, routes of transmission
and life cycle of zoonotic diseases is a crucial step
towards the development and implementation of
appropriate disease prevention and control strategies.
Though, the aforementioned zoonotic diseases were
reported and found to be prevalent in Jimma and its
surroundings, there was no study performed to assess of
the overall perception of the community towards major
zoonotic diseases in the area. Therefore, the objective of
this study was to assess the public’s perception regarding
the major zoonotic diseases in and around Jimma town,
Ethiopia.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The study was c onducted in Jimma town and its surrounding
villages from November, 2011 to April, 2012. Jimma town, which is
the capital of Jimma zone, is located in Oromia Regional State at
346 km South West of Addis Ababa. The town has a latitude of
about 36° to N and longitude of about 352 to 37°37° E, and
an elevation ranging from 880 to 3360 m above sea level. The area
receives a mean annual rainfall of about 1,530 mm, which comes
from long and short rainy seasons. The average minimum and
maximum annual temperature ranges between 14.4 and 26.7°C,
respectively. According to CSA (2009), Jimma town has a total
population of 120,600.
Study design and subjects
A questionnaire based cr oss-sectional study design was employed
to look on the perception of the public on zoonotic diseases, that is,
rabies, tuberculosis, anthrax, brucellosis, taeniasis and
echinococcosis. The study populations were residents of Jimma
town and its surrounding. The respondents were stratified into four
groups, namely, farmers, smallholder dairy farmers, butchers, and
city residents. Acc ordingly, 48 farmers, 44 smallholder dairy
farmers, 34 butchers and 49 city residents were included in the
study. The farmers included in the study were found in the villages
around Jimma town and practice the mixed crop-livestock
production system. Smallholder dairy farmers are f ound inside
Jimma town and they are dependent on milk sell for their livelihood.
Sampling method
A simple random sampling method was employed to select the
respondents. Respondents were selected during questionnaire
administration in different parts of the town and peasant
associations around the town. During the questionnaire
administration, any member of the households who was willing to
participate in the interview was taken as a sampling unit.
Study methodology
A semi-structured questionnaire was pre-tested and used for the
face-to-face interview to evaluate the perc eption of the community
about the c ommon zoonotic disease (Unger and Munstermann,
2004). The two common local languages (Amharic and Oromiffa)
were used for the interview. On average, 30 min were spent with
each respondent. The questionnaire contains questions that can
evaluate the perception of the respondents about zoonotic
diseases’ importance, their transmission cycle and major clinical
signs in humans and animals. In addition, the r espondents were
also asked questions regarding the use of traditional medicine for
the treatment of zoonotic diseases in their area. They wer e also
asked if they had encountered anyone infected and/or that had died
of zoonotic disease. Acc ording to the Oxford dictionary, perception,
in this research is defined as the way in which something is
regarded, understood, or interpreted.
Data management and analysis
The data collected was properly coded and entered into a
spreadsheet. Descriptive statistics, namely, mean, frequencies and
Tesfaye et al. 281
Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the study participants.
Characteristic Number %
Age group
15-34 66 27.9
35-49 73 46.3
50-64 30 18.7
> 64 6 7.1
Sex Male 123 71.0
Female 52 29.0
Educational status Illiterate 32 18.4
Basic education 143 81.6
Table 2. Mode of tr ansmission of rabies perceived by respondents.
Transmission
Mode of transmission
Bite Contact with saliva Inhalation
n (%) n (%) n (%)
Dog to dog 161 (92) 21 (12) 15 (8.6)
Dog to human 165 (94.3) 23 (13) 23 (9.7)
percentages were made to summarize the results using STATA
Corp (2009). Logistic regression was used to see the influence of
the different factors on the level of awareness on major zoonotic
diseases. The knowledge of the importance of major zoonotic
diseases was presented in the f orm of binary variable (yes=1 and
no=0) and t aken as the dependent variable, whereas occupation,
sex, religion and level of educations were taken as explanatory
variables. A P-value <0.05 was considered to represent a
significant difference.
RESULTS
Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
All of the rural residents were people living in villages
surrounding Jimma town, whereas butchers, smallholder
dairy farmers and city residents were found in Jimma
town. Males accounted for 71% (123) and females 29%
(52) of the respondents. The highest numbers of respon-
dents were in age group 35 to 49 years. Regarding the
educational level, 81.6% completed primary, secondary
or higher education (Table 1).
Knowledge and awareness about the common
zoonotic diseases
Rabies
About 97.1% of the respondents said they were familiar
that rabies can be transmitted from dogs to humans. The
study revealed that about 95.8, 97.7, 97, and 89.8% of
the traditional farmers, small holder dairy farmers, butchers,
band city residents interviewed, respectively, know that
rabies is a zoonotic disease transmitted to humans. The
knowledge of rabies as a zoonotic disease among the
different respondent groups was not sig-nificantly
(P>0.05) different. The modes of transmission perceived
by respondents were bites, contact with saliva, and inha-
lation (Table 2). The fate of an untreated person bitten by
a rabid dog, as perceived by respondents, was death
(82.8%), madness (33.7%), behavioral change (29%),
and development of puppies in the abdominal cavity of
the person (20%), but 3.43% of the respondents said
they do not know what would happen to the person.
