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Level of interactivity and executive functions as predictors of learning in computer-based chemistry simulations
... Games are widely used in education to enhance student motivation and improve learning outcomes (Arztmann et al., 2023;Lamb et al., 2018;Riopel et al., 2019). Yet, recent research suggests that educational games do not always lead to their intended learning effects (Homer & Plass, 2014;Lawson & Mayer, 2024;Makransky et al., 2019). Playing educational games has often been argued to be a cognitively demanding process due to the complexity of the game environment consisting of both game elements and educational content (Buchner et al., 2021;Makransky & Petersen, 2021;Mayer, 2021). ...
... Educational games, in general, are typically complex and rich in multimedia representations, as students have to process dynamic visual information (ie, through moving avatars and game objects) (Hegarty, 2005;Makransky & Petersen, 2021;Mayer, 2021). Homer and Plass (2014) demonstrated that students with low WMC performed poorer than those with high WMC when playing a simulation game with high levels of complexity in the environment. Their results indicate that WMC could be an important factor to consider when examining students' in-game performance. ...
... Their results indicate that WMC could be an important factor to consider when examining students' in-game performance. While prior research suggests that students with lower WMC may have more difficulties when playing educational AR games, to our knowledge, only one study (Homer & Plass, 2014) has examined how students' WMC affects their performance in an educational game. ...
A distinct feature of educational games using augmented reality (AR) is that the game is played through physically interacting with the environment, whereas physical interaction is typically rather limited in other digital games. Understanding and performing the interactive game mechanics can be cognitively demanding. Adding pre‐training could help students manage cognitive load during in‐game performance. However, traditional approaches of pre‐training (eg, paper‐based or video sequences) might not be sufficient, given the crucial role of physical interactions in educational AR games. In the present study, primary and early secondary school students (N = 255) were randomly assigned to an active pre‐training, which involved students practising the movements needed in the game or a passive pre‐training, where students watched a video explaining the game. The aim was to investigate whether active pre‐training reduces students' cognitive load and improves in‐game performance. It was also examined whether these effects were dependent on students' visuospatial working memory capacity (WMC). Results showed no significant differences between the conditions regarding students' cognitive load and in‐game performance. However, visuospatial WMC predicted students' dropout of the game. This suggests that observing the movements in the passive pre‐training might be similarly effective as enacting the movements. Nevertheless, more research is needed to gain a better understanding of how different levels of WMC impact learning with educational AR games and how students with low visuospatial WMC can be efficiently supported.
Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic Working memory capacity influences students' ability to successfully perform complex tasks.
Not every learning medium is equally effective for students with different levels of working memory capacity.
Pre‐training in educational games can support learning and increases the academic performance of students.
Educational games with AR can be cognitively demanding, since students need to understand the interactions with the used device in addition to the game content and mechanics.
It is unclear how to sufficiently support students in AR environments.
What this paper adds Both active and passive pre‐training are equally effective.
Students with lower working memory capacity were more likely to drop out during the educational AR game than students with high working memory capacity.
Implications for practice and/or policy Both practising and watching movements may be helpful for students to learn the relevant game mechanics to interact with the AR environment.
There are students who do not optimally benefit when AR games are implemented in education and may need additional support.
... Simulation content L C SP TP QL QT (Amin & Ikhsan, 2021) Chemical equilibrium C QT (Chang & Linn, 2013) Chemical thermal dynamics L QL QT (Chen, Chang, Lai & Tsai, 2014) Boyle's Law L C SP QL QT (Chien, Tsai, Chen, Chang & Chen, 2015) Boyle's Law L QT (Correia et al., 2019) Behavior of gases at a sub-microscopic level L SP QL QT (Davenport, Rafferty & Yaron, 2018) Solutions ( Acid-base reactivity L SP QL QT (Homer & Plass, 2014) Kinetic molecular theory and ideal gas law L QT (Karlsson, Ivarsson & Lindstrom, 2013) Gas solubility L SP TP QL (Lamb & Annetta, 2013) Mole, chemical equations and stoichiometry L SP QT (Levy, 2013) States of aggregation and phase change C QL QT (Olakanmi, 2015) Chemical reactions L QL QT (Osman & Lee, 2013) Electrochemistry L QT (Papadimitropoulos, Dalacosta & Pavlatou, 2021) Acids and bases (properties, Arrhenius theory and pH) L QT (Plass, Milne, Homer, Schwartz, Hayward, Jordan et al., 2012) Kinetic molecular theory L C QT (Pratidhina, Pujianto & Sumardi, 2019) Gas laws L QT (Ryoo, Bedell & Swearingen, 2018) Properties of matter and chemical reactions L QT (Smetana & Bell, 2014) Atomic structure L SP TP QL QT (Stieff, 2019) Nature of matter, reactivity and chemical equilibrium L QT (Tatli & Ayas, 2012) Chemical changes L SP QL QT (Tatli & Ayas, 2013) Chemical changes L QT (Udo & Etiubon, 2011) Chemical combination L QT ...
... Of the 31 works studied, 27 are dedicated to analyzing the learning outcomes after using virtual simulations in the classroom. Twenty-three of these works showed a significant improvement in the comprehension of concepts; three works (Homer & Plass, 2014;Waight & Gillmeister, 2014) conducted a qualitative analysis, and thus they were not taken into account as either positive or negative results. Only the work by Karlsson et al. (2013) found no significant improvement in conceptual comprehension, which was associated with the lack of prior knowledge by the participating students. ...
... This argument coincides with that proposed by Lamb and Annetta (2013) and Osman and Lee (2013). The positive effect on the transfer of knowledge is also observed in Homer and Plass (2014). Smetana and Bell (2014) associate the improvements with two factors: 1) the simulations have the potential to make learning interactive, authentic and significant; 2) the role of the instructor, fostering cooperation and student-focused learning. ...
Virtual simulations are a very useful educational resource to improve the teaching of chemistry. Their use makes it possible to facilitate the comprehension of concepts, promotes the development of scientific competences and even improves student attitudes toward chemistry. However, it is important to point out that a simulation by itself is not enough to improve student learning. Methodological design is a crucial aspect in order for its classroom use to be significant. Simulations must form part of an instructional sequence that promotes said learning, and thus the role of the instructor is key. This work conducts a systematic review with the aim of analyzing how to apply the use of simulations in the teaching of chemistry in secondary schools, delving deeper into the way in which simulations are used from a methodological perspective, in order to improve the learning processes and results. In this sense, it was found that there is an improvement in learning on both the level of content comprehension and in scientific competences. Guided research is also identified as the most effective methodology for the application of simulations in the classroom. With a look to the future, it is suggested that there is a need to conduct research on the continued use of simulations in the classroom, as well as their characteristics and the instructional methods used.
... Similarly, Homer and Plass (2014) found students' executive functions was an influencing factor in the effectiveness of scaffolds. In their first study, students in the exploratory condition who completed the inquiry task under guided interactive simulation outperformed students in the worked condition who were presented with a series of pre-set screen captures from the simulation in terms of knowledge transfer. ...
... The reviewed studies indicated scaffolds with suggested learning structure and detailed instructions did not guarantee better performance. The design of scaffolds could interact with learner factors such as prior knowledge (van Riesen et al., 2018a(van Riesen et al., , 2018b(van Riesen et al., , 2022, exploration strategies (Dalgarno et al., 2014) and executive functions to affect its effectiveness (Homer & Plass, 2014). Similarly, technological factors such as representation forms in the design of scaffolds could result in better learning effects when considering the developmental factors of students (Jaakkola & Veermans, 2015). ...
... In the design of scaffolds, technologies played an important role in organizing the structure of learning (van Riesen et al., 2018a;van Riesen et al., 2018bvan Riesen et al., , 2022 or presenting pre-designed learning paths (Dalgarno et al., 2014;Homer & Plass, 2014;Ibanez et al., 2016;Roll et al., 2018). In addition, the representation forms in the simulation environments could be an essential scaffolding design element in supporting the knowledge acquisition (Jaakkola & Veermans, 2015;. ...
Background
Guidance has showed positive effects on promoting inquiry‐based learning in science education. While an increasing number of studies focus on the design of guidance in simulation‐based inquiry learning due to recent technology developments, how different designs of a same type of guidance affect learning remains a question.
Objectives
This study reviews the (quasi‐)experimental research on the learning effects of differently designed guidance in simulation‐based inquiry learning in the past decade (2011–2020). The investigation is guided by two questions: how differently designed guidance affects inquiry‐based learning in simulated environments in terms of learning process and learning outcomes, and what role technology plays in the design of guidance. In particular, we report on studies that compares the effects of a same type (process constraints/prompts/heuristics/scaffolds/metacognitive supports/direct presentation of information) of guidance with different instructional designs, and select a total of 28 peer‐reviewed journal articles. The results indicate no equivocal tendency of effectiveness towards a specific design. Instead, each type of guidance has related factors that may influence its effectiveness. Three major factors that related to optimization of inquiry learning guidance in simulation‐based environments are identified: the learner factor, the pedagogical factor, and the technological factor.
... Studies showed that learners liked VPs showing empathy and when having a personality Cameron et al., 2019;Dimeff et al., 2020 or disliked it when it was missing it Ly et al., 2017;Borja-Hart et al., 2019;Cook et al., 2010 define interactivity as the "degree to which the course design encouraged learners to engage cognitively." Former research results are inconclusive about the effect of interactivity on learning outcomes Homer and Plass (2014). According to studies, increased interactivity can encourage more engaged users and deeper learning, but it can also increase cognitive load, which can impede learning Kalet et al., 2012;Homer and Plass 2014. ...
... Former research results are inconclusive about the effect of interactivity on learning outcomes Homer and Plass (2014). According to studies, increased interactivity can encourage more engaged users and deeper learning, but it can also increase cognitive load, which can impede learning Kalet et al., 2012;Homer and Plass 2014. In the VP context, studies showed that learners liked the interactivity of the VPs Hudlicka 2013; Ly et al., 2017 or wished for more interactivity Cameron et al., 2019;Håvik et al., 2019. 2 Materials and methods ...
