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The Nubian Complex and the Dispersal of Modern Humans in North Africa
... Van Peer and Vermeersch (2000) NC sites have both Levallois flake and point production, the latter including the Nubian method (p. 48). ...
... Dates from this layer cluster around MIS 5 (Table 4.2), but the relationship between the scattered lithic artefacts and the dated hearths is currently unclear. Vermeersch (2001) and Van Peer and Vermeersch (2000) both state there are two Nubian Complex levels at the site. Yet Schmidt et al. (2015) state that there are three Nubian Complex levels. ...
... At other undated Middle Paleolithic sites in the area, Nubian Levallois cores occurred in varying frequencies, such as at El Gawanim 1 and 2, Nazlet Khater 2 and 3, and Makhdama 6, while at other sites Nubian Levallois technology was found in association with large cutting tools (Vermeersch 2000. These are all significant assemblages, but they are all undated. ...
Nubian Levallois' lithic technology has been found from South Africa to India, it occurs sporadically over a period of more than two hundred thousand years, and it appears to be associated with at least two hominin species. Despite this, proponents of the 'Nubian Complex' argue that this technocomplex-often, but not exclusively, defined by the presence of Nubian Levallois technology-offers a strong culture historical signal. This argument claims that the Nubian Complex is an originally Northeast African entity, dating to Marine Isotope Stage 5, and that by tracing the distribution of Nubian Levallois technology it is possible to trace the spread of Homo sapiens from Northeast Africa. In light of these bold claims, it is important to test the reality and usefulness of the Nubian Complex idea. In this paper I review the history of the Nubian Complex, evaluate sites assigned to it, and consider the characteristics and significance of Nubian Levallois technology. This review suggests that the original reasons for defining the Nubian Complex were flawed, definitions of it are overly-variable and inconsistent, and that the concept is driving misleading models that are actively harming interpretations of the record. It should therefore be abandoned. Perhaps the most telling criticism of the Nubian Complex is that even its proponents do not agree on which sites should be included (e.g. Bir Tarfawi). I explore the possibility that Nubian Levallois technology-which should be disentangled from the culture-historical concept of the 'Nubian Complex'-represents a case of convergent evolution and identify avenues for future research. This reorientation facilitates insights into the behavioral significance of Nubian Levallois technology, in terms of factors such as standardization and mobility strategies.
... The 'Nubian Complex' (see Van Peer, 1998) is a technocomplex that subsumes Marks' (1968a) 'Nubian Middle Palaeolithic' and 'Nubian Mousterian' as temporal variants of the same technocomplex, (Van Peer & Vermeersch, 2000), the Khormusan (see below and Marks, 1968b), and TTAs in northeast Africa (i.e. the 'Eastern Aterian'). It has typically been described as restricted to northeast Africa in three main areas, the Western Desert, the Nile Valley and the Eastern Desert at Sodmein Cave (e.g. ...
... Descriptions of the Nubian Complex using these types were later revised to include 'Mousterian points', significant proportions of side scrapers and denticulates, and 'Upper Palaeolithic types' (Van Peer & Vermeersch, 2000), a grouping typically including burins, endscrapers and 'piercers'. Notably, Mousterian points, high numbers of scrapers, denticulates and 'Upper Palaeolithic types' fit assemblages from a range of sites across the region (e.g. ...
North Africa features some of the earliest manifestations of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) and fossils of our species, Homo sapiens, as well as early examples of complex culture and the long distance transfer of exotic raw materials. As they are elsewhere, lithics (i.e., stone tools) present by far the most abundant source of information on this cultural period. Given the importance of North Africa in human origins, understanding the character and distribution of MSA lithics is therefore crucial, as they shed light on early human behaviour and culture. However, the lithics of the North African MSA are poorly understood, and their technological variability is frequently obfuscated by regionally specific nomenclatures, often repeated without criticism, and diverse methods of analysis that are often incompatible. Characterising dynamic technological innovations as well as apparent technological stasis remains challenging, and many narratives have not been tested quantitatively. This significantly problematizes hypotheses of human evolution and dispersals invoking these data that extend beyond North Africa. This paper therefore presents a description of the lithics of the North African MSA, including their technological characteristics, chronology, spatial distribution and associated research traditions. A range of interpretations concerning early H. sapiens demography in North Africa are then re-evaluated in the light of this review, and the role and power of lithic data to contribute to such debates is critically assessed.