The major clinical signs of a rabid dog mentioned by
respondents were salivation, biting humans and other
animals, and dropping of tail (Table 3). The major
combination of signs mentioned by the respondents was
salivation plus human bites (Table 4). Among the persons
interviewed, 46.2% of them encountered a rabid dog at
least once in their life in their surroundings, and 28% of
the respondents experienced a dog bite in their family.
Bovine tuberculosis
Of the total respondents, only 29.1% of them knew that
tuberculosis can be transmitted from cattle to humans.
The knowledge of tuberculosis as a zoonotic disease in
the respondents interviewed was 50% in smallholder,
34% in city residents, 20.6% in butchers and 10 .4% in
traditional farmers. The awareness of respondents about
the zoonotic importance of bovine tuberculosis was
significantly higher (P<0.05) in smallholder dairy farmers
282 Int. J. Med. Med. Sci.
Table 3. The clinical signs of rabies mentioned by the respondents.
Clinical sign No. of respondents % Standard error
Salivation 63 36.5 3.65
Bite humans 62 35.6 3.64
Tail dropping 53 30.5 3.49
Bite animals 47 27 3.37
Wandering 44 25.2 3.30
Aggressiveness 35 20 3.04
Reddening of eyes 13 7.5 1.99
Madness 12 6.8 1.92
Hydrophobia 11 6.3 1.85
Anorexia 5 2.8 1.27
*Hb+Sal 48 27.4 3.4
*Ab+Hb 46 26.3 3.3
*Sal+Td+Hb 29 16.5 2.8
*Hb+Sal 15 8.5 2.1
*Combination of signs mentioned by the respondents: Sal=salivation, Td=tail dropping,
Hb=human biting, Ab= animal biting.
Table 4. Proportion of respondents having awareness about transmission of tuberculosis through consumption of raw
meat and milk.
Respondents’ category Number asked Number having awareness % SE P-value
Farmers 48 5 10.4 4.4 -
Smallholder dairy farmers
44 22 50 7.6 0.00
Butchers 34 7 20.6 7.0 0.207
City residents 49 17 34.7 6.8 0.007
Table 5. Mode of transmission of anthrax fr om animals to humans
reported by the respondents.
Mode of transmission No. respondents % SE
Consumption of raw meat 96 54.9 1.13
Contact 25 14.3 2.65
Inhalation 4 2.3 3.77
followed by city residents (Table 5). However, the habit of
raw milk consumption was significantly higher in tradi-
tional farmers (P<0.05) (91.6%) as compared to 54.5% in
smallholder dairy farmers, 58.8% in butchers and 59.2%
in city residents. The risk of raw meat and milk
consumption as perceived by respondents were diarrhea
(unspecified cause), tuberculosis, typhoid, amoeba and
taeniasis.
Taeniasis (Cysticercus bovis)
The overall proportion of respondents having knowledge
of taeniasis as a zoonotic disease was 83.4%. Taeniasis
was perceived by 94.1% of butchers, 90.9% of small
holder, 87.7% of city residents and 64.5% of the
traditional farmers as a zoonotic disease transmitted to
humans when raw meat is consumed. In addition to
consumption of raw meat, 31% of the respondents
reported that it can be transmitted by consumption of raw
milk. The infection of cattle by the eggs of T. saginata
was known only by 27.45% (48/175) of the interviewed
persons. Regarding consumption of raw meat, 69.1%
(121/175) of the respondents have the habit of raw meat
consumption. Among those who consume raw meat,
82.6% (100/121) of them have been infected by T.
saginata at least once previously.
Infection of T. saginata was 66.6, 82.1, 87.1 and 90.3%
in the traditional farmers, small holder dairy farmers,
butchers and city residents, respectively. The infection
rate in the farmers was significantly (P<0.05) lower than
that of the city residents, whereas sex, level of education
and religion of respondents did not show significant level
of variation in the prevalence of taeniasis. However, the
probability of getting infected was observed to be
associated directly and significantly (P<0.05) with age.
Many of the respondents (77.7%) mentioned that tradi-
tional medicine was effective for T. saginata. Traditional
medicine mentioned by respondents was “Enkoko”
(Embelia schimperi), “kosso” (Hagenia abyssinica) and
seed of pumpkin. The knowledge of traditional medicine
for T. saginata in the four respondent groups was not
significantly different (P>0.05).
Echinococcosis
In the study area, Echinococcosis was known only by 4%
(7/175) of interviewed persons as a zoonotic disease
transmitted from dogs to humans. However, 19.4%
(34/175) of the respondents said they had noticed
parasitic disease in dogs, but had no information whether
it can be transmitted to humans or not. The clinical signs
they mentioned for parasitic infestation in dogs by
respondents were reduced appetite, vomiting, excretion
of adult parasites and/or proglotides of cestodes with
feces and eating grass. Among the persons interviewed,
56% (98/175) owned dogs, but only 25.5% (25/98) of
them vaccinate their dogs regularly. Moreover, 31.6% of
them allow their dog to roam outside their compound.
The feeding practice of dog owners was also assessed
and the result showed that 41.8% (41/98) of the dog
owners feed raw condemned visceral organs without
cooking or checking for any abnormality on the organs.
Anthrax
Anthrax was known as a zoonotic disease transmitted to
humans by 51, 51, 67.6, and 79.6% of farmers, small
holders, butchers, and city residents, respectively. The
modes of transmission reported by respondents were
consumption of raw meat from infected animal, contact,
and inhalation (Table 5). Most of the respondents repor-
ted that consumption of meat from infected animals was
the major source of infection for humans.