Virtual Reality (VR) technology allows the design and application of realistic but adaptive learning environments in medical education. In particular, virtual patient systems have logistical and methodological advantages compared to non-computerized interventions. However, evidence for their effectiveness is fragmented as any educational domain introduces its requirements regarding learning goals, measurements of learning outcomes, and application design. In this context, we present preliminary results of evaluating a VR training application for conducting a clinical interview to diagnose mental disorders in children and adolescents using virtual patients. The evaluation focuses on design elements related to the virtual patient’s appearance and natural language capabilities. Our results indicate that our virtual patient design is highly believable and that our dialog system is satisfying. However, conversational flow requires optimization. We discuss design directions and potential enhancements for learner-virtual patient interactions in VR and address future operations to evaluate the effectiveness of our approach.
... However, Schnotz and Rasch (2005) and Park et al. (2009) found that simulation was superior to animation in the performance of concept comprehending test for more knowledgeable students. Moreover, Homer and Plass (2014) also found that the students with higher executive function benefited more from simulation than from animation, and the opposite effect was valid for the students with lower executive function. They defined the executive function as the ability to efficiently allocate mental effort to deal with an event. ...
... Accordingly, in future research it is worth investigating which level of prior knowledge or executive function (e.g. Homer & Plass, 2014) the relatively more knowledgeable learners need to have to result in the occurrence of such superiority. On the other hand, the present study merely adopted a test relevant to the application of learning concepts to examine the learning performances and it is unclear whether the three pictorial representation formats may also have different facilitating effects on the performances of different kinds of test such as the test requiring learners' spatiotemporal inference to solve the problems. ...
We investigated interaction effects of multimedia representation format and learner’s prior knowledge level on learning outcomes. Eighty-seven high school students with a lower or a higher level of physics prior knowledge learned about the operation of a nuclear power plant and the concepts of generating electricity by studying static graphics, an animation, or a simulation. Results indicated that the lower physics prior knowledge level students learned more from the animations than from the static graphics, and the simulation. However, learning outcomes of the higher physics prior knowledge level students did not differ between the three multimedia format conditions. The results suggest that the learner’s prior knowledge level should be considered when choosing an appropriate multimedia representation format, especially for students with low prior knowledge.
... The design of the BLsim activity was, on one hand, motivated by the demonstrated potential of simulation-based activities (along with appropriate prompting) to foster connections between the submicroscopic, symbolic, and macroscopic levels (Johnstone, 1991;Williamson and Abraham, 1995;Russell et al., 1997;Tasker and Dalton, 2006;Lancaster et al., 2013;Kelly, 2014;Schwedler and Kaldewey, 2020;Kaldaras and Wieman, 2023). On the other hand, the interactivity of the simulation and the inclusion of prediction/test-type prompts aimed to support students in (re)constructing explanations around absorption phenomena, a process which has been shown to be strengthened through metacognition (Homer and Plass, 2014;Kelly, 2014;Kapon, 2017;Kelly et al., 2017). In this work, using a newly developed spectroscopy assessment, we employ a quasiexperimental design to examine how engagement with this simulation-based activity influenced students' reasoning about absorption phenomena. ...
... However, because of all other instructional factors being equivalent for the comparison and simulation groups, we can conclude a clear association between completing the BLSim activity and engaging in submicroscopic reasoning in the post-assessment. Our findings are consistent with previous studies discussing the effectiveness of animations and simulations in supporting students' mental models (Williamson and Abraham, 1995;Dalton, 2003;Tasker and Dalton, 2006;Kelly, 2014), explanations (Kelly et al., 2017;Kaldaras and Wieman, 2023) and depth of understanding (Homer and Plass, 2014;Kaldaras and Wieman, 2023) surrounding particulate-level phenomena. ...
The Beer-Lambert Law is a fundamental relationship in chemistry that helps connect macroscopic experimental observations (i.e., the amount of light exiting a solution sample) to a symbolic model composed of...
... There was also variety in the level of interactivity with the virtual patient tools, with half of the tools not requiring students to gather information from the patient. Previous research is inconclusive as to whether greater interactivity produces better learning outcomes [53]. Studies have shown greater interactivity can facilitate deeper learning and more engagement from users, but it can also increase cognitive load, which can interfere with learning [50,53]. ...
... Previous research is inconclusive as to whether greater interactivity produces better learning outcomes [53]. Studies have shown greater interactivity can facilitate deeper learning and more engagement from users, but it can also increase cognitive load, which can interfere with learning [50,53]. However, virtual patient tools that allow for greater interactivity might be more helpful for educators to observe and assess clinical reasoning skills, as students can demonstrate a broader range of skills in real-time, such as data gathering. ...
Background
Use of virtual patient educational tools could fill the current gap in the teaching of clinical reasoning skills. However, there is a limited understanding of their effectiveness. The aim of this study was to synthesise the evidence to understand the effectiveness of virtual patient tools aimed at improving undergraduate medical students’ clinical reasoning skills.
Methods
We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, ERIC, Scopus, Web of Science and PsycINFO from 1990 to January 2022, to identify all experimental articles testing the effectiveness of virtual patient educational tools on medical students’ clinical reasoning skills. Quality of the articles was assessed using an adapted form of the MERSQI and the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale. A narrative synthesis summarised intervention features, how virtual patient tools were evaluated and reported effectiveness.
Results
The search revealed 8,186 articles, with 19 articles meeting the inclusion criteria. Average study quality was moderate (M = 6.5, SD = 2.7), with nearly half not reporting any measurement of validity or reliability for their clinical reasoning outcome measure (8/19, 42%). Eleven articles found a positive effect of virtual patient tools on reasoning (11/19, 58%). Four reported no significant effect and four reported mixed effects (4/19, 21%). Several domains of clinical reasoning were evaluated. Data gathering, ideas about diagnosis and patient management were more often found to improve after virtual patient use (34/47 analyses, 72%) than application of knowledge, flexibility in thinking and problem-solving (3/7 analyses, 43%).
Conclusions
Using virtual patient tools could effectively complement current teaching especially if opportunities for face-to-face teaching or other methods are limited, as there was some evidence that virtual patient educational tools can improve undergraduate medical students’ clinical reasoning skills. Evaluations that measured more case specific clinical reasoning domains, such as data gathering, showed more consistent improvement than general measures like problem-solving. Case specific measures might be more sensitive to change given the context dependent nature of clinical reasoning. Consistent use of validated clinical reasoning measures is needed to enable a meta-analysis to estimate effectiveness.
... There was also variety in the level of interactivity with the virtual patient tools, with half of the tools not requiring students to gather information from the patient. Previous research is inconclusive as to whether greater interactivity produces better learning outcomes [49]. Studies have shown greater interactivity can facilitate deeper learning and more engagement from users, but it can also increase cognitive load, which can interfere with learning [47,49]. ...
... Previous research is inconclusive as to whether greater interactivity produces better learning outcomes [49]. Studies have shown greater interactivity can facilitate deeper learning and more engagement from users, but it can also increase cognitive load, which can interfere with learning [47,49]. However, virtual patient tools that allow for greater interactivity might be more helpful for educators to observe and assess clinical reasoning skills, as students can demonstrate a broader range of skills in real-time, such as data gathering. ...
Background
Use of virtual patient educational tools could fill the current gap in the teaching of clinical reasoning skills. However, there is a limited understanding of their effectiveness. The aim of this study was to synthesise the evidence to understand the effectiveness of virtual patient tools aimed at improving undergraduate medical students’ clinical reasoning skills.
Methods
We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, ERIC, Scopus, Web of Science and PsycINFO from 1990 to October 2020, to identify all experimental articles testing the effectiveness of virtual patient educational tools on medical students’ clinical reasoning skills. Quality of the articles was assessed using an adapted form of the MERSQI and the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. A narrative synthesis summarised intervention features, how virtual patient tools were evaluated and reported effectiveness.
Results
The search revealed 7,290 articles, with 20 articles meeting the inclusion criteria. Average study quality was moderate (M=7.1, SD=2.5), with around a third not reporting any measurement of validity or reliability for their clinical reasoning outcome measure (7/20, 35%). Eleven articles found a positive effect of virtual patient tools on reasoning (11/20, 55%). Seven (7/20, 35%) reported no significant effect or mixed effects and two found a significantly negative effect (2/20, 10%). Several domains of clinical reasoning were evaluated. Data gathering, ideas about diagnosis and patient management were more often found to improve after virtual patient use (27/46 analyses, 59%) than knowledge, flexibility in thinking, problem-solving, and critical thinking (4/10 analyses, 40%).
Conclusions
Using virtual patient tools could effectively complement current teaching especially if opportunities for face-to-face teaching or other methods are limited, as there was some evidence that virtual patient educational tools can improve undergraduate medical students’ clinical reasoning skills. Evaluations that measured more case specific clinical reasoning domains, such as data gathering, showed more consistent improvement than general measures like problem-solving. Case specific measures might be more sensitive to change given the context dependent nature of clinical reasoning. Consistent use of validated clinical reasoning measures is needed to enable a meta-analysis to estimate effectiveness.
... The participants identified a set of characteristics of 3D-VLEs which included: the facilitation of tasks that result in enhanced representation of spatial knowledge, more opportunities for experiential learning, increased motivation/ engagement, efficient collaborative learning and enriched contextualization of learning. Indeed, the participants' responses were consistent with what was presented in the literature review in this study (2,3,15,16,18,19). These accounts report that 3D-VRLEs create interactive and realistic learning, encourage collaborative and practical activities, and set the stage for performing unsafe experiential learning tasks in a safe environment. ...
... As stated by McKenney & Reeves (20), one of the key outputs of any educational DBR is to come up with design principles that indicate how to solve specific difficulties in a variety of settings (p. 19). These guidelines are considered valuable to practitioners in the Omani MOE if they plan to adopt 3D-VRLE labs for sciences and other subjects in schools. ...