... The presence of prehistoric human settlement at and around Taramsa Hill is attested by different technologies within the MSA exploitation systems and by different artifact assemblages (Van Peer et al., 2010). Many Egyptian MSA assemblages can be attributed to the "Nubian Complex" as defined by Van Peer and Vermeersch (2000). This is also the case at Taramsa 1, where several phases of human activity have been documented (Table 1). ...
On the left bank of the Nile, south of the town of Qena in Upper Egypt, several chert extraction sites in the desert near the village of Taramsa have been the focus of archaeological explorations since the 1980s (Vermeersch et al., 1995). The site of Taramsa-1 is one of them. It was discovered in 1985 during a survey by the Belgian Middle Egypt Prehistoric Project of Leuven University (Vermeersch et al., 1987). It was registered as site E85/2. Excavations were carried out by the team in 1989, 1991, and 1994. In 2001, S. Stokes and R. Bailey from the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art at Oxford (UK) performed sediment sampling and gamma spectrometry for optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating. A final report was published by the team in 2010 (Van Peer et al., 2010).
... The colouring of stone artefacts with pigment, particularly in the form of a continuous red ochre line, has been recorded outside Europe (P. Van Peer, P. Vermeersch, 2000). It should be emphasised, however, that the very principle of painting stone surfaces was also used by European Neanderthals (A. ...
This article presents eight pebbles with ochre residues from the context of the Middle Palaeolithic sites of Eastern Crimea. The finds come from different layers of the Ak-Kaya type Micoquian multilayered sites Zaskalnaya V, Zaskalnaya VI (Kolosovskaya) and Prolom II. Neanderthal bone remains were recovered in some of these layers. The age of finds is estimated between MIS 5d and MIS 3. The presented artefacts are dominated by red, orange, and yellow ochre; residuals of pigments of other colours are probably also present. One artefact presents the instance of accidental ochre stain; others relate to ochre treatment processes (grinding and crushing), while others (intentionally painted ochre items) may relate to as yet poorly known aspects of the Late Neanderthal symbolic behaviour.
... Deux phases principales sont distingué es au sein du Complexe Nubien, le Complexe Nubien ancien (dé but du MIS 5) se distingue du Complexe nubien ré cent (fin du MIS 5) par la pré sence de pointes bifaciales foliacé es et un plus faible pourcentage de nuclé us Levallois nubiens, particuliè rement de type 1 (Van Peer, 2016, 1998Van Peer et Vermeersch, 2000). Les caracté ristiques du Complexe Nubien ancien ont mené à l'hypothè se d'une filiation avec le Lupembien (Van Peer et Vermeersch, 2007). ...
Résumé
Cet article est une synthèse des connaissances actuelles sur le Paléolithique d’Afrique du Nord-Est (actuels Egypte et Soudan) vues sous l’angle de l’histoire des recherches dans cette région. En particulier, cette région clé par sa position géographique dans les problématiques de dispersions humaines hors d’Afrique (et retour en Afrique) se situe également à la croisée de deux « écoles » d’étude de la préhistoire, ce qui est reflété dans l’emploi parallèle de deux nomenclatures différentes (européenne « Paléolithique » et africaine « Stone Age ») pour la description de son registre préhistorique. Ici, le terme Paléolithique est employé comme un terme générique faisant référence à la préhistoire pléistocène. Les grandes étapes de la construction du cadre chrono-culturel du Paléolithique d’Afrique du Nord-Est sont retracées, afin de comprendre les éventuels biais associés aux données sur le Paléolithique de la région. Pour chaque phase du Paléolithique, les données actuellement disponibles sont synthétisées afin de discuter de la place de l’Afrique du Nord-Est dans son contexte macro-régional.