Brucellosis
Respondents were asked if they were aware of a disease
that can cause abortion in cattle and transmitted to
humans. But none of the respondents were aware of
such a disease.
DISCUSSION
The most frequently known zoonotic diseases among the
respondents in the study area were rabies (97.1%),
followed by taeniasis (83.4%), anthrax (55.4%), bovine
tuberculosis (29.1%) and hydatidosis (4%). This study
Tesfaye et al. 283
indicated a relatively lower level of awareness of the
respondents in the study area as compared to the report
of Girma et al. (2012) who indicated that all respondents
in Addis Ababa mentioned rabies as a zoonotic disease,
followed by anthrax (94.27%), taeniasis (89.06%), bovine
tuberculosis (88.54%) and brucellosis (49.48%). The dif-
ference in the overall awareness between the two study
sites for the common zoonotic diseases could be due to
variations in the living style between the two settings,
where in Addis Ababa, as a capital city, information might
be acquired more easily than in the current study area.
With regard to the perception of rabies as a zoonotic
disease, there was no significantly (P>0.05) different level
of awareness among the different respondent groups
which can imply that rabies is a well known disease in the
area. This is evidenced by the fact that a higher
proportion (94.3%) of the respondents knew the means of
transmission of rabies from dog to humans. Moreover,
82.9% of the respondents said that untreated cases of
rabies in humans can result in death. Another 25.7% of
the study participants reported that at least one family
member was bitten by a suspected rabid dog previously.
This is in line with the work of Girma et al. (2012) who
reported rabies as the most frequently (100%) mentioned
zoonotic diseases in Addis Ababa. However, 20% of the
respondents in the current study seem to misunderstand
the consequence of untreated rabies cases in humans
where development of puppies in the abdominal cavity of
the person was mentioned. This signifies the need for
awareness creation about rabies in the area. Among the
respondents who owned dogs, only, 25.6% of them
reported that they were treating or vaccinating their dogs.
The poor management of owned dogs and the presence
of high populations of unvaccinated stray dogs are
responsible for the frequent occurrence of rabies
(Deressa et al., 2010). Globally, about 55,000 persons
die annually due to rabies where rabid dog bites account
for 99% of the infection (WHO, 2011).
Of the total respondents, only 29.1% of them knew
tuberculosis can be transmitted from cattle to humans.
This is in line with the work of Amenu et al. (2010) who
reported that a high number of respondents had no
detailed and accurate knowledge about zoonotic tuber-
culosis. In this study, inhalational route and consumption
of raw milk and meat were mentioned as transmission
routes from cattle to humans. There was a significant
(P<0.05) difference in the level of awareness with regard
to the zoonotic tuberculosis in the study groups where
small holder dairy farmers had the highest awareness and
traditional farmers had the lowest awareness. However,
traditional farmers were found as the major consumers of
raw milk. This might put traditional framers as the most
vulnerable group as far as zoonotic tuberculoses is
concerned. The relatively higher level of awareness
among the smallholder dairy farmers could be attributed
to their living inside the town that might facilitate to have
information about the zoonotic importance of bovine
tuberculosis from private veterinary practitioners. Ashford
284 Int. J. Med. Med. Sci.
et al. (2001) stated that in countries where bovine
tuberculosis is common and pasteurization of milk has
not been practiced widely, an estimated 10 to 15% of
human tuberculosis cases are caused by Mycobacterium
bovis.
The overall proportion of respondents having the
knowledge that taeniasis is a zoonotic disease was
83.4%. Raw/undercooked meat consumption as a vehicle
for transmission of taeniasis to humans was indicated by
82.3%. But 31% of them said raw milk can also transmit
T. saginata which shows lack of knowledge about the
disease to some extent. Respondents in the current study
area seem to have relatively lower awareness about T.
saginata as compared to a study conducted at Arsi-
Negele district, Southern Ethiopia, by Amenu et al. (2010)
who indicated that 96.3% of the respondents knew that
raw meat was a vehicle for disease transmission to
humans. The difference could be due to lack of
information about the disease in the current study area.
However, raw meat consumption in the area is wide
spread (69.1%) and 82.6% of the respondents who con-
sume raw meat had T. saginata previously. An infection
rate of 64.2% was reported in a study conducted by
Abunna et al. (2008) at Hawassa town. The level of
infection in the different educational levels, sex and
religious groups was not significantly different. This could
be due to the deep rooted culture of consuming raw meat
in the different social groups of the country, even by
highly educated individuals (Abunna et al., 2008).
However, the probability of infection was observed to rise
with increasing age. This could be attributed to the fact
that elderly individuals hav e the chance to consume more
raw meat in different social ceremonies such as wedding
and other local holy days, where raw meat is one of the
major food items served almost everywhere in the
country. A similar finding was reported by Megersa et al.
(2010) in Jimma where older people were more infected
with T. saginata than the younger ones. Raw meat
consumption is practiced in some parts of the world as a
cultural heritage passed through many generations.
Countries like Russia, Cuba and many social groups on
the African continent are known to consume raw and/or
undercooked meat (Sua´rez and Santizo, 2005). In spite
of the relative higher perception of the respondents about
the zoonotic importance of taeniasis, the consumption
rate of raw meat and also the infection rate of taeniasis is
found to be high. This seems to be attributed to the deep
rooted culture of raw meat consumption in the country.