Background: 3D-Virtual Reality Learning Environments (3D-VRLEs) have proven effective in stimulating student engagement in teaching and learning processes. However, some principles should be considered before introducing and implementing these learning environments in science education. This paper aims to document the principles that guide the design and development of the 3D-VRLE in science education and to draw the implications for the Omani educational context. Methods: A design-based research (DBR) methodology was conducted to gather data using two instruments: literature review and semi-structured interviews. One specialist developer and two Subject Matter Experts were selected for interviews using purposeful sampling. The in-person interviews consisted of seven questions and a three-hour discussion. The questions were centered on the technological features of 3D-VRLE applications, the instructional design process used to develop these educational applications, and the design principles used in their development. Keywords used for the literature review included biology, physics, chemistry, science, DBR, 3D-virtual reality, lab, and learning environment. Inductive thematic analysis was used as a technique for analyzing the interview data. Results: The findings pointed to a systematic and planned design process for 3D-VRLE in accordance with the ADDIE model. It was found that the design principles of the 3D-VRLE should include authentic and instructionally grounded systems, a collaborative and motivating environment, and student-centered instruction. Conclusion: 3D-VRLEs may have significant implications for the teaching of science in terms of the physical arrangement of classrooms, the way the teacher delivers the topic, the number of students in the classroom, and the type of technology that needs to be adopted in schools. This study presented the blueprints required by Omani science curriculum designers for the design/development of 3D-VRLE. This allows them to take the initiative in design and production of relevant learning materials and products and use them effectively in the educational context of Oman.
... Accordingly, there is a high possibility that while learning with dynamic frame-by-frame flow, important information can be lost from view before the learner has time to adequately select and process it. Therefore, research on interactive multimedia shows that making use of interactive manipulatable features can help learners flexibly interrogate the available information and diminish their cognitive load (Homer & Plass, 2014). Of special interest to this research are agent-based modeling interactive visualizations. ...
... Multimedia visualizations such as animations may impose greater cognitive processing demands because information is frequently transientdnamely critical objects and their relationships disappear during the animation narrativedand thus learners are forced to process current information while trying to remember previous information. Agent-based visualizations, by contrast, offer high degrees of learner control, which allows learners to adapt parameters of the visualizations to their individual learning requirementsdthat is, to their own capacities as well as to the specific nature of the learning taskdwhich in turn supports better management of cognitive resources (Homer & Plass, 2014). Consequently, learning with agent-based models, which is characterized by ''low threshold'' but ''high ceiling'' (simple but sufficiently robust for scientific learning), simplified mental processes that benefited more those learners who needed load-reducing strategies (Tissue & Wilensky, 2004). ...
Background
One of the great promises of computer technology for education is the ability to combine text, sound, and visualizations to create multimedia-based simulations. Therefore, an understanding of whether and how to implement the variety of multimedia technology in nursing education is fundamental.
Method
This study compares the effectiveness of online computer-based simulations designed using three alternative multimedia approaches—video, animation, and agent-based visualizations—on learning of clinical reasoning skills. Participants in this study were undergraduate nursing students (n = 97).
Results
Learning gains were significantly higher for simulation that incorporated exploration of agent-based visualizations than for video- and animation-based visualizations. Interestingly, low achievers made significantly higher learning gains after learning with agent-based simulation than high academic achievers.
Conclusion(s)
This study proposes that visualizations play an important role in the effectiveness of learning with computer-based multimedia environments. Learning with agent-based visualizations was superior to learning with animation- and video-based visualizations.
... Giving more control to the learner may increase cognitive effort, but at the same time, it may lead to deeper processing and thereby enhance knowledge acquisition. Homer and Plass (2014) argue that learner control leads to increased cognitive effort, but this additional cognitive effort is not exhausting the learners' processing capabilities. Rather, it engages the learner to make sense of the displayed processes in the visualization. ...
... Rather, it engages the learner to make sense of the displayed processes in the visualization. From this perspective, it can be argued that variable control is facilitating learning rather than inhibiting (Plass et al. 2009;Homer and Plass 2014). There are several studies suggesting that mentally straining activities and even frustrating activities result in unexpected high learning outcomes. ...
An important feature of inquiry learning is to take part in science practices including exploring variables and testing hypotheses. Computer-based dynamic visualizations have the potential to open up various exploration possibilities depending on the level of learner control. It is assumed that variable control, e.g., by changing parameters of a variable, leads to deeper processing (Chang and Linn 2013; de Jong and Njoo 1992; Nerdel 2003; Trey and Khan 2008). Variable control may be helpful, in particular, for acquiring intuitive knowledge (Swaak and de Jong 2001). However, it bares the risk of mental exhaustion and thus may have detrimental effects on knowledge acquisition (Sweller 1998). Students (N = 118) from four chemistry classes followed inquiry cycles using the software Molecular Workbench (Xie and Tinker 2006). Variable control was varied across the conditions (1) No-Manipulation group and (2) Manipulation group. By adding a third condition, (3) Manipulation-Plus group, we tested whether adding an active hypothesis phase prepares students before changing parameters of a variable. As expected, students in the Manipulation group and Manipulation-Plus group performed better concerning intuitive knowledge (d = 1.14) than students in the No-Manipulation group. On a descriptive level, results indicated higher cognitive effort in the Manipulation group and the Manipulation-Plus group than in the No-Manipulation group. Unexpectedly, students in the Manipulation-Plus group did not benefit from the active hypothesis phase (intuitive knowledge: d = .36). Findings show that students benefit from variable control. Furthermore, findings point toward the direction that variable control evokes desirable difficulties (Bjork and Linn 2006).
... Commercial games with particular game mechanics have been shown to exercise computational thinking in players (Berland and Lee, 2011). A training study that utilizes experimenter-designed or commercial games might be effective for improving scientific thinking and science achievement (Homer and Plass, 2014). ...
Cognitive flexibility as measured by the Wisconsin Card Sort Task (WCST) has long been associated with frontal lobe function. More recently, this construct has been associated with executive function (EF), which shares overlapping neural correlates. Here, we investigate the relationship between EF, cognitive flexibility, and science achievement in adolescents. This is important because there are fewer educational neuroscience studies of scientific reasoning than of other academically relevant forms of cognition (i.e., mathematical thinking and language understanding). Eighth grade students at a diverse middle school in the Midwestern US completed classroom-adapted measures of three EFs (shifting, inhibition, and updating) and the WCST. Science achievement was indexed by students’ standardized test scores and their end-of-the-year science class grades. Among the EF measures, updating was strongly predictive of science achievement. The association between cognitive flexibility and science achievement was comparatively weaker. These findings illuminate the relationship between EF, cognitive flexibility, and science achievement. A methodological contribution was the development of paper-and-pencil based versions of standard EF and cognitive flexibility measures suitable for classroom administration. We expect these materials to help support future classroom-based studies of EF and cognitive flexibility, and whether training these abilities in adolescent learners improves their science achievement.
... For Homer and Plass (2014), there has been considerable interest in the educational effectiveness of open-ended discovery pedagogical approaches, as compared to more direct approaches to learning and teaching. Some criticize guided teaching methods because they increase cognitive load and thus reduce learning; while others defend them because many teaching methods that have a constructivist orientation, such as PBL, are not guided at all and are effective. ...
Introduction. Several authors practice and disseminate good practices related to interactivity and agile, and from different areas and disciplines, as part of their activities, but few integrate them to develop projects. Objective. This paper presents the results of a review in which the level of dissemination of good practices related to these areas and those proposed for structuring, designing, and evaluating interactive content are investigated. Method. To conduct reliable literature reviews, it is necessary to build an initial protocol in which the research methodology is structured. Results. The final sample is made up of 100 works distributed mainly among articles, presentations at events, and online contributions. It was found that 47 % of the researchers publish about good practices to indicate an area or discipline of application, while 21 % describe them from interactivity and 24 % from agile. Conclusions. Furthermore, the good practices found are the result of personal experiences, not general validations, which makes it impossible to conclude whether they are really good.
... Kwon and Lawson (2000) found that high school students' degree of inhibitory control predicted 29% of the variance in scores on an inquiry skills test and 28% of the variance in conceptual knowledge gains during a 14-lesson inquiry-based unit. Likewise, in a study of high school students learning from exploratory chemistry simulations, Homer and Plass (2014) found that students with a high degree of inhibitory control performed better on the transfer items of a domain knowledge test than their low inhibitory-control counterparts. These results are consistent with the expectation that inquiry learning prepares students to be self-directed learners. ...
... In game-based learning, game technology can be used to provide learners in real communication situations that simulate real social activities, and can carry out real scene-oriented communication, conversation, and action interaction. In addition, participants can rely on virtual situations to obtain a variety of experiences such as story retelling, language interaction, and role-playing (Wang and Wu, 2012;Homer and Plass, 2014). ...
Recent years have seen a rapid proliferation of game-based learning applied in language classes. Second language teaching and learning are being inspired by the increasingly mature game-based learning technology. Currently, educational games are regarded as a new technology with great potential. The game-based promotion of oral English has also become one of the research hotspots. This research carried out an empirical study on the subjective experiences and perceptions of using game-based second language learning to cultivate the oral English of Chinese college students. By using Unity 3D technology, “Digital Game-Virtual College” game software was developed for Chinese teenagers as the experimental carrier. Sixty-six freshmen majoring in review engineering at a university located in a first-tier city in southern China were invited as participants. Based on the courses “College English-Reading and Writing” and “College English-Listening, Viewing and Speaking,” this research explored the game-based teaching of “Words Arena Contest” and “Words Talents,” respectively. The analysis of the attitude and achievement data not only indicated the advantages and disadvantages of game-based learning, but also suggested the significant points in game-based learning software design. The results of tests and survey provide insight into the evaluation and reflection of the subjective experiences and perceptions of using digital game-based language learning. The results of this research can not only provide guidance for exploring the psychological contributors and barriers to game-based second language learning, but can also shed some light on and provide a reference for the design of game-based second language learning software.
... The unity/diversity model [24] views EF as consisting of related yet separable skills, which include updating, shifting (also termed cognitive flexibility), and inhibition. EF plays an important role in cognitive development and is associated with academic success [6], metacognitive skills [7], science learning [15], and language acquisition skills [10]. ...