... -la méthode nubienne de type 1 implique la création de nervures-guides par deux enlèvements distaux divergents -la méthode nubienne de type 2 implique la création de nervures-guides par des enlèvements centripètes Figure 5.4 -Exemples de nucléus Levallois nubiens de type 1 (à gauche) et de type 2 (à droite) D'après Van Peer, 1988, reprenant Guichard et Guichard, 1965 Elles sont l'une des caractéristiques technologiques qui ont permis de définir le Complexe nubien en Égypte (Van Peer, 1988Van Peer et Vermeersch, 2000;Van Peer, 2001), présentant des variantes dans des contextes désertiques, notamment près d'Abydos (Olszewski et al., 2010). Les méthodes nubiennes, et notamment la méthode de type 2, ont également été identifiées sur le plateau du Messak, dans le désert libyen (Cancellieri et di Lernia, 2013). ...
En Afrique de l’Est, les Hommes modernes semblent d’abord associés à des comportementstechniques dits Middle Stone Age (MSA). La technologie lithique se caractérise par la production d’éclats, ainsique de supports pointus ou allongés, par des méthodes telles que le Levallois ou le Discoïde, ou encore parune gestion volumétrique du débitage (nucléus prismatiques). L’outil associé le plus représentatif est la pointeretouchée. Pendant la seconde partie du Pléistocène supérieur, la production de supports allongés (lames etlamelles) devient majoritaire, et est associée à des microlithes (Later Stone Age (LSA)). L’examen des sitesd’Afrique de l’Est datés de cette période montre cependant un tableau plus mitigé. Des assemblages présententdes caractères mixtes MSA/LSA. Ceci questionne la nature du changement entre le MSA et le LSA dans cetterégion.C’est dans ce contexte que se place l’étude comparative des sites de Porc-Epic et de Goda Buticha, dans leSud-Est éthiopien. L’analyse typo-technologique du matériel lithique s’appuie sur les critères-clés autour desquelssemble se cristalliser le changement ; il s’agit de la production de (1) supports allongés, (2) pointes retouchées et(3) microlithes. L’étude montre la présence d’éléments techniques communs aux niveaux pléistocènes et holocènespour les trois critères étudiés. Ces éléments ont pu être interprétés en termes de continuité technique, semblantdénoter une transition très graduelle du MSA vers le LSA. Ces résultats remettent en question la pertinencede l’emploi d’une telle terminologie pour cette région. Cette analyse permet d’aborder des questions majeuresliées à cette période, c’est-à-dire, l’instabilité climatique, marquée par des phases très arides (le Big Dry) et lesmigrations de l’Out of Africa 3. L’analyse du matériel lithique de ces deux sites constitue un réfé
... Notons à cette occasion que les niveaux 23, 19 sommet et 19 base à Taforalt (Roche, 1976) ont donné un âge 14 C supérieur à 40 000 BP (références respectives : GIF-2279, GIF-2589et GIF-2588. L'Atérien serait donc plus ancien qu'on l'imaginait et ses débuts seraient comparables avec l'Atérien de l'Afrique du Nord-Est et surtout de la Cyrénaïque et l'Égypte, où il est daté entre 43 300 et 44 700 BP (Van Peer et Vermeersch, 2000). Ses fondements, issus du Moustérien local, ne semblent faire aucun doute (Hahn, 1984). ...
Le réexamen des séries d'El Aliya illustre leur homogénéité typologique et leur grand raffinement technique, souvent méconnus en Europe. Des datations récentes de l'Atérien au Maroc septentrional nécessitent une révision des idées couramment acceptées quant à ses influences sur le continent européen, par exemple dans la gestation du Solutréen moyen. © 2002 E ´ ditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. Tous droits réservés. Abstract Re-examination of the El Aliya assemblages illustrates their typological homogeneity and technical refinement, often poorly understood in Europe. Recent dating of the Aterian in northern Morocco requires a revision of currently accepted ideas regarding its influences on the European continent, for example on the origins of the Middle Solutrean..be (M. Otte). L'Anthropologie 106 (2002) 207−248 www.elsevier.com/locate/anthro © 2002 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. Tous droits réservés. PII: S 0 0 0 3-5 5 2 1 (0 2) 0 1 0 9 0-7
... Isolated Nubian cores, Levallois points, diagnostic debitage, and workshop sites have been widely identified across the Arabian Peninsula. In other regions, Nubian cores have been reported from the southern Levant (e.g., Munday 1976;Boutié & Rosen 1989;Goder-Goldberg et al. 2016), across Northeast Africa (e.g., Chiotti et al. 2009;Olszewski et al. 2010;Van Peer & Vermeersch 2000) and East Africa (e.g., Clark 1988;Kurashina 1978;Tryon & Faith 2013;Yellen et al. 2005). Assemblages containing Nubian cores from northern India (Blinkhorn et al. 2015) and South Africa have recently been reported, doe to their isolated character incorporating them into the NC is problematic, further research need to be done. ...