To safe guard the public, an intensive awareness
creation programs should be undertaken in the area
regarding the danger of raw meat consumption which not
only predispose to taeniasis , but also to other very
serious food borne pathogens like anthrax and bovine
tuberculosis.
In the current study, only a small proportion (4%) of the
participants had an awareness of echinococcosis. This
disagrees with the work of Tigre (2012) who reported that
32.2% of the study participants had an awareness of
echinococcosis. The variation in the level of awareness
could be due to the difference in the study groups, where
the previous study was conducted only on butchers and
abattoir workers who might be familiar with the problem
unlike our study groups which incorporates a variety of
respondents. The awareness level of participants in this
study was similar to that reported by Kebede et al. (2010)
and Zelalem (2012) who indicated an awareness level of
0 and 8% of the households had awareness about
zoonotic echinococcosis, respectively. The lower level of
awareness about echinococcosis could also be due to
the longer incubation period of the disease in humans, in
which it takes up to 30 years to manifest clinical signs
(CFSPH, 2011).
In this study, 25.5% of the participants owned dog(s)
and 56% of them said they let their dogs freely roam
outside their compound. The presence of large numbers
of non-restricted dogs plays a crucial role not only in
transmission of rabies but also in contaminating the en-
vironment with tapeworm eggs which could subsequently
infect humans. Among the dog owners, 68.9% of them
reported that they fed offal to their dogs regardless of the
safety status of the offal. Feeding the viscera of infected
slaughter animals to dogs was reported to facilitate the
transmission of the sheep strain of Echinococcus
granulosus and this was suggested to consequently
increase the risk that humans will become infected (Moro
and Schantz, 2009). According to a study conducted by
Carmena et al. (1998), the type of feed given to dogs was
found to significantly affect the prevalence of cystic
echinococcosis in humans. Tigre (2012) reported that
only 4.3% of the dog owners treat their dogs with anthel-
minthic drugs periodically around Jimma area. In order to
eliminate the infection risk to humans living in close
association with the infected dog, either euthanasia of
such dogs or chemotherapy under strict safety precaution
has been recommended (Ekerte and Peter, 2004).
The knowledge of the study population about the
zoonotic importance of anthrax was limited. Transmission
through the consumption of raw meat was mentioned by
54.9% of the respondents, whereas contact and
inhalational transmission routes were only mentioned by
14.3 and 2.3% of respondents, respectively. The low
level of awareness about the zoonotic importance of
anthrax in the area is of concern given that the disease is
endemic in most part of the country and the case fatality
rate is very high both in humans and animals. The wide
spread culture of raw meat consumption combined with
the lower level of awareness about anthrax seems to put
the public at a greater risk of contracting the disease.
Among the six common zoonotic diseases, only
brucellosis was not known by any one of the interviewed
persons. This is in contrast to Mihiret-ab (2012) who
reported that 5.6% of the respondents were aware of the
zoonotic importance of brucellosis in and around Dire
Dawa. The absence of awareness in the present study
area might be due to poor or absent awareness creation
activities that should hav e been given by the public health
bureau of the area and the veterinary department.
Conclusively, the public awareness about some
common zoonotic diseases and their means of trans-
mission, especially bovine tuberculosis, echinococcosis,
anthrax and brucellosis was very low. The level of
awareness about rabies in this study was good but im-
provements are needed on the management and proper
handling of dogs. Awareness should be created in the
public regarding the life cycles of the common zoonotic
diseases in the area. The public health department of the
ministry of health should give due emphasis for public
educating and awareness creation on preventive
measures for the existing zoonotic diseases in the area at
the grass root level using the health extension workers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are indebted to the respondents for their
time and willingness to participate in this study.
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... A low level of awareness was recorded for helminth zoonotic infections, which was lower than that reported by Alho et al., [27], gross negligent of preventive measures such as provision and care of kennels, proper feeding with non-contaminated food (uncooked offal), and veterinary attention were also recorded in the study and could be attributed to the lack of proper awareness and poor perception of helminth infections by people in the area, which is encompassed as neglected tropical diseases in the study region. This agrees with Tesfaye et al. [31], who acknowledged that the perception of the community on the risk factors and routes of transmission and life cycle of zoonotic diseases is a crucial step toward the development and implementation of appropriate disease prevention and Control strategies. ...
Article
Introduction: The interaction of humans and animals especially dogs, has made zoonotic diseases remain a genuine threat to the health and survival of humans. Aim: The study was aimed at assessing the level of knowledge and risk perception of dog owners regarding canine and their zoonotic potential in Uyo, Akwa, Ibom. Methodology: Structured questionnaires were employed for the cross sectional study. Result: A total of 200 respondents were employed for the study and all (100%) were aware that some animal diseases (zoonoses) are transmissible to humans, including those of dogs. A high level of awareness of 100% (200) was recorded for rabies and its route of transmission (bite) and 75% (157) for dermatophytosis while 96.5% (193) were ignorant on dog helminthic zoonosis. Some of the encountered factors that predisposed infectivity included: compromised sanitary conditions of the kennel (50%), inappropriate disposal of dog feces (51.5%), poor veterinary attention (58%), and feeding of dogs with both raw animal products and household leftovers (53%). Conclusion: This revealed a high potential of zoonotic infectivity among the human population in the area, mostly on zoonotic helminth infections, as they were misperceived. Therefore, there is a need for increased awareness, strategy formulation, and implementation toward the control and eradication of zoonotic diseases.
... In this study, majority of the participants reported that eating undercooked meat increases the risk of contracting zoonotic parasites, and also not seeking veterinary care for pets increases the risk of contracting zoonotic parasites by 53.25%. A similar finding was noted by Tesfaye et al. [28] in Jimma, who indicated that 82.3% of the respondents believe that the consumption of raw or undercooked meat is responsible for the transmission of taeniasis. In addition, a study conducted in Ada'a district by Abunna et al. [29] showed that majority of the respondents (82.7%) and (79.9%) believed that consumption of raw meat and milk, respectively responsible for transmission of zoonotic diseases. ...
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... risky behavior such as consumption of sick animal raw products (milk, organ meat), conducted backyard slaughter also of sick animals and were using hides and wool of sick slaughtered animals. The consumption of recently deceased and sick animals has been reported as a widespread practice in Ethiopia [20][21][22]. Certain factors deeply ingrained in the pastoral cultural system and socio-economic fabric tend to outweigh the knowledge of disease risks. These factors include the lack of viable alternatives, the need for livelihood and basic survival in areas frequently affected by climatic shocks, conflicts, poverty, famine, among other challenges. ...
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Background Anthrax and brucellosis are endemic national priority zoonotic diseases in Ethiopia. This study assess the possible factors explaining the current limited information available on animal and human cases in pastoral communities. Methods Two questionnaire surveys gathered data from 509 pastoralists and 51 healthcare providers between February and April 2019 in five districts of Afar and the Somali region (SRS). Results Among the 51 healthcare providers, 25 (49%) and 38 (74.5%) had heard of brucellosis, and anthrax, respectively. Of those, only 3 (12%) and 14 (36.8%) knew the symptoms of brucellosis and Anthrax. None of the Health Extension Workers knew any disease symptoms. Healthcare providers recalled two human cases of brucellosis and 39 cases of Anthrax in the last 12 months, based on symptom-based diagnosis. Pastoralists had a moderate level of knowledge about diseases in their animals, with over half (52.4%; n = 267/509) understanding that animals can transmit diseases to people. Overall, 280 out of 508 (55.1%) and 333 out of 507 (65.7%) pastoralists had heard of brucellosis and Anthrax, respectively. Among the latter, 282 (51.3%) knew at least one preventive measure for Anthrax. However, disease knowledge among women was poor. Despite their knowledge, pastoralists engaged in risky unprotected animal handling, animal product consumption/usage as well as husbandry behaviors exposing them to pathogens and favoring the spread of diseases. They identified Anthrax as the most important zoonosis (47.6%) and as one of top three diseases suspected to cause mortality in their livestock. Pastoralists highlighted lack of vaccine coverage, availability and their timely administration. Both, pastoralists and healthcare providers stated the lack of disease awareness and the unavailability of drugs in the market as important challenges. Health facilities lacked protocols and standard operating procedures for managing zoonotic diseases, and did not have access to laboratory confirmation of pathogens. Conclusion Our study revealed significant under-reporting of Anthrax and brucellosis, and weak prevention and response in humans, mostly associated with poor disease knowledge of healthcare providers. Ability to respond to animal outbreaks was limited by vaccine and drugs availability, timely vaccine administration and the mobility of pastoralists.
... This study revealed that study participants were consumed raw milk (54%), raw meat (50%) and contact of sick animal product without protective. This study in agreement with other studies in Jimma and 66.8% responded by consumption of both raw milk and meat [47], while in Cape Town which is reported 67% and 56% of raw milk and meat, respectively [59]. The result of this study indicated that the study respondents had poor level of knowledge on transmission of brucellosis through milk and meat. ...
... It is stated that due to the scarcity of personal protective equipment in their areas; farmers and pastoralists do not use it when dealing with animal abortion [39]. Approximately, 60.0% of respondents were exposed to the risk of zoonotic diseases due to their frequent consumption of raw meat [40]. This was despite the fact that over 90% of the respondents were aware of possible zoonotic risks of raw meat consumption. ...
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In developing countries like Ethiopia, zoonotic diseases pose a significant health and economic burden, with high exposure of farmers to zoonotic infection given the prevailing traditional husbandry practices. A cross-sectional survey involving 388 farmers in the Ada'a district central Ethiopia was conducted to investigate their knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding the transmission of zoonotic diseases. The respondents' mean age was 41.0 ± 10.0 SD years. The majority of respondents (39.4%) were between the ages of 41 and 50, and 90.0% were married. Farmers claimed that conversations with family, colleagues, and friends were the primary sources of zoonoses information. Farmers stated that the primary sources of information on zoonotic diseases as community. They had a relatively low level (66.8%) of knowledge on zoonotic diseases and half of them (54.9%) did not have good information on zoonoses. Three-quarters (75.2%) of the farmers reported that they neither consume meat and milk nor use offal and hide/skin from sick or dead animals. Similarly, 71.1% of them stated that they do not eat meat from regularly aborting sheep/goats, and never consume raw meat and milk. Most of the respondents correctly answered that raw meat (82.7%) and raw milk (79.9%) are means of disease transmission from animals to humans. However, considerable proportions of them were unaware of zoonotic transmission of bovine tuberculosis (61.3%) and brucellosis (74.7%) transmission through raw milk intakes, and risk of taeniasis (71%) due to raw meat consumption. But, considerable proportions had never dewormed (48.7%), or tested their animals for brucellosis (82.7%) and bovine tuberculosis (83.3%), and more than three quarters (77.3%) did not used personal protective equipment when handling sick animals. Farmers who had a secondary education or above (OR = 6.8, CI = 2.4–18.0, p = 0.004), aged between 41 and 50 years (OR = 3.0, 95% CI: 1.2–7.2, p = 0.015), and those having good knowledge (OR = 2.1, CI = 1.3–3.5, p = 0.002), and positive attitude related to zoonotic diseases (OR = 7.8, CI = 4.7–12.9, p < 0.001) had better practices that reduce the risk of exposure to zoonotic infections than their counterparts. This study revealed a knowledge gaps, a low level of the desired attitude, and high-risk behavioral practices which call for awareness creation about zoonotic disease transmission.
... Of those surveyed, 55.4% were aware of anthrax. 32 The high knowledge of rabies also agrees with studies where 98.2% school children in South Bhutan had heard about rabies and students demonstrated a good level of knowledge (59.7%). 33 Although most respondents knew animals could transmit diseases to humans and majority could identify 3 or more diseases as zoonotic, the study however, saw a decline in knowledge level when majority of the respondents disagreed with the notion that a healthy person could get a zoonotic infection. ...
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Background Zoonotic infections are a serious threat to human health and a direct risk that could potentially be fatal. Animals both domestic and wild serve as reservoirs for zoonotic infections. Thus, frequent contact with animals might occasionally result in the transfer of infections from animals to people. Ghana is especially susceptible to the effects of zoonotic infections due to the increase in the household human-animal ratio. This study assessed the awareness and knowledge level of tertiary students in a selected tertiary institution on zoonotic infections. Methods A quantitative research method was employed making use of a descriptive cross-sectional study design. The target population chosen for the research was mainly students from the University of Ghana. A stratified sampling technique was used in selecting participants for the study. 440 participants were selected for the study. The university’s four primary colleges served as the strata for the basis of data collection. Results The study revealed a moderate knowledge level among students. The term “zoonoses” was understood by the majority (70%) of the respondents. Respondents knew at least one route of transmission of zoonotic infection. For the spread of zoonotic infections, close contact with infected animals and consumption of contaminated food were seen as ways of spread by a majority. Conclusion Although the basic strategies required for the control and elimination of the zoonotic diseases in such tertiary institutions are well known and practiced as per the study findings, zoonoses still persists and this can be attributed to low education on the subject. Knowledge and awareness level on zoonoses especially in tertiary institutions such as the University of Ghana could be improved if relevant authorities create adequate enlightenment programs on improving the knowledge of zoonotic diseases through a variety of media including seminars, workshop, television, radio, newspaper and social media.
... This is likely attributable to their medical training and experience gained over the course of their careers, highlighting the significance of education and training in raising brucellosis awareness among high-risk populations. According to research undertaken in southern Ethiopia, a lack of awareness-creating efforts by public health authorities and veterinary departments in the region may have contributed to a general lack of knowledge about zoonotic illnesses among the local population [28]. It has been claimed that a lack of knowledge among dairy farmers is caused by factors such as remoteness, a lack of health facilities, inadequate extension services, minimal training on the growing and handling of animals, a lack of health education programs, and low literacy rates [29]. ...
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Background: Brucellosis is a serious zoonotic infectious disease. Humans contract the disease by coming into contact with infected animals or their products. In Saudi Arabia, brucellosis is considered to be an endemic disease, with an annual incidence of 15.34 per 100,000 population from 2003 to 2018. Because of the devastating consequences for human health, raising awareness is an essential component in preventing brucellosis. Our study aims to assess the knowledge, awareness, and attitudes regarding brucellosis among the residents of Taif City, Saudi Arabia. Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional survey conducted in June-October 2022 targeted the population of Taif City, Saudi Arabia. The data were collected by an online questionnaire, which included questions on sociodemographic characteristics, awareness regarding brucellosis, behavior and attitude toward animals, and consuming animal-based products. Results: A total of 743 participants were included. The participants were 18-70 years old, 63.4% were females, and 79.4% had a university education. Only 450 participants answered yes to the first question: "Do you know about brucellosis or have you heard about it?" Therefore, they were asked to answer knowledge questions. It was found that out of 450 participants, 46.9% demonstrated a "poor" knowledge level. Participants aged 26-55 years old demonstrated significantly more "good" knowledge than the other age groups (p = 0.001). Males demonstrated significantly more "good" knowledge (30.6%) than females (14.9%) (p < 0.001). The practices and attitudes of animal breeder participants (16.2%) were satisfactory because more than half of them did not participate in the birth of animals (53.4%), 50.7% did not participate in the birth with abortion, and approximately 61% used gloves when taking care of animals. The practices were unsatisfactory because 53.4% of the participants reported that they "always" eat the meat of animals they keep, and 64.4% reported that they personally slaughter sheep or cows from the herd. Conclusion: Our study showed that most of the participants were aware of brucellosis; however, at the same time, the knowledge level regarding brucellosis was not satisfactory.
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The problem of zoonoses diseases is a global public and veterinary health concern. Globally coordinated and well-established research efforts are essential to successfully fighting and reducing the health burden of zoonoses. In our study area, the interplay of intense livestock animals, agricultural activities, and poor health services characterized the high risks of zoonotic diseases. Thus, people suffer from easily preventable diseases with hygiene and good-quality food. The main objectives of this study were to: (i) evaluate the knowledge, attitude, and prevention practices of people handling farm animals and their products toward common zoonotic diseases; and (ii) estimate the associated risk factors influencing their knowledge, attitude, and prevention practices. A questionnaire-based cross-sectional study was conducted from December 2021 to August 2022. A simple random sampling technique was followed to select respondents. Multivariable logistic regression model analysis was conducted using STATA version 14. The overall level of knowledge, attitude, and prevention practice for the major zoonotic disease was 52.5%, 68.6%, and 39.4%, respectively. Rabies, tuberculosis, taeniasis, anthrax, and brucellosis were the major zoonotic diseases selected by respondents in the study areas. The age of respondents, training status, educational status, and farm location were significantly (P <0:05) associated with the level of knowledge and prevention practice against zoonotic diseases. This study revealed that the level of knowledge, attitude, and prevention practices for major zoonotic diseases in Bahir Dar City were relatively poor. Therefore, a concerted effort among various government and nongovernment stakeholders, including veterinarians, public health officials, and environmental experts, is needed to create and raise awareness among livestock producers about the transmission and control methods and the economic and public health importance of zoonotic diseases.
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Coxiellosis is a zoonotic disease that is prevalent globally and can pose significant challenges, especially in less developed countries like Ethiopia. Coxiella burnetii is responsible for causing an infection called Q fever in humans and coxiellosis in ruminants. Pneumonia and endocarditis are the only signs that characterize the acute and chronic forms of Q fever, respectively. Ruminants exhibit symptoms such as abortion during the later stages of pregnancy, impaired fertility, perinatal death, premature delivery, and reduced birth weight. C. burnetii infection typically spreads among healthy cattle via tick bites and exposure to infected cattle or their bodily secretions. The primary source of human infection is through the ingestion of contaminated milk and milk products, but transmission through aerosols and dust generated during livestock operations is also common. Cattle, sheep, camels and goats are the primary sources of human infection, and the bacterium can be found in various bodily fluids of infected animals. Several factors, including host characteristics, environmental conditions, and management practices, can potentially affect the occurrence of C. burnetii infection in livestock, such as cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. Coxiellosis is prevalent in Ethiopia's pastoral and mixed cattle management systems, as individuals frequently interact with cattle and are therefore more prone to exposure to the C. burnetii bacterium. Vaccination and biosecurity measures are effective techniques for managing C. burnetii infection. Therefore, it is crucial to implement appropriate mitigation strategies, raise awareness about the spread of C. burnetii infection, and conduct further studies on C. burnetii infection in high-risk groups.
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Background: Rabies, a viral disease that affects all warm-blooded animals, is widespread in many regions of the world. Human rabies, transmitted by dogs is an important public health issue in Ethiopia. To-date, effective rabies control program still remains to be a reality and needs to be strengthened.. Objective: Reviewing of recorded data to generate information on the status of rabies in Ethiopia for the year 2001-2009. Methods: A retrospective data were used from the Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute rabies case record book registered between 2001 and 2009. Results: The fatal human cases during the period of study were 386 humans with annual range of 35 to 58. The over all post exposure treatment for humans was 17,204 within and around Addis Ababa. During the same period, 20,414 suspected rabid animals were clinically examined; nevertheless, only 10%were positive for rabies. Among 3,460 animal brains investigated in the laboratory with FAT, 75% were confirmed as rabies positive. The production and distribution of anti-rabies vaccine reached 130,673 treatment doses for human vaccine and 85,055 doses for animal vaccine respectively in the period of 2001-2009. Conclusion: The recorded data showed the underestimate of rabies diagnosis, post exposure prophylaxis and fatal human cases, which could be attributed due to the absence of national rabies surveillance system. Therefore, It is of paramount importance to assess and map the national picture of rabies within a given time interval to launch a national rabies control strategy.
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Hydatidosis, caused by the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus, is one of the most important helminthzoonosis in the world. The distribution of hydatidosis is normally associated with underdeveloped countries, especially in rural communities where humans maintain close contact with dogs and various domestic animals, which may act as intermediate hosts. This study was conducted in order to determine the prevalence of hydatidosis and the fertility/sterility rates of hydatid cysts in cattle and sheep slaughtered in Addis Ababa Abattoir, Ethiopia. Postmortem examination, hydatid cyst characterization and questionnaire survey were conducted. In the study, 19.7% cattle and 13.47% sheep were found harboring hydatid cyst. Though it was difficult to know the exact origin of the animals, cattle brought from Harar 36%, northern Shewa 28%, Nazareth 22%, Arsi 10% and others 4% were infected. Difference in prevalence rates were highly significant (p < 0.005) between cattle and sheep. The occurrences of hydatid cyst were 48, 31.7, 16.3, 1.7 and 2.4% in cattle and 41.7, 56.7, 0.8 and 0.8% in sheep, lung, liver, kidney, spleen and heart, respectively. Of the total of 1479 hydatid cysts in cattle and 175 in sheep counted 38.2, 29.8, 7.3, and 24.7% in cattle and 64, 11.4, 1.7 and 22.9% in sheep were found to be small, medium, large and calcified cysts, respectively. Among the hydatid cysts, 55.4, 19.3 and 25.3% in cattle (n = 1479) and 22.5, 59.1 and 18.5% in sheep (n = 175) were sterile, fertile and calcified, respectively. Viability rates of 60.5% in cattle and 78.3% in sheep were observed. The rate of calcification was higher in the liver than in the lung while fertility rate was higher among the cysts of the lung for both cattle and sheep. The questionnaire survey revealed the difference in the awareness about zoonotic Hydatidosis, that is, 8, 100 and 16% in household, abattoir workers and butchers, respectively. The findings of the present study reflect the economic and zoonotic impact of hydatidosis which deserves serious attention by the various stakeholders in order to reduce losses and safe guard the public health.
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The prevalence reports of cysticercosis in Ethiopia showed variable results with localities ranging from 3.1% in Central Ethiopia to 30% from different abattoirs in the country. Infection with the cysticercus in cattle causes economic loss in the beef industry, while taeniasis is causing a public health problem. The presence of bovine cysticercosis in Ethiopia is well established and reports from different parts of the country also proof this fact. Further in detail studies on prevalence, molecular characterization and public health importance of bovine cysticercosis is required to establish clear epidemiological pictures, prevalence and public importance of the disease.
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To determine the prevalence of human hydatidosis in Bahir Dar and the sex and age distribution and awareness, we used a questionnaire and retrospective analysis covering 5 years of the case reports at public health institutions in Bahir Dartown and the surrounding areas. We interviewed 244 individuals: 150 households, 32 abattoir workers, 30 butchers and 32 health professionals. None of the householders or butchers knew about cystic echinococcosis, nor did 25% of the health professionals; however, 100% of the abattoir workers and 75% of the health professionals recognized it. The householders owned on average 3 livestock and 1 dog and during holidays, ceremonies and other feasts, the community mostly practised backyard slaughter. Case book analysis between January 2002 and December 2006 showed that out of the total of 36,402 patients admitted for ultrasound examination, 24 hydatidosis cases were registered, giving a mean annual incidence rate of approximately 2.3 cases per 100,000 per year. Ultrasound was the most frequently used diagnostic method.
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Zoonotic diseases such as brucellosis have a major impact on the health and economic prosperity of the developing world. Recent advances in our understanding of brucellosis and new developments in diagnostics and vaccine technology provide unique opportunities for biotechnology companies in developing countries to make an essential contribution to the control of this disease.
Chapter
Political instability, natural disasters, medical advances, globalization of food supply, and global travel will continue to be accompanied by public health challenges. Infectious disease surveillance will remain an important tool to detect infections and to monitor the impact of interventions. International collaboration in surveillance is critical because infections do not respect state boundaries. Advances such as culture-independent laboratory diagnosis will bring new challenges to traditional infectious disease surveillance systems. Innovations in information systems will enable progress in the collection of data, data analysis, and dissemination of data, but it is important to weigh the costs, understand the limitations, and ensure the appropriate protections of data when using new systems. It remains essential to regularly assess surveillance systems, and include evaluation and feedback from partners and stakeholders to ensure that systems are relevant and that data are being used optimally.
Chapter
To address infectious disease threats, the International Health Regulations (2005) call for a strengthening of capacity to conduct surveillance in each country. With reference to subsequent chapters in Infectious Disease Surveillance, we introduce the vast array of surveillance systems. Using examples from currently operating systems, we illustrate key uses of surveillance data, including to guide vaccine strategies, detect outbreaks, identify antimicrobial resistance, and estimate burden of disease for allocation of clinical and public health resources. Surveillance systems have been enriched by collaborations with diverse partners outside traditional public health including those in information systems, animal health, and communications. Challenges to surveillance programs include allocation of adequate resources not only for collection of data but also for analysis and dissemination. We emphasize timely dissemination of surveillance data to leverage public health action and inform clinical practice. Evaluations of surveillance systems should be regularly performed to identify opportunities for refinement, adapt to the evolving epidemiology of diseases, and incorporate new advances in technology.
Article
A cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2007 to April 2008 on 384 dairy cattle in Jimma Town and 1,102 adult cattle slaughtered at Jimma abattoir. The objective of the study was to generate preliminary epidemiological data on bovine TB both in dairy and beef cattle in Jimma and its area. Simple random sampling, single intradermal tuberculin (SIDT) and comparative intradermal tuberculin (CIDT) tests of dairy cattle and postmortem inspection of slaughter cattle were used. On the basis of CIDT test, herd and animal prevalence were found to be 48.6% (95% CI, 34.8-68.0) and 21.4% (95% CI, 17.3-25.5), respectively. In dairy herd, prevalence of bovine TB was significantly affected by herd size (2 = 7.1; P< 0.05) and age (2 =14.7; P<0.05). A prevalence of 5.4% (95% CI, 4.1-6.7) was recorded in cattle slaughtered at Jimma abattoir based on detailed postmortem examination. The occurrence of tuberculous lesions was variable in different tissues: 63.3% in the lungs and associated lymph nodes, 23.5% in the mesenteric lymph nodes and the remaining 13.2% in the lymph nodes of the head region. In conclusion, the result of the present study indicated the prevailing occurrence of bovine TB in the area and warrants for launching of control methods. Key words: Bovine tuberculosis, prevalence, risk factors, tuberculin tests, meat inspection, Jimma, Ethiopia