Executive functions (EF) are a set of psychological constructs defined as goal-directed cognitive processes. Traditional EF tests are reliable, but they are not able to detect EF in real-time. They cause a test effect if implemented multiple times. In contrast, learning games have the potential to obtain a real-time, unobtrusive measurement of EF. In this study, we analyzed log data collected from a game designed to train the EF sub-skill of shifting. We engineered theory-based game-level and level-specific features from log data. Using these features, we built prediction models with students' accuracy and reaction time during play to predict their standard measure of the EF shifting skill during the post-test and delayed post-test as well as to predict learning gains. Our model that predicts the post score has a correlation of 0.322 and that for the delayed post score is 0.303. The findings suggest that theory-based feature engineering and varying levels of granularity are two promising directions for cognitive skills prediction under the goal of game-based assessment. Also, accuracy, reaction time, and player progression are important features.
... Questionnaires are used in testing human responses when researching computer-based interactivity. For example, Homer and Plass (2014), Proske et al. (2007), and Moreno et al.'s (2001) ...
This project develops a low-cost computer-based interactive system that generates a sense of deep engagement in the user, similar to that experienced when engaging with an artwork. It is based on the Buddhist concept of ‘Sati’; being relaxed, focused, aware, and paying attention to the present moment: which is understood as having a sense of deep engagement. Sati Interactive System integrates elements of an artwork; colour, sound, and body movement to create this sense.
Research has shown that the independent use of colour, sound, and body movement can provide benefits such as: generating positive emotions, achieving a relaxed state, and improvements in psychological and physical health. This project integrates colour, sound, and movement in a low-cost computer-based interactive system to create a sense of deep engagement. Literature on colour, sound, movement, computer-based interactivity, philosophies of technology, human-computer interaction, aspects of grounded theory, and the arts, form the basis and methodology for the development and testing of the system.
An evaluation of the system was based on data collected from 30 participants. 71 percent of participants provided positive responses to using the system, indicating that the Sati Interactive System was effective in creating a relaxed, focused state, and not feeling the time passing while using the system and afterwards. From this information we understood that a sense of ‘Sati’, or deep engagement had been generated.
This project includes the application “Sati Interactive”, that can be downloaded and used on a computer with a Windows or Macintosh operating system. Max and QuickTime software should be installed before running the Sati Interactive application. Instructions and links can be found in the Instructions.pdf in the Sati Interactive folder. The computer should have a webcam, speakers, and a screen. The minimum system specifications are: Intel i5 or AMD Ryzen 3 2.7 Ghz processor, 8GB ram, and 1.5GB video graphics card to run on a laptop or a desktop computer without audio-video lags.
... The latter factor had a minor but significant influence on scientific reasoning in the study by Koerber et al. (2015). Executive functioning, in particular inhibitory control, is known to affect scientific reasoning in high school students (e.g., Homer & Plass, 2014;Kwon & Lawson, 2000). Its effects on children's scientific reasoning are inconsistent (Mayer et al., 2014;Van der Graaf et al., 2016) so it would certainly be worthwhile to examine this relationship further. ...
Scientific reasoning encompasses the cognitive skills used when conducting a deliberate scientific investigation. As there are not that many instruments available for assessing scientific reasoning in children, a new performance-based test was developed that taps children’s command of five key scientific reasoning processes (predicting, experimenting, interpreting, evaluating data, and drawing conclusions). Results of this first validation study with 170 children age 7–10 showed that the test has good item characteristics and acceptable reliability. Initial validity evidence indicated that children’s test scores were unaffected by gender and prior domain knowledge and largely independent of language and math abilities.
... Simulations in Science Education -Status Quo (Adams, Perkins, & Wieman, 2006;Adams et al., 2008a;2008b;Blake & Scanlon, 2007;Girwidz, 2004;Homer & Plass, 2014;Jones, Jordan, & Stillings, 2005;Landriscina, 2013;Lee, Plass, & Homer, 2006;Mayer, 2001;2009;Plass, Homer, & Hayward, 2009;Plass, Letourneau, Milne, Homer, & Schwartz, 2013;Yang, Andre, Greenbowe, & Tibell, 2003). ...
During the last decades digitalization has proceeded rapidly and various digital teaching and learning tools are available nowadays. One for science education typical and theoretically well described application are simulations. While previous research focused on design features and/or learning effects of the use of simulations, up to now little is known about the extent to which simulations are actually used in science classes. In this study the use of simulations in science education is analyzed as well as (design) features which are important for teachers when choosing a simulation. 76 teachers were surveyed through a (online) questionnaire. 61% of the asked teachers use simulations in their lessons, independent of their age, teaching experience and number of science lessons per week. Significant differences occurred depending on the sex of the teachers, school type and subject. When choosing simulations, teachers use a limited number of known online providers. The most important (design) features are scientific correctness, use of scientific language, free availability, clear visual design which is similar to everyday-life, and matching technical resources. Of minor importance are features which consider the diversity of the learning group.
... Both studies compared two versions of a simulation, one that was interactive requiring learners to generate and test hypotheses, and the other -less interactive based on the worked example approach (Paas & van Gog, 2006), in which learners went through step-by-step procedure of actual hypotheses testing conducted by an expert. One of the studies reported by Homer and Plass (2014) revealed that while selective attention differences in learners did not interact with comprehension (lower-level learning), selective attention and inhibitory control did interact with the more cognitively challenging outcome of transfer. Specifically, students with lower levels of selective attention demonstrated better transfer outcomes in the worked simulation condition, whereas learners with higher levels of selective attention had better transfer outcomes in the exploratory multimedia simulation condition. ...
Parallel to the recent advancements in information and communications technologies, research on multimedia learning has generated a number of theories and empirical findings. Numerous trends and issues have emerged, showing the complex and dynamic nature of multimedia learning and the associated scholarship. To provide a comprehensive knowledge map and an overview of recent research on multimedia learning, 411 peer-reviewed articles from 1996 to 2016 were analyzed to describe the empirical work in multimedia learning. A bibliometric approach was applied to reveal the most common keywords and terms and their interactions via co-word analysis. The results showed that cognitive load is the highest co-occurred keyword and that animation provided the highest number of co-occurrence relationships with other keywords in our sample. Five clusters of research trends were identified: theoretical foundations of multimedia learning, representations and principles, instructional design and individual differences, motivation and metacognition, and video and hypermedia. Despite the high co-occurrence of the terms "memory", "working memory", and "cognitive load", only a few studies examined the role of individual differences in cognition such as working memory capacity in multimedia learning. The multimedia learning principles most commonly discussed in the last two decades of research are redundancy, contiguity, and coherence. Thus, more research should be conducted to empirically test the many other principles recently discussed in the Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning and address the issue of individual differences in attention and cognition during learning with multimedia.
... But this mode is only half as frequent in HCI journal papers (8%), where the Pedagogical mode is more frequent (at 20%), due to the focus on digital technologies and learning. One HCI journal paper [9] notes "differing views on the nature of learning and the meaning of "interactivity" [sic]". The inclusion of "scare quotes" around the term hints at discomfort in discourse with a concept (Haack, 2003). ...
Interactivity is central to digital products, systems and experiences. It has long been studied from
different disciplinary perspectives but while applications continue to be described as ‘more’ or ‘less’
interactive, there is a lack of consensus on its meaning. One approach to improving understanding is to
focus on the different ways we talk about it rather than pursuing a single all-purpose definition. This
study examines how interactivity is treated in a sample of Human Computer Interaction (HCI)
research papers (N = 117). We use a combined content and discourse analysis approach to explore the
range of definitions and technical configurations associated with the concept and unpick the wider discourses
around it.We find it frequently described as a characteristic of technologies, an instrumental
approach that suits quantitative measurement, but is acknowledged to miss other qualities. We
also find qualitative user assessments that measure a spectrum of low to high interactivity, which
are interpreted in different ways due to a lack of explicit definitions. The analysis reveals rich discursive
material where different layered conceptions of interactivity arise, which we describe as
‘modes’ of interactivity. The dominant mode in HCI is ‘empowerment’, also found most frequently
in public discourse. We offer modes of interactivity as a design and evaluation tool for
more conscious consideration of this multidimensional concept.
... These results of the current study suggest that when the content corresponds to what is being taught in the classroom, and if the system is used for at least the minimum suggested time (~1 hour per week), Cerego can significantly improve students' class grades. Future research should consider how best to maximize learning outcomes with the Cerego system, for example, by adapting visual or interactive complexity in order to accommodating learners' individual differences (e.g., Homer & Plass, 2014;Homer & Plass, 2010). ...
Results are reported from a study conducted to test the effectiveness of an adaptive learning platform (Cerego) used for five high school subjects. This system features a learning engine that, based on a spaced repetition algorithm, tracks learners' memory of all items in a learning set, and schedules rehearsal of the items to prevent forgetting. Participants came from 7 schools in a network of charter schools in greater Miami. The primary goal of this project was to determine if students who used the Cerego system had better learning outcomes compared to students in a business as usual control group. A secondary goal was to determine the feasibility of conducting a streamlined effectiveness trial that would take less time, require fewer resources, and be more ecologically valid than traditional effectiveness trials. Our results show the effectiveness of this platform for learning and provide initial support for the feasibility of our streamlined approach to effectiveness trials.
... It seems possible, for instance, that individuals high in agreeableness might engage more with novel digital cards than individuals low in agreeableness. Furthermore, when considering control options, Homer and Plass (2014) reported that students high in executive function performed more successfully after self-guided presentations while students low in executive function performed more successfully after program-guided presentations. This result might also relate to the self-regulation differences that Davis (2013) mentioned. ...
The present study focused on how self-control over pace might help learners successfully extract information from digital learning aids. Past research has indicated that too much control over pace can be overwhelming, but too little control over pace can be ineffective. Within the popular self-testing domain of flashcards, we sought to elucidate the optimal level of user control for digital learning and compare learning outcomes between paper and digital flashcards. College students learned vocabulary from paper flashcards or one of several digital flashcard versions and were scored on their memory recall and asked about their perceptions of the learning process. With digital flashcards, students were randomly assigned to an automatic slideshow of cards with no user control, automatic slideshow with pre-set pauses, automatic slideshow where users could press the spacebar to pause at any time, or a self-paced slideshow with complete user control. Users reported feeling more in control when indeed having some control, but ultimately memory recall, cognitive load, and satisfaction were similar across the five versions. However, memory recall was positively related to user satisfaction with their specific flashcard set, and negatively related to users' perceived mental effort and difficulty. Notably, whether paper or digital, students showed individual variability in how they advanced through the words. This research adds to the educational literature by suggesting that paper and digital flashcards are equally viable options for students. Given differences between individual users and the connection between satisfaction and recall, individualistic options that offer, but do not force, some control over pace seem ideal. Paper flashcards may already include such options, and e-flashcards should offer similar adaptive features to appeal to a wide variety of users.
Constructing interactive web apps has become more accessible for instructors, for example, by using the R package Shiny. Here we explored learners' preferences and the efficiency of interactive simulations versus static pictures in acquiring statistics knowledge of Cohen's d and standard normal distribution. Results revealed that students' spontaneous interaction with pictures was infrequent (pilot study, N = 26). While prompts (Exp. 1, N = 152) effectively ensured the manipulation of simulations, student exposure to interactive simulations led to longer learning times though similar test performance compared with student exposure to static pictures. Multiple interactive representations led to lower test performance than single interactive and static representations (Exp. 2, N = 117). Though no advantage was gained regarding learning outcomes, participants preferred the interactive variant (Exp. 3, N = 119). Taken together, this study demonstrates that the superiority of interactive pictures cannot be assumed to hold in general. Further work should evaluate how mental model construction can be effectively scaffolded by interactive simulations.
Cognitive load theory has been a major influence for the field of educational psychology. One of the main guidelines of the theory is that extraneous cognitive load should be reduced to leave sufficient cognitive resources for the actual learning to take place. In recent years, research regarding various design factors, in particular from the field of digital and online learning, have challenged this assumption. Interactive learning media, immersion, disfluency, realism, and redundant elements constitute five major challenges, since these design factors have been shown to induce task-irrelevant cognitive load, i.e., extraneous load, while still promoting motivation and learning. However, currently there is no unified approach to integrate such effects into cognitive load theory. By including aspects of constructive alignment, an approach aimed at fostering deep forms of learning in order to achieve specific learning outcomes, we devise a strategy to balance cognitive load in digital learning. Most importantly, we suggest considering both the positive and negative effects on cognitive load that certain design factors of digital learning can cause. In addition, a number of research results highlight that some types of positive effects of digital learning can only be detected using a suitable assessment method. This strategy of aligning cognitive load with desired learning outcomes will be useful for formulating theory-guided and empirically testable hypotheses, but can be particularly helpful for practitioners to embrace emerging technologies while minimizing potential extraneous drawbacks.
Executive function skills (EFs) are correlated with academic outcomes. Given evidence that use of personal digital devices increases student behaviors indicative of executive dysfunction (EdF), the current study sought to describe teacher familiarity with the construct of EF, how teachers are encountering the construct, and teacher ability to identify the behavioral indications of student EdF within high-tech learning environments. A cross-sectional, descriptive survey study of over 400 US teachers was utilized to address these questions and provide a foundation for future lines of inquiry regarding teacher knowledge and practice in supporting student EF within the high-tech learning environment.
(PDF) Executive Function, High-Tech Learning Environments, and Teacher Knowledge. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350470879_Executive_Function_High-Tech_Learning_Environments_and_Teacher_Knowledge [accessed Apr 01 2021].
Executive function (EF) predicts children’s academic achievement; however, less is known about the relation between EF and the actual learning process. The current study examined how aspects of the material to be learned—the type of information and the amount of conflict between the content to be learned and children’s prior knowledge—influence the relation between individual differences in EF and learning. Typically developing 4-year-olds (N = 61) completed a battery of EF tasks and several animal learning tasks that varied on the type of information being learned (factual vs. conceptual) and the amount of conflict with the learners’ prior knowledge (no prior knowledge vs. no conflicting prior knowledge vs. conflicting prior knowledge). Individual differences in EF predicted children’s overall learning, controlling for age, verbal IQ, and prior knowledge. Children’s working memory and cognitive flexibility skills predicted their conceptual learning, whereas children’s inhibitory control skills predicted their factual learning. In addition, individual differences in EF mattered more for children’s learning of information that conflicted with their prior knowledge. These findings suggest that there may be differential relations between EF and learning depending on whether factual or conceptual information is being taught and the degree of conceptual change that is required. A better understanding of these different relations serves as an essential foundation for future research designed to create more effective academic interventions to optimize children’s learning.
This chapter addresses an important educational problem: the need to capitalize on the affordances of twenty-first-century technology and emerging assessment methods to design learning environments that are sensitive to learners’ individual differences in motivation, affect, and cognition. To help address this problem, we review relevant research on individual differences in learning relative to (a) processes that fluctuate during learning and can be influenced by just-in-time instructional manipulations (e.g., cognitive load, confusion, engagement) and (b) states that remain relatively stable but may influence affective, motivational, and cognitive processing (e.g., domain knowledge, visuospatial abilities, working memory capacity). Discussion of recent empirical work on adaptive learning technologies provides examples of design solutions to account for state and process differences among learners. We conclude the chapter with a review of the Universal Design for Learning framework and promising directions for research and design focusing on individual differences in learning.
ABSTRACT
Adopting the focus on form (FonF) practice model, the effectiveness
of game-based collaborative vocabulary learning (GBCVL) was
tested as a tool to develop vocabulary size and depth with a focus
on dynamicity and nonlinearity of second language (L2) learner
motivation. To improve the measures, a mixed-methods approach
was used on a sample of 95 English as a foreign language (EFL)
intermediate learners, who individually selected and played games
for two consecutive terms with respect to their nonlinear dynamic
motivational factors at the individual level. Drawing on the FonF
practice model, the phonological, grammatical, and lexical forms of
the motivationally selected materials were emphasised and contextualised
as the treatment to find out their relationship with
vocabulary size and depth. The obtained results showed
a significant relationship between playing vocabulary games and
developing vocabulary size and depth. The effectiveness of the
GBCVL at benefiting from the potential behind computer-assisted
language learning (CALL) affordances towards vocabulary learning
goals while catering for nonlinear and dynamic motivational factors
at the individual learner level was the main pedagogical implication
of the present study.
Adaptive learning and personalization have long been of great interest to learning designers and educators, and recent technological advances that have opened up a range of new possibilities for adaptivity. However, we lack clear definitions of the terms adaptivity and personalization, and the theoretical and empirical soundness of implementations of corresponding systems varies greatly. We therefore first provide definitions for key concepts related to adaptivity. We then discuss what variable systems should adapt for, how these variables can be measured, and what modifications to the learner experience can be made based on these variables. We propose a taxonomy of adaptivity that distinguishes adaptivity based on cognitive, emotional, motivational, and social/cultural variables, and that defines types of adaptivity at a macro-level and a micro-level.
Der Begriff Interaktivität bezeichnet einen dynamischen Prozess zwischen einem Lernenden und einem Lernsystem. Dabei sollte mindestens eine der Grundfunktionen des Lehrens (Klauer 1985; Klauer und Leutner 2012) unterstützt werden: Motivation, Information, Förderung von Behalten, Verstehen und Transfer sowie Regulation und Organisation des Lernprozesses. Sowohl auf Seiten der Lernenden als auch des Lernsystems ist eine Reihe von Aktionen möglich, die in diesem Kapitel dargestellt und diskutiert werden. Zur Frage, inwieweit Interaktivität lernwirksam bzw. effizient sein kann, werden drei Modelle vorgestellt, die zu weiteren Forschungen in diesem Bereich anregen können. Am Ende des Beitrags wird der Zusammenhang von Interaktivität und Adaptivität thematisiert und es werden Beispiele adaptiver Lernumgebungen genannt.
Computer-unterstütztes kooperatives Lernen (CSCL) bedeutet, dass mehrere Lernende gemeinsam Lernaufgaben bearbeiten und dabei von Computern unterstützt werden. Basierend auf Merkmalen von Lernaufgaben sowie verschiedenen technischen Unterstützungsmöglichkeiten wird hier ein Modell von CSCL-Szenarien vorgestellt. Das Modell ermöglicht es Wirkzusammenhänge von Unterstützungsmaßnahmen für CSCL-Szenarien einschätzen und überdauernde Gestaltungsmerkmale für CSCL-Szenarien entwickeln zu können.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of student-generated drawing and imagination on learning recall, learning transfer, and cognitive load, and also students’ attitudes towards the learning strategies when learning a computer-based science text, compared to learning with provided pictures. The study used three groups: drawing group, imagining group, and picture group (control). A total of 82 undergraduate students from a southeast university in the United States participated in this study. Results indicated there were no significant differences in the learning recall and transfer of the three groups overall; however, students’ prior knowledge and spatial ability were positively and significantly correlated with their learning recall and transfer. When spatial ability was high, students in the drawing group had significantly higher learning recall than students in the imagining group; and students in the imagining group had significantly higher learning transfer than students in the picture group. The drawing group had significantly higher cognitive load than the picture group. Students perceived drawing, imagining, and reading with pictures for learning as useful and there were no significant differences in their perceived usefulness among the three groups, but students were more intended to learn with provided pictures than to generate drawings. Discussions and implications are provided.
Executive function (EF), critical for many developmental outcomes, emerge in childhood and continue developing into early adulthood (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006). During adolescence there are important developments in Hot EF, which involves using EF in emotionally salient contexts (Zelazo & Carlson, 2012). The current study used an emotional design approach (Um et al., 2012) to study hot EF in adolescents playing a digital game designed to train the EF subskill of shifting. Participants (N = 233; aged 12–16, M = 13.8, SD = 1.1) played one of two version of the game: hot (with emotional design), or cool (with more emotionally neutral design). There was a main effect of condition, with higher posttest scores on shifting in the hot condition. Condition significantly interacted with age: older adolescents had better outcomes in the hot condition than in the cool condition. A three-way interaction between age, prior EF and condition was found, indicating that the age by condition interaction was affected by prior EF. These results indicate that the higher emotional arousal in the hot condition is more effective for enhancing EF skills, particularly for older adolescents, and argue for developing learning and training games that account for developmental changes such as the growth of hot EF in adolescence.
The present study compared the effectiveness of paper and digital flashcards. College students learned vocabulary from paper, computer, or tablet flashcards that were self-created or ready-made. Students then completed a memory recall test and answered questions on cognitive load, perceived control, satisfaction, and several individual difference variables. Results showed that students learned equally well from paper and tablet but less well from computer flashcards. They were less satisfied with, and felt less in control of, computer-based flashcards. Students also felt more satisfied with paper than either digital card set. Despite these differences, cognitive load was equivalent across platforms. In addition, students recalled more words and reported expelling more effort on ready-made over self-created flashcards. The individual difference variables did not relate to recall or satisfaction. Overall, students’ satisfaction, as well as perceived difficulty and level of control over the cards, meaningfully related to performance. This research suggests that paper and digital flashcards are equally viable options for students but platform matters. Mobile technologies like tablets might be especially advantageous. Furthermore, perceptions matter. Students may be inclined towards different cards based on their perceptions of difficulty level and the like, and thus flashcards should be available in a multitude of formats.
This poster presents cross-disciplinary theory to identify inter-dependent processes of digital and human systems involved in Interactive Digital Narrative (IDN). Extending previous research on IDN design affordances and Human Development (HD) capacities, the project explores theory with a method for understanding reciprocal person-program synergies. The poster defines this program-person synergy as “interactive imagining” and sketches a research approach for studying such shared processing. This illustrative research method involves the think-aloud protocol method adapted to foster IDN designer-player dialogue around problematic, surprising or otherwise interesting IDN episodes, indicated in previous pilot gameplay. The poster outlines a think-aloud study to examine the nature and impact of interactive imagining among student designer-players in an interdisciplinary college setting. The goal of this inquiry is to expand the definition of IDN as an inter-subjective process including the meta-reflections of designer and player, thereby advancing IDN theory and practice.
Executive functions (EF), the skills required to plan, monitor and control cognitive processes, are linked to many important educational and developmental outcomes. The Alien Game is a digital game developed to train the EF subskill of shifting. High school students (N = 82; age range 14–18 years; average = 15.5 years) were asked to play the Alien Game for 20 min per week for 6 consecutive weeks. Two EF measures were administered before and after this intervention: the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) task (a measure of shifting) and the Flanker task (a measure of inhibition). Students had a significant pre- to posttest increase in DCCS, t (81) = 4.29, p < 0.001, d = 0.54, and Flanker, t (77) = 2.93, p = 0.004, d = 0.22. Controlling for pretest score, gains in shifting were significantly predicted by a measure of game performance in the Alien Game. These findings provide evidence that the Alien Game is having the intended effect of improving EF, and argue that video games can be effective tools for training cognitive skills when they are explicitly designed for this purpose and when a rigorous design approach is used.
Videos represent one of the most frequently used forms of multimedia applications. In addition to watching videos, people control slider bars of video players to find specific scenes and want detailed information on certain objects in scenes. However, it is difficult to support user interactions in current video formats because of a lack of metadata for facilitating such interactions. This paper proposes a text-based semantic video annotation system for interactive cooking videos to facilitate user interactions. The proposed annotation process includes three parts: the synchronization of recipes and corresponding cooking videos based on a caption-recipe alignment algorithm; the information extraction of food recipes based on lexico-syntactic patterns; and the semantic interconnection between recognized entities and web resources. The experimental results show that the proposed system is superior to existing alignment algorithms and effective in semantic cooking video annotation.
In this article we argue that to study or apply games as learning environments, multiple perspectives have to be taken into account. We first define game-based learning and gamification, and then discuss theoretical models that describe learning with games, arguing that playfulness is orthogonal to learning theory. We then review design elements of games that facilitate learning by fostering learners' cognitive, behavioral, affective, and sociocultural engagement with the subject matter. Finally, we discuss the basis of these design elements in cognitive, motivational, affective, and sociocultural foundations by reviewing key theories from education and psychology that are the most pertinent to game-based learning and by describing empirical research on learning with games that has been or should be conducted. We conclude that a combination of cognitive, motivational, affective, and sociocultural perspectives is necessary for both game design and game research to fully capture what games have to offer for learning.
The design of, and research on, digital games for learning has been hampered by the lack of a comprehensive design framework of game-based learning that incorporates essential elements unique to learning from this genre. Broadening the scope to playful learning, we therefore propose an integrated approach to the design of these learning environments that brings together cognitive, affective, and socio-cultural perspectives to form a comprehensive learning sciences perspective. We first define playful learning and its characteristics as well as the different forms of learner engagement it entails. We then discuss each of the three perspectives, which aspects of playful learning they emphasize, and which they de-emphasize. We then describe key theoretical contributions to the design of playful learning from the three approaches. Finally, we draw conclusions from the emerging model, including suggestions for future research on the design of games for learning.
When utilizing screen media as an educational platform, maintaining control over one's experience may lead to more successful learning outcomes. In the current work, adults learned four new action sequences, each via a different slideshow type. The computer advanced slides automatically, but each version had a different pausing mechanism: (1) free pause (viewers could click the mouse at any point to pause the show), (2) subgoal pause (show paused after subgoals, viewer clicked to continue), (3) timed pause (show paused every 20 slides, viewer clicked to continue), and (4) no pause (no viewer interaction). Participants completed a written memory test, live performance test, cognitive load measures, and satisfaction measures. Results indicated that memory recall was significantly lower in the no pause version when compared to the versions with pause capability. Also, over half of participants reported that the no pause version was their least favorite format to learn from. Conversely, over half of participants selected the free pause as their favorite slideshow format, and participants reported that they felt most in control of the free pause version. These reports occurred in spite of only one-quarter of all participants actually using the click-to-pause feature in the free pause slideshow. Perhaps the mindset of being in control, rather than the pausing itself, increased likeability of the program. This research has implications for program design and education, pointing to flexible pacing features being helpful in enhancing users' enjoyment of the program and ability to extract novel information.
Many innovative approaches to education such as problem-based learning (PBL) and inquiry learning (IL) situate learning in problem-solving or investigations of complex phenomena. Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)45.
Kirschner , P. A. ,
Sweller , J. and
Clark , R. E. 2006. Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist., 41: 75–86. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®]View all references grouped these approaches together with unguided discovery learning. However, the problem with their line of argument is that IL and PBL approaches are highly scaffolded. In this article, we first demonstrate that Kirschner et al. have mistakenly conflated PBL and IL with discovery learning. We then present evidence demonstrating that PBL and IL are powerful and effective models of learning. Far from being contrary to many of the principles of guided learning that Kirschner et al. discussed, both PBL and IL employ scaffolding extensively thereby reducing the cognitive load and allowing students to learn in complex domains. Moreover, these approaches to learning address important goals of education that include content knowledge, epistemic practices, and soft skills such as collaboration and self-directed learning.
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide “internal” guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
The importance of executive functioning (EF) skills in mathematical achievement is well established, and researchers have moved from just measuring working memory or updating to an inclusion of other EF skills, namely, inhibition and shifting. In this article, we review studies that have taken different approaches to measuring EF (e.g., using single vs. multiple indicators) and those that have applied different analytical techniques to conceptualize the structure of EF (e.g., exploratory vs. confirmatory techniques). Across studies, updating is often a unique predictor of math achievement at many ages; the findings relating to inhibition and switching are less conclusive. We discuss these findings in relation to age-related variance in EF structure, the nature of inhibitory and shifting task requirements, and the role of updating as a limiting factor or a common resource for inhibition and shifting.
Empirical evidence on the association between the shifting component of executive functioning and academic performance is equivocal. In two meta-analyses children's shifting ability is examined in relation to their perfor-mance in math (k=18, N = 2330) and reading (k=16, N = 2266). Shifting ability was significantly and equally associated with performance in both math (r=.26, 95% CI=.15–.35) and reading (r=.21, 95% CI=.11–.31). Intelligence was found to show stronger associations with math and reading performance than shifting ability. We conclude that the links between shifting ability, academic skills, and intelligence are domain-general.
To identify the most effective way for medical students to interact with a browser-based learning module on the symptoms and neurological underpinnings of stroke syndromes, this study manipulated the way in which subjects interacted with a graphical model of the brain and examined the impact of functional changes on learning outcomes. It was hypothesized that behavioral interactions that were behaviorally more engaging and which required deeper consideration of the model would result in heightened cognitive interaction and better learning than those whose manipulation required less deliberate behavioral and cognitive processing. One hundred forty four students were randomly assigned to four conditions whose model controls incorporated features that required different levels of behavioral and cognitive interaction: Movie (low behavioral/low cognitive, n = 40), Slider (high behavioral/low cognitive, n = 36), Click (low behavioral/high cognitive, n = 30), and Drag (high behavioral/high cognitive, n = 38). Analysis of Covariates (ANCOVA) showed that students who received the treatments associated with lower cognitive interactivity (Movie and Slider) performed better on a transfer task than those receiving the module associated with high cognitive interactivity (Click and Drag, partial eta squared = .03). In addition, the students in the high cognitive interactivity conditions spent significantly more time on the stroke locator activity than other conditions (partial eta squared = .36). The results suggest that interaction with controls that were tightly coupled with the model and whose manipulation required deliberate consideration of the model's features may have overtaxed subjects' cognitive resources. Cognitive effort that facilitated manipulation of content, though directed at the model, may have resulted in extraneous cognitive load, impeding subjects in recognizing the deeper, global relationships in the materials. Instructional designers must, therefore, keep in mind that the way in which functional affordances are integrated with the content can shape both behavioral and cognitive processing, and has significant cognitive load implications.
For more than a decade, reports from expert panels have called for improvements in science education. There is general agreement
that science courses consisting of traditional lectures and cookbook laboratory exercises need to be changed. What is required
instead is "scientific teaching," teaching that mirrors science at its best-experimental, rigorous, and based on evidence.
This
Policy Forum
explores the reasons for the slow pace of change in the way science is taught at research universities and offers recommendations
for faculty, staff, and administrators at research universities, funding agencies, and professional organizations in order
to accelerate the reform of science education. To help faculty initiate change in their own classrooms, this forum includes
extensive resources to guide the transition to tested, effective instructional methods, which include group-learning in lectures,
inquiry-based laboratories, and interactive computer modules.
(
This reprinted article originally appeared in the Journal of Experimental Psychology,
1935, Vol 18, 643–662. The following abstract of the original article appeared in PA, Vol 10:1863.) In this study pairs of conflicting stimuli, both being inherent aspects of the same symbols, were presented simultaneously (a name of one color printed in the ink of another color—a word stimulus and a color stimulus). The difference in time for reading the words printed in colors and the same words printed in black is the measure of the interference of color stimuli on reading words. The difference in the time for naming the colors in which the words are printed and the same colors printed in squares is the measure of the interference of conflicting word stimuli on naming colors. The interference of conflicting color stimuli on the time for reading 100 words (each word naming a color unlike the ink-color of its print) caused an increase of 2.3 sec or 5.6% over the normal time for reading the same words printed in black. This increase is not reliable, but the interference of conflicting word stimuli on the time for naming 100 colors (each color being the print of a word which names another color) caused an increase of 47.0 sec or 74.3% of the normal time for naming colors printed in squares.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied the differential effect on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load for 3 computer-based training strategies. The conventional, worked, and completion conditions emphasized, respectively, the solving of conventional problems, the study of worked-out problems, and the completion of partly worked-out problems. The relation between practice-problem type and transfer was expected to be mediated by cognitive load. It was hypothesized that practice with conventional problems would require more time and more effort during training and result in lower and more effort-demanding transfer performance than practice with worked-out or partly worked-out problems. With the exception of time and effort during training, the results supported the hypothesis. The completion strategy and, in particular, the worked strategy proved to be superior to the conventional strategy for attaining transfer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article reports experimental work comparing exploration and worked-examples practice in learning to use a database program. Exploration practice is based on discovery learning principles, whereas worked-examples practice arose from the development of cognitive load theory. Exploration practice was expected to place a considerable load on working memory, whereas a heavy use of worked examples was hypothesized to lead to more effective processing by reducing extraneous mental load. Students with no previous domain familiarity with databases were found to substantially benefit from worked examples in comparison to exploration. However, if students had previous familiarity with the database domain, the type of practice made no significant difference to their learning because the exploration students were able to draw on existing, well-developed domain schemas to guide their exploration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
How can cognitive load in visual displays of computer simulations be optimized? Middle-school chemistry students (N = 257) learned with a simulation of the ideal gas law. Visual complexity was manipulated by separating the display of the simulations in 2 screens (low complexity) or presenting all information on 1 screen (high complexity). The mode of visual representation in the simulation was manipulated by presenting important information in symbolic form only (symbolic representations) or by adding iconic information to the display (iconic + symbolic representations), locating the sliders controlling the simulation separated from the simulation or integrating them, and graphing either only the most recent simulation result or showing all results taken. Separated screen displays and the use of optimized visual displays each promoted comprehension and transfer, especially for low prior-knowledge learners. An expertise reversal effect was found for learners' prior general science knowledge. Results indicate that intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load in visual displays can be manipulated and that learners' prior knowledge moderates the effectiveness of these load manipulations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The influence of prior knowledge and cognitive development on the effectiveness of iconic representations in science visualizations
was examined. Middle and high school students (N=186) were given narrated visualizations of two chemistry topics: Kinetic Molecular Theory (Day 1) and Ideal Gas Laws (Day
2). For half of the visualizations, iconic representations of key information were added. Results indicated a main effect
of prior knowledge on learning in Day 1. In Day 2, a three-way interaction was found between prior knowledge, age group and
icons: icons were effective for all middle school students and for high school students with low prior knowledge, but were
not effective for high school students with high prior knowledge. These findings indicate that the expertise reversal effect
can be mediated by cognitive development and other factors, not just domain specific prior knowledge.
KeywordsSimulation-Expertise reversal-Science visualization-Multimedia learning-Cognitive development-Cognitive load
The cognitive load and learning effects of dual-code and interactivity—two multimedia methods intended to promote meaningful
learning—were examined. In Experiment 1, college students learned about the causal chain of events leading to the process
of lightning formation with a set of words and corresponding pictures (Group WP), pictures (Group P), or words (Group W).
Some students were presented with the organized causal chain of events to study, whereas others were given a self-organization
task. Consistent with a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, Condition WP was the highest in instructional efficiency
for retention and transfer. However, contrary to our predictions, having students organize the multimedia materials was detrimental
to transfer. Two follow-up experiments tested the hypotheses that the negative effects of interactivity were due to students'
lack of time control (Experiment 2) and the form of feedback (Experiment 3). The findings showed that interactivity was effective
when students were asked to evaluate their answers before receiving corrective feedback from the system.
We propose that the effectiveness of simulations for science education depends on design features such as the type of representation chosen to depict key concepts. We hypothesize that the addition of iconic representa- tions to simulations can help novice learners interpret the visual simulation interface and improve cognitive learning outcomes as well as learners' self-efficacy. This hypothesis was tested in two experiments with high school chemistry students. The studies examined the effects of representation type (symbolic versus iconic), prior knowledge, and spatial ability on comprehension, transfer, and self-efficacy under low cognitive load (Study 1, N=80) and high cognitive load conditions (Study 2, N=91). Results supported our hypotheses that design features such as the addition of iconic representations can help scaffold students' comprehension of science simulations, and that this effect was strongest for learners with low prior knowledge. Adding icons also improved learners' general self-efficacy.
This paper reviews research on learning from dynamic visual repre- sentations and offers principles for the design of animations and simulations that assure their educational effectiveness. In addition to established principles, new and revised design principle are presented that have been derived from recent research. Our review focuses on the visual design and interaction design of these visualiza- tions and presents existing research as well as questions for future inquiry.
This study examined age-related changes in complex executive function (EF) in a large, representative sample (N = 2,036) aged 5 to 17 using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997a). Relations between complex EF and academic achievement were examined on a sub-sample (N = 1,395) given the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989). Performance on the three complex EF tasks improved until at least age 15, although improvement slowed with increasing age and varied some across tasks. Moreover, the different developmental patterns in the correlations between completion time and accuracy provide clues to developmental processes. Examination of individual achievement subtests clarified the specific aspects of academic performance most related to complex EF. Finally, the correlation between complex EF and academic achievement varied across ages, but the developmental pattern of the strength of these correlations was remarkably similar for overall math and reading achievement, suggesting a domain-general relation between complex EF and academic achievement.
In 2 experiments, students received 2 presentations of a narrated animation that explained how lightning forms followed by retention and transfer tests. In Experiment 1, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation before a second presentation of the same material at normal speed (part–whole presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations in the reverse order (whole–part presentation). In Experiment 2, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation across 2 presentations (part–part presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations at normal speed without any learner control (whole–whole presentation). These results are consistent with cognitive load theory and a 2-stage theory of mental model construction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
When new information is presented to learners, it must be processed in a severely limited working memory. Learning reduces working memory limitations by enabling the use of schemas, stored in long-term memory, to process information more efficiently. Several instructional techniques have been designed to facilitate schema construction and automation by reducing working memory load. Recently, however, strong evidence has emerged that the effectiveness of these techniques depends very much on levels of learner expertise. Instructional techniques that are highly effective with inexperienced learners can lose their effectiveness and even have negative consequences when used with more experienced learners. We call this phenomenon the expertise reversal effect. In this article, we review the empirical literature on the interaction between instructional techniques and levels of learner experience that led to the identification of the expertise reversal effect.
Research and theorizing on executive function (EF) in childhood has been disproportionately focused on preschool age children. This review paper outlines the importance of examining EF throughout childhood, and even across the lifespan. First, examining EF in older children can address the question of whether EF is a unitary construct. The relations among the EF components, particularly as they are recruited for complex tasks, appear to change over the course of development. Second, much of the development of EF, especially working memory, shifting, and planning, occurs after age 5. Third, important applications of EF research concern the role of school-age children's EF in various aspects of school performance, as well as social functioning and emotional control. Future research needs to examine a more complete developmental span, from early childhood through late adulthood, in order to address developmental issues adequately.
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide “internal” guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional designmodels that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
The literature on interference in the Stroop Color–Word Task, covering over 50 years and some 400 studies, is organized and reviewed. In so doing, a set of 18 reliable empirical findings is isolated that must be captured by any successful theory of the Stroop effect. Existing theoretical positions are summarized and evaluated in view of this critical evidence and the 2 major candidate theories—relative speed of processing and automaticity of reading—are found to be wanting. It is concluded that recent theories placing the explanatory weight on parallel processing of the irrelevant and the relevant dimensions are likely to be more successful than are earlier theories attempting to locate a single bottleneck in attention.
Cognitive load theory (CLT) is one of the most important theories in educational psychology, a highly effective guide for the design of multimedia and other learning materials. This edited volume brings together the most prolific researchers from around the world who study various aspects of cognitive load to discuss its current theoretical as well as practical issues. The book is divided into three parts. The first part describes the theoretical foundations and assumptions of CLT, the second discusses the empirical findings about the application of CLT to the design of learning environments, and the third part concludes the book with discussions and suggestions for new directions for future research. It aims to become the standard handbook in CLT for researchers and graduate students in psychology, education, and educational technology.
This article reports experimental work comparing exploration and worked-examples practice in learning to use a database program. Exploration practice is based on discovery learning principles, whereas worked-examples practice arose from the development of cognitive load theory. Exploration practice was expected to place a considerable load on working memory, whereas a heavy use of worked examples was hypothesized to lead to more effective processing by reducing extraneous mental load. Students with no previous domain familiarity with databases were found to substantially benefit from worked examples in comparison to exploration. However, if students had previous familiarity with the database domain, the type of practice made no significant difference to their learning because the exploration students were able to draw on existing, well-developed domain schemas to guide their exploration.
Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)14.
Kirschner , P. A. ,
Sweller , J. and
Clark , R. E. 2006. Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist., 41: 75–86. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®]View all references suggest that unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are less effective and efficient for novices than guided instructional approaches because they ignore the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture. While we concur with the authors on this point, we do not agree to their equation of problem-based learning with minimally guided instruction. In this commentary, we argue that problem-based learning is an instructional approach that allows for flexible adaptation of guidance, and that, contrary to Kirschner et al.'s conclusions, its underlying principles are very well compatible with the manner in which our cognitive structures are organized.
Cognitive load theory (CLT) is gaining increasing importance in the design and evaluation of instruction, both traditional and technology based. Although it is well understood as a theoretical construct, the measurement of cognitive load induced by instructional materials in general, and by multimedia instruction in particular, mainly relies on methods that are either indirect, subjective, or both. Integrating aspects of CLT, working memory research, and cognitive theories of multimedia learning, we describe the conceptual basis and practical implementation of a dual-task approach to the direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning. This computer-based instrument provides a direct and objective measure that overcomes many of the shortcomings of other indirect and subjective methods that will enable researchers to validate empirically theoretical predictions of CLT.
The “computers are social actors” paradigm asserts that human-to-computer interactions are fundamentally social responses. Earlier research has shown that effective management of the social presence in user interface design can improve user engagement and motivation. Much of this research has focused on adult subjects. This study discusses the effects of social presence management in child e-learning environment development by specifically examining the role of interactivity in a computer-mediated learning environment in relation to the development of children's attitudes toward computers as well as their intrinsic motivation. A quasi-experimental methodology was adopted for this study. It was found that interactivity had a significant effect on the computer's social presence, its social attraction to children and children's involvement, and intrinsic motivation. The findings suggest that enhancing the interactivity of an e-learning environment can stimulate the presence of social actors, which in turn can enrich a children's learning experience and increase their motivation.
The understanding of executive functioning in pediatric neuropsychological evaluation is of clinical significance, yet there are few developmentally appropriate executive function measures that have been adequately normed in this population. The present study provides normative data, collected on a sample of 89 normal children from ages 7-12, for several measures thought to be appropriate for assessing executive functioning in children. Executive function measures were selected and/or modified to be developmentally appropriate, to tap less complex and integrative aspects of executive function, and to assess fundamental working memory (Self-Ordered Pointing: Delayed Alternation/Non-alternation) and inhibitory control (Developmental Stroop tasks: Go/No Go) dimensions of executive functioning. The results supported the potential utility of these measures in assessing those abilities in children.
This article demonstrates the feasibility and effectiveness of teaching several mathematical skills by presenting students with carefully chosen sequences of worked-out examples and problems - without lectures or other direct instruction. Thinking-aloud protocols of 20 students learning factorization by this method are analyzed to determine the kinds and depth of understanding students attained. Students did not simply memorize procedures but were able to recognize when the procedures were applicable and to apply them. Most students were also able to use their understanding of the concept of factorization to help learn the procedures and to check their results. The method of learning from examples has now been tested successfully with a class covering the entire 3-year curriculum in algebra and geometry in a Chinese middle school.
The knowledge required to solve algebra manipulation problems and procedures designed to hasten knowledge acquisition were studied in a series of five experiments. It was hypothesized that, as occurs in other domains, algebra problem-solving skill requires a large number of schemas and that schema acquisition is retarded by conventional problem-solving search techniques. Experiment 1, using Year 9, Year 11, and university mathematics students, found that the more experienced students had a better cognitive representation of algebraic equations than less experienced students as measured by their ability to (a) recall equations, and (b) distinguish between perceptually similar equations on the basis of solution mode. Experiments 2 through 5 studied the use of worked examples as a means of facilitating the acquisition of knowledge needed for effective problem solving. It was found that not only did worked examples, as expected, require considerably less time to process than conventional problems, but that subsequent problems similar to the initial ones also were solved more rapidly. Furthermore, decreased solution time was accompanied by a decrease in the number of mathematical errors. Both of these findings were specific to problems identical in structure to the initial ones. It was concluded that for novice problem solvers, general algebra rules are reflected in only a limited number of schemas. Abstraction of general rules from schemas may occur only with considerable practice and exposure to a wider range of schemas.
A major contribution to the neuropsychology of man. The first half is a review of theory and data, and the second half describes methods, chiefly developed by the author, for studying changes in behavior after brain damage in man. Translated from the Russian. Harvard Book List (edited) 1971 #152 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Background:
Well-designed computer-assisted instruction (CAI) can potentially transform medical education. Yet little is known about whether specific design features such as direct manipulation of the content yield meaningful gains in clinical learning. We designed three versions of a multimedia module on the abdominal exam incorporating different types of interactivity.
Methods:
As part of their physical diagnosis course, 162 second-year medical students were randomly assigned (1:1:1) to Watch, Click or Drag versions of the abdominal exam module. First, students' prior knowledge, spatial ability, and prior experience with abdominal exams were assessed. After using the module, students took a posttest; demonstrated the abdominal exam on a standardized patient; and wrote structured notes of their findings.
Results:
Data from 143 students were analyzed. Baseline measures showed no differences among groups regarding prior knowledge, experience, or spatial ability. Overall there was no difference in knowledge across groups. However, physical exam scores were significantly higher for students in the Click group.
Conclusions:
A mid-range level of behavioral interactivity was associated with small to moderate improvements in performance of clinical skills. These improvements were likely mediated by enhanced engagement with the material, within the bounds of learners' cognitive capacity. These findings have implications for the design of CAI materials to teach procedural skills.
The effects of systematically varied interactivity on learning from interactive video were studied. A total of 98 high-school
students served as subjects. Four increasingly interactive versions of instruction were used. After receiving the instruction,
students took a 23-item recall test. Recall was significantly affected by the amount and type of interactivity provided. The
fully interactive version yielded the greatest recall but took longer to complete than any of the other presentations. Time
to complete the instruction was shortest, and the resulting rate of learning was greatest, for the simple linear video presentation.
Two studies examined the use of video in multimedia learning environments. In Study 1, participants (N = 26) viewed one of two versions of a computer-based multimedia presentation: video, which included a video of a lecture with synchronized slides, or no video, which included the slides but only an audio narration of the lecture. Learning, cognitive load and social presence were assessed, but a significant difference was found only for cognitive load, with video experiencing greater cognitive load, t (24) = 2.45, p < .05. In Study 2, students (N = 25) were randomly assigned to either video or no video condition. Background knowledge and visual/verbal learning preference were assessed before viewing the presentation, and learning, cognitive load, and social presence were assessed after viewing. No significant differences were found for learning or social presence. However, a significant visual/verbal learning preference by condition interaction was found for cognitive load, F (1,21) = 4.51, p < .05: low visual-preference students experienced greater cognitive load in the video condition, while high visual-preference students experienced greater cognitive load in the no video condition.
What does interactivity entail? What factors need to be taken into account in the design of interactive systems? Although interactivity is a widely used term accorded great prominence in discussions of multimedia learning, even a preliminary look at the literature suggests that how interactivity is defined, and what benefits it may offer, are not at all clear. The goal of this article is therefore to clarify the concept of interactivity. We present a unifying model that includes the user, the learning environment, and a system of connections and concepts that together make up interactivity. Such a model can help inform research, discussion, and design decisions on interactive multimedia instruction.
In contrast to their traditional, non-interactive counterparts, interactive dynamic visualisations allow users to adapt their form and content to their individual cognitive skills and needs. Provided that the interactive features allow for intuitive use without increasing cognitive load, interactive videos should therefore lead to more efficient forms of learning. This notion was tested in an experimental study, where participants learned to tie four nautical knots of different complexity by watching either non-interactive or interactive videos. The results show that in the interactive condition, participants used the interactive features like stopping, replaying, reversing or changing speed to adapt the pace of the video demonstration. This led to an uneven distribution of their attention and cognitive resources across the videos, which was more pronounced for the difficult knots. Consequently users of non-interactive video presentations, needed substantially more time than users of the interactive videos to acquire the necessary skills for tying the knots.
Worked examples are an effective instructional means to teach complex problem-solving skills. It has been argued that worked examples decrease extraneous load, enabling more Working Memory (WM) resources to be directed to activities that facilitate learning and transfer performance. Hence, cognitive load research has started to shift its focus towards finding instructional techniques that impose a germane cognitive load by stimulating the allocation of WM resources to such activities. This special issue provides an overview of recent experimental research on ways to further optimise the design and delivery of worked examples in order to foster learning and transfer.
Theories of skill acquisition have made radically different predictions about the role of general problem-solving methods in acquiring rules that promote effec- tive transfer to new problems. Under one view, methods that focus on reaching specific goals, such as means-ends analysis, are assumed to provide the basis for efficient knowledge compilation (Anderson, 1987). whereas under an alternative view such methods are believed to disrupt rule induction (Sweller, 1988). We sug- gest that the role of general methods in learning varies with both the specificity of the problem solver's goal and the systematicity of the strategies used for testing hypotheses about rules. In the absence of a specific goal people are more likely to use a rule-induction learning strategy, whereas provision of a specific goal fosters use of difference reduction, which tends to be a non-rule-induction strategy. We performed two experiments to investigate the impact of goal specif- icity and systematicity of rule-induction strategies in learning and transfer within a complex dynamic system. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that during free exploration of a problem space, greater learning occurred if participants adopted more systematic strategies for rule induction, and that participants come to favor such strategies. Experiment 2 revealed that participants who were provided with a specific goal performed well on the initial problem but were impaired on a transfer test using a similar problem with a different goal. Instruction on a systematic rule-induction strategy facilitated solution for both the initial and transfer problems, but participants' use of this strategy declined if they had a specific goal. Our results support Sweller's (1988) proposal that general problem- solving methods applied to a specific goal foster acquisition of knowledge about an isolated solution path but da not provide an effective way of learning the overall structure of a problem space. We interpret these results in terms of dual- space theories of search through problem space.
Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) suggest that unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are less effective and efficient for novices than guided instructional approaches because they ignore the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture. While we concur with the authors on this point, we do not agree to their equation of problem-based learning with minimally guided instruction. In this commentary, we argue that problem-based learning is an instructional approach that allows for flexible adaptation of guidance, and that, contrary to Kirschner et al.s conclusions, its underlying principles are very well compatible with the manner in which our cognitive structures are organized.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--George Peabody College for Teachers, 1933.
Compendio de pruebas neuropsicológicas en que se ofrece también la información necesaria para seleccionar el test adecuado, cómo aplicarlo, cómo preparar al cliente, cómo interpretar los resultados y cómo ponerlos por escrito, así como duración, costo y validación de cada uno de ellos.