Nubian Levallois technology is the defining characteristic of the Middle Paleolithic or Middle Stone Age technocomplex known as the Nubian Complex. Until recently, this technocomplex was found exclusively in northeastern Africa; however, archaeological surveys conducted across the Arabian Peninsula in the last decade have expanded the known distribution of this technological phenomenon. Since 2009, researchers from separate archaeological missions have mapped sites yielding Nubian cores and debitage, and by extension Nubian technology, in the southern, central and northernmost parts of the Arabia Peninsula. Nubian Complex artifacts in central and southern Arabia were made using different raw materials: in Al-Kharj (central Saudi Arabia) Middle Paleolithic industries were made exclusively on quartzite, while in Dhofar (southern Oman) chert was the only knappable material available for use. Given these differences, we sought to examine the influence of raw material variability on core morphology and size. Contrary to initial hypothesis, this study finds that the differences recorded are not a function of raw material properties. In both areas, Nubian cores were reduced using the same technological systems producing a set of preferential blanks. Rather, the recorded differences from raw material constrains were primarily due to knapping accidents, which occur in higher proportions at quartzite-based assemblages from Al-Kharj (specifically the siret fracture) compared with the chert assemblages from Dhofar. In sum, we argue that raw material had little effect on Nubian Levallois core technology and was not a constraint on Nubian Complex artisans.
The meaning of the word ‘Nubian’ in Middle Palaeolithic archaeology has changed markedly since its first published use in 1965 in the context of the Nubian rescue campaign in southern Egypt and northern Sudan. Initially referring to two types of prepared point cores, ‘Nubian’ later became attached to a widespread technocomplex in the 1990s and in more recent research describes a specific Levallois reduction strategy. In this review, we situate ‘Nubian’ in its geographic and historical contexts, exploring how its terminology and concepts emerged, developed, and are now viewed in the frame of subsequent research. Whilst the taxonomic origin of the Nubian descriptor—as a technology or technocomplex—is associated with this region of northeastern Africa, its widespread distribution, as shown in the works presented in this collection, suggests that Nubian reduction played as complex a role in past human behaviour and cultural dynamics as it does in current archaeological debates.
Over the last two decades, red ochre has played a pivotal role in discussions about the cognitive and cultural evolution of early modern humans during the African Middle Stone Age. Given the importance of ochre for the scholarly debate about the emergence of ‘behavioral modernity’, the lack of long-term spatio-temporal analyses spanning large geographical areas represents a significant gap in knowledge. Here we take a continent-wide approach, rather than focusing on specific sites, regions or technocomplexes. We report the most comprehensive meta-analysis of ochre use to date, spanning Africa between 500 and 40 thousand years ago, to examine data from more than a hundred archaeological sites. Using methods based on time averaging, we identified three distinct phases of ochre use: the initial phase occurred from 500,000 to 330,000; the emergent phase from 330,000 to 160,000; and the habitual phase from 160,000 to 40,000 years ago. The number of sites with ochre increased with each subsequent phase. More importantly, the ratio of sites with ochre compared to those with only stone artifacts also followed this trend, indicating the increasing intensity of ochre use during the Middle Stone Age. While the geographical distribution expanded with time, the absolute number of ochre finds grew significantly as well, underlining the intensification of ochre use. We determine that ochre use established itself as a habitual cultural practice in southern, eastern and northern Africa starting about 160,000 years ago, when a third of archaeological sites contain ochre. We argue that this pattern is a likely material manifestation of intensifying ritual activity in early populations of Homo sapiens . Such ritual behavior may have facilitated the demographic expansion of early modern humans, first within and eventually beyond the African continent. We discuss the implications of our findings on two models of ritual evolution, the Female Cosmetic Coalitions Hypothesis and the Ecological Stress Hypothesis, as well as a model about the emergence of complex cultural capacities, the Eight-Grade Model for the Evolution and Expansion of Cultural Capacities .